CHILDE AND SOVIET ARCHAEOLOGY
Bruce G . T r i g g e r
Gordon C h i l d e was known t o h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a s a b r i l l i a n t p r e h i s t o r i a n who h e l d r a d i c a l l e f t - w i n g views. While h i s v o i c i n g of Marxist
s e n t i m e n t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l behaviour r e s u l t e d i n some
o s t r a c i s m , e s p e c i a l l y i n S c o t l a n d (Graham 1981:213, 223) and may have
adversely affected h i s career a t certain points, British archaeologists
g e n e r a l l y responded by r e f u s i n g t o t a k e t h i s behaviour s e r i o u s l y . S i r
Mortimer Wheeler (1957) m a i n t a i n e d t h a t Marxism c o l o u r e d r a t h e r t h a n shaped
C h i l d e ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a , w h i l e Glyn D a n i e l (1958:
66-7) saw him a s v e n t u r i n g i n t o Mamism f o r answers t o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
problems b u t soon t i r i n g of i t . Most a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t r e a t e d h i s Marxism
a s a c u l t i v a t e d e c c e n t r i c i t y o r a ' c o n v o l u t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l j o k e ' t h a t was
i n v e n t e d t o shock them and responded by r e f u s i n g t o be shocked ( P i g g o t t
1958). Only Graham C l a r k (1976) h a s a c c e p t e d i t a s e x e r t i n g a s e r i o u s and
l a s t i n g i n f l u e n c e on C h i l d e ' s s c h o l a r s h i p .
I n t h e f i r s t C h i l d e Memorial
Lecture h e described i t a s propelling Childe i n t o archaeology, b l i g h t i n g
t h e s c h o l a r s h i p of h i s m i d d l e y e a r s , and f i n a l l y b e i n g r e j e c t e d by him a t
t h e end of h i s c a r e e r ( f o r r e f u t a t i o n s of t h e s e arguments, s e e S p r i g g s
[ l 9 7 7 1 and Thomas [ l 9 8 2 ] ) .
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Mamism and C h i l d e ' s archaeol o g y h a s been d i s c u s s e d a s p a r t of b r o a d e r s t u d i e s of h i s l i f e and work by
S a l l y Green ( l 9 8 l ) , B a r b a r a McNairn ( l 9 8 O ) , and myself (1980). A s a r e s u l t
of p r i o r a g r e e m e n t , Green and I d i d n o t a t t e m p t d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of C h i l d e
a s a M a m i s t s i n c e t h a t i s t h e theme of a book t h a t P e t e r G a t h e r c o l e i s
w r i t i n g . Yet i n a r e v i e w i n Antiquity t i t l e d 'Gordon C h i l d e : man o r myth?',
G a t h e r c o l e (1982) o b j e c t s t h a t i n our examinations of t h e impact of Marxism
on C h i l d e ' s a r c h a e o l o g y a l l t h r e e of h i s b i o g r a p h e r s have been ' t o o k i n d ' .
He o b j e c t s t h a t we t r e a t e d h i s Marxism ' t o o a c a d e m i c a l l y , t o o n e u t r a l l y ' and
do n o t emphasize s u f f i c i e n t l y how
s o p h i c a l and p o l i t i c a l commitment
n o r what o p p o r t u n i s t i c t a n g l e s he
t o reconcile h i s b e l i e f s with t h e
(1982: 1 9 7 ) .
p a s s i o n a t e was h i s p h i l o t o Marxism, and t o S o c i a l i s m ,
g o t himself i n t o when t r y i n g
v a r i o u s p r a c t i c e s of S t a l i n i s m
My own r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n concerned w i t h C h i l d e ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t r i I do n o t p o s s e s s G a t h e r c o l e ' s i n t i m a t e knowledge
butions t o archaeology.
of t h e Communist P a r t y of G r e a t B r i t a i n o r of t h e M a m i s t i n t e l l e c t u a l
c i r c l e s i n which C h i l d e moved. I a l s o n e v e r met C h i l d e . I r e c o g n i s e t h a t
understanding h i s views a s a Marxist i n t h i s b r o a d e r c o n t e x t i s a complex
and d i f f i c u l t t a s k . Except f o r H a w Labour C o v e m (1923), C h i l d e committed
few of h i s non-archaeological o p i n i o n s t o w r i t i n g . Y e t some of h i s p o l i t i c a l
views have s u r v i v e d a s comments on c u r r e n t e v e n t s i n l e t t e r s t o f r i e n d s and
r e l a t i v e s . He a l s o d i d n o t o f t e n p u b l i c l y p r o f e s s h i s p o l i t i c a l views. H e
appears t o have d e l i b e r a t e l y avoided Marxist i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t r o v e r s i e s
w i t h i n t h e Communist P a r t y (Lindsay 1981:xiv) and, a l t h o u g h h e s a t on t h e
committees of t r a d e unions, left-wing p u b l i c a t i o n s , and s i m i l a r c u l t u r a l
groups, h e s a i d l i t t l e ( l a t t e r l y pleading d e a f n e s s ) (Green 1981:120, 1 2 2 ) .
I n p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n , Childe, l i k e many o t h e r s e n s i t i v e p e o p l e , modulated,
sometimes c o n s i d e r a b l y , t h e f o r t h r i g h t n e s s and t o n e w i t h which h e e x p r e s s e d
h i s views i n o r d e r n o t t o o f f e n d t h e s e n s i b i l i t i e s of h i s l i s t e n e r s . H i s
p a s s i o n s were c l e a r l y h e l d i n check w i t h r e s p e c t t o h i s p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s ,
no l e s s than i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r a s p e c t s of h i s p e r s o n a l i t y .
Yet w h i l e I acknowledge my l i m i t a t i o n s when i t comes t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g
Childe a s a person and h i s p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s , I b e l i e v e t h a t I know enough
t o t r a c e t h e changing r e l a t i o n s h i p between Marxism a s a n a n a l y t i c a l t o o l
and h i s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . My c o n c l u s i o n s a r e based on h i s p u b l i s h e d
works, such items of h i s correspondence and memories of what h e s a i d a s I
have been a b l e t o c o l l e c t , and h i s b r i e f a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l s k e t c h ' R e t r o s p e c t '
(1958b), which was w r i t t e n i n A u s t r a l i a s h o r t l y b e f o r e h i s d e a t h . A d e t a i l e d
comparison of t h e l a t t e r w i t h o t h e r evidence of h i s l i f e and works r e v e a l s
t h a t i t i s a work of e x t r a o r d i n a r y o b j e c t i v i t y .
EARLY WORK
There h a s been much s p e c u l a t i o n about what caused C h i l d e t o r e t u r n t o
t h e s t u d y of p r e h i s t o r y a f t e r h i s d i s i l l u s i o n i n g e x p e r i e n c e w i t h A u s t r a l i a n
p a r t y p o l i t i c s . He may have been s e a r c h i n g f o r e v i d e n c e of t h e e x i s t e n c e
of ' c o h e s i v e , i n v e n t i v e s o c i e t i e s i n which t h e c r a f t s m e n and t h i n k e r s exemp l i f i e d human d i g n i t y and were l e a d e r s of t h e i r f e l l o w s ' (Smith 1964:ix) o r
he may have been seeking an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e g l a r i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of
r a t i o n a l i s m and inhumanity t h a t i n h i s eyes c h a r a c t e r i s e d European s o c i e t y
and i t s c o l o n i a l o f f s h o o t s ( A l l e n 1981:7).
More simply, h e may have wanted
t o e s c a p e from p a i n f u l p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s by f a s h i o n i n g a new c a r e e r f o r
himself based on t h e s t u d y of t h e remote p a s t .
What i s noteworthy i s t h e almost t o t a l a b s e n c e of any p o l i t i c a l b i a s
i n C h i l d e ' s e a r l y work. In The Dawn of European Civizization (1925), h e
revealed himself a s an a r c h a e o l o g i s t ' s a r c h a e o l o g i s t . He combined t h e
German p r e h i s t o r i a n Gustaf Kossinna's concept of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c u l t u r e
w i t h Oscar Montelius' advocacy of t h e d i f f u s i o n of c u l t u r e i n t o Europe
from t h e Near East t o produce a new and more s p e c i f i c a l l y h i s t o r i c a l , r a t h e r
than e v o l u t i o n a r y , o u t l i n e of European p r e h i s t o r y . At t h e same t i m e , h e
tempered Montelian d i f f u s i o n i s m by i n s i s t i n g , a s John L . Myers (1911) and
Arthur Evans, h i s t u t o r s a t Oxford, had a l r e a d y done, t h a t t h e c r e a t i v i t y
of Europeans had allowed them t o f o r g e t h e a r t s and c r a f t s t h e y had a c q u i r e d
from t h e Near East i n t o dynamic s o c i e t i e s t h a t were a b l e t o develop a l o n g
novel l i n e s and o u t s t r i p t h e achievements of t h e moribund o r i e n t a l c i v i l i s a t i o n s . The r e s u l t was a h i g h l y o r i g i n a l and p e r s u a s i v e s y n t h e s i s of
European p r e h i s t o r y t o t h e end of t h e Bronze Age. Much of t h e s u c c e s s of
t h i s book depended on C h i l d e ' s d e t a i l e d knowledge of t h e p o l y g l o t archaeol o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e of c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n Europe and of c o l l e c t i o n s of
a r t e f a c t s i n t h o s e a r e a s . Very few of h i s i d e a s came from o u t s i d e t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n . I n s o f a r a s contemporary s o c i a l v a l u e s were
r e f l e c t e d i n t h i s book, they were c o n v e n t i o n a l i n n a t u r e . I n b o t h The Dawr
of EZcropeun CiviZization and The A r y a n s (1926), n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r was
invoked more o f t e n than were geographical c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o e x p l a i n t h e
p a t t e r n of p r e h i s t o r y . A l l of t h i s was i n accord w i t h t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e
m i d d l e - c l a s s b e l i e f s of t h e 1920s.
C h i l d e q u i c k l y t i r e d of t h e c u l t u r e - h i s t o r i c a l approach, which h e desc r i b e d a s a p r e h i s t o r i a n ' s s u b s t i t u t e f o r old-fashioned p o l i t i c o - m i l i t a r y
h i s t o r y ( C h i l d e 1958b:70).
Already i n The Danube i n P r e h i s t o r y (1929) h e
began t o o f f e r economic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of p r e h i s t o r i c d a t a . T h i s approach
was developed i n The Most A n c i e n t E a s t , published i n 1928 b u t w r i t t e n a f t e r
The Danube, i n which h e examined t h e o r i g i n s of a g r i c u l t u r e ; The Bronze Age
(1930), which t r a c e d t h e e a r l y development of c r a f t s p e c i a l i s a t i o n ; and New
L i g h t on t h e Most Ancient E a s t (1934), i n which he s y n t h e s i s e d h i s two
p r e v i o u s books t o d e f i n e , a l t h o u g h h e d i d n o t y e t name a s such, t h e Neol i t h i c and urban r e v o l u t i o n s . He b e l i e v e d t h e s e t o be s i m i l a r i n h i s t o r i c a l
importance t o t h e l a t e r i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n . The second r e v o l u t i o n was
d e s c r i b e d a s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e t o t a l wealth of s o c i e t y and
t h e accumulation of s u r p l u s e s by k i n g s and temples, p a r t of which they used
t o s u s t a i n c r a f t s p e c i a l i s t s who d i d n o t engage i n food p r o d u c t i o n . He
d e s c r i b e d New L i g h t on t h e Most Ancient E a s t a s ' a t r u l y h i s t o r i c a l pageant
of economic development ' ( C h i l d e l958b :71)
C h i l d e ' s economic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , h i s u s e of t h e concept of r e v o l u t i o n ,
and t h e p a r a l l e l s between h i s d e f i n i t i o n of t h e second r e v o l u t i o n and
F r i e d r i c h Engels' view t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n of h a n d i c r a f t s from a g r i c u l t u r e
c o n s t i t u t e d a major p o i n t of t r a n s i t i o n i n human development have been i n t e r p r e t e d a s e v i d e n c e of M a r x i s t i n f l u e n c e on h i s work a t t h i s t i m e (Tringham
H i s i n f o r m a l u s e of t h e terms Savagery, Barbarism and C i v i l i 1983:91-2).
s a t i o n t o d e s i g n a t e s t a g e s of c u l t u r a l development may a l s o r e f l e c t t h e
i n f l u e n c e of ~ n g e l s 'The O r i g i n of t h e Family, P r i v a t e P r o p e r t y a n d t h e
S t a t e . Yet we must remember t h a t t h e s e terms, which were coined by 18th
c e n t u r y p h i l o s o p h e r s , a l s o had been used by l e a d i n g B r i t i s h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s
of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , such a s E.B. T y l o r . The most important e x p l a n a t o r y
c o n c e p t s t h a t h e employed, such a s t h e d e s i c c a t i o n o r o a s i s t h e o r y of t h e
o r i g i n of a g r i c u l t u r e and c i v i l i s a t i o n , came from w i t h i n archaeology, j u s t
as h i s e a r l i e r i d e a s had done. B r i t i s h a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , such a s Harold Peake
and H e r b e r t F l e u r e (1927) had a l r e a d y been o f f e r i n g economic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d and Childe used many of t h e i r i d e a s t o c o n s t r u c t
h i s own more comprehensive model of economic development. Moreover, h e
c o n t i n u e d t o r e g a r d t h e main aim of h i s work a s being t o j u s t i f y t h e ' g e n e r a l
d o c t r i n e of c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n ' (1934:301). Like most s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s i n
Western Europe and America a t t h a t time, he was n o t i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t
human b e i n g s were n a t u r a l l y i n v e n t i v e o r i n c l i n e d t o change t h e i r ways of
l i f e ; hence h e r e l i e d h e a v i l y on d i f f u s i o n and migration t o e x p l a i n changes
i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . He made no a t t e m p t t o harmonise h i s convent i o n a l concern w i t h d i f f u s i o n w i t h h i s more o r i g i n a l and c r e a t i v e i n t e r e s t
Important i n s i g h t s i n t o h i s t h i n k i n g a t t h i s time
i n economic development.
c a n be found i n h i s t r e a t m e n t of r e l i g i o n . A s e a r l y a s The Dawn of European
C i v i Z i z a t i o n , h e had argued t h a t an overemphasis on r e l i g i o n was a s i g n i f i c a n t c a u s e of c u l t u r a l s t a g n a t i o n . Yet nowhere d i d h e o f f e r even a remotely
M a r x i s t e x p l a n a t i o n of why t h i s should be s o . I n s t e a d , h e suggested i n an
i d e a l i s t v e i n t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l energy devoted t o r e l i g i o n was d i v e r t e d from
t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n . T h i s l e d him t o t r e a t t h e ' m e g a l i t h i c r e l i g i o n '
of Western Europe a s a p r e h i s t o r i c v e r s i o n of Roman Catholicism, t o which
many E n g l i s h P r o t e s t a n t s had long a t t r i b u t e d t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l backwardness
of s o u t h e r n Europe and I r e l a n d . Childe b e l i e v e d t h a t England had been saved
from t h e b l i g h t of m e g a l i t h i c r e l i g i o n only by having t h e good f o r t u n e t o be
conquered ( i n Norman f a s h i o n ? ) by more p r o g r e s s i v e groups whose i n n o v a t i v e
t e n d e n c i e s were focused on technology r a t h e r t h a n r e l i g i o n (1925:271-301).
R a j i Palme Dutt (1957), who l a t e r became a l e a d i n g f i g u r e i n t h e B r i t i s h
Communist P a r t y r e c a l l e d t h a t , when they were both s t u d e n t s a t Oxford
.
U n i v e r s i t y , h e and C h i l d e had o f t e n d e b a t e d Hegel, Marx, and t h e s t a t e of
modern s o c i e t y l a t e i n t o t h e n i g h t . Even a l l o w i n g f o r t h e p o s s i b l y i n s u b s t a n t i a l n a t u r e of t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s , we must assume t h a t C h i l d e a l r e a d y
knew something about Mamism a s a p h i l o s o p h y i n a d d i t i o n t o h i s g e n e r a l
commitment t o t h e Labour movement. Yet t h e r e i s l i t t l e , i f a n y t h i n g , i n
C h i l d e ' s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l w r i t i n g s p r i o r t o 1935 t h a t s u g g e s t s s i g n i f i c a n t
Marxist i n f l u e n c e on h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a . On t h e
c o n t r a r y , t h e r o o t s of a l l t h e a n a l y t i c a l and e x p l a n a t o r y c o n c e p t s t h a t h e
employed can b e found w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n s of Western European p r e h i s t o r i c
archaeology and t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l i d e a s espoused by t h e m i d d l e c l a s s . H e
l a t e r s t a t e d t h a t a t t h i s time h e r e g a r d e d E n g e l s ' e v o l u t i o n a r y scheme a s
' h o r r i d l y o u t f a s h i o n e d ' and of l i t t l e v a l u e ( l e t t e r of C h i l d e t o Braidwood
H e a l s o m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e views h e h e l d a t t h i s t i m e were n o t
1.8.1945).
t h o s e of orthodox Mamism (Green 1981:41).
I n t h e e a r l y 1930s, h e informed
Peggy B u r k i t t , w i f e of t h e Cambridge p r e h i s t o r i a n M i l e s B u r k i t t , t h a t h e was
probably a Crocean (Green 1981:83).
B e n e d e t t o Croce was an I t a l i a n p h i l o s o pher who had abandoned Mamism f o r an i d e a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y t h a t saw h i s t o r y
a s a m e d i a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e f o r human c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t ,
w h i l e C h i l d e was deeply committed t o s o c i a l i s m and m i s t r u s t f u l of p a r l i a mentary government, h e had n o t developed a s y s t e m a t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
M a m i s m a s a n a n a l y t i c a l system. It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t h e had abandoned
a commitment t o Marxism a s a r e s u l t of h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h p o l i t i c a l
life.
SOVIET ARCHAEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION ISM
I n 1935 C h i l d e s p e n t 12 days i n Leningrad and Moscow a t t e n d i n g a P e r s i a n
A r t s Congress w i t h David Talbot-Rice, P r o f e s s o r of F i n e A r t s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y
of Edinburgh and h i s Russian-born w i f e Tamara (Green 1981:77-8).
While t h e r e
h e met Russian a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , v i s i t e d museums, and a c q u i r e d new i n f o r m a t i o n
about t h e p r e h i s t o r y of e a s t e r n Europe. He a l s o s e c u r e d some ' t y p i c a l R u s s i a n
works on p r e h i s t o r y ' ( C h i l d e l958b: 7 1)
C h i l d e a r r i v e d i n t h e S o v i e t Union a t t h e end of f i v e y e a r s of unprecedented upheaval i n Russian a r c h a e o l o g y . A f t e r t h e r e v o l u t i o n and e s p e c i a l l y
d u r i n g t h e y e a r s of t h e New Economic P o l i c y (1921-28), S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s
c o n t i n u e d t o work much a s t h e y had done p r e v i o u s l y . They assumed t h a t b e c a u s e
t h e y s t u d i e d m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e t h e i r work was n o t o u t of l i n e w i t h t h e new
p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l o r d e r . Many a r c h a e o l o g i s t s f o l l o w e d M o n t e l i u s ' typol o g i c a l approach. They viewed t h e development of t e c h n o l o g y a s t h e c u m u l a t i v e
r e s u l t of t h e u s e of human i n t e l l e c t t o g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r n a t u r e ( M i l l e r
1956: 49-55).
I n 1929, archaeology i n t h e S o v i e t Union was s u b j e c t e d t o a thorough,
government-supported review. E x i s t i n g t h e o r i e s and p r a c t i c e were s c r u t i n i s e d
t o b r i n g t h e d i s c i p l i n e i n t o c l o s e r a l i g n m e n t w i t h Marxist p r i n c i p l e s . The
Montelian approach was denounced a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of b o u r g e o i s formalism.
Many a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who were u n w i l l i n g o r u n a b l e t o change t h e i r views were
d i s m i s s e d from t h e i r p o s t s and younger, more p o l i t i c a l l y committed Marxists
took c o n t r o l of u n i v e r s i t y departments and r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s ( T a l l g r e n
1936; M i l l e r 1956). For a time t h e term a r c h a e o l o g y was s u p p r e s s e d and
m a t e r i a l remains were t r e a t e d o n l y a s a n o t h e r t y p e of d a t a t h a t were u s e f u l
f o r s t u d y i n g t h e h i s t o r y of p r e - c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s . C h r o n o l o g i e s b a s e d
on s u c c e s s i v e p e r i o d s of S t o n e , Bronze, and I r o n were abandoned on t h e
grounds t h a t they were i r r e l e v a n t f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e
i n s o c i e t a l terms. Yet, d e s p i t e t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s , t h e achievements of t h i s
p e r i o d were of l a s t i n g i n t e r e s t and v a l u e f o r a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , b o t h i n t h e
S o v i e t Union and throughout t h e world.
The main t a s k t h a t was s e t f o r a r c h a e o l o g y was t o a c c o u n t f o r c h a n g e s
i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m .
The
.
primary c o n t e x t i n t e r m s of which change was t o be understood was n o t
t e c h n o l o g y b u t s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n . It was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e development
o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s between d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s and u l t i m a t e l y between t h e
f o r c e s and r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n . These c o n t r a d i c t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n sui
generis t e c h n o l o g i c a l change were r e g a r d e d a s t h e dynamic f o r c e s t h a t shaped
human h i s t o r y . A r c h a e o l o g i s t s were t h e r e f o r e c a l l e d on n o t o n l y t o d e s c r i b e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s b u t a l s o t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e s o c i e t i e s t h a t had produced them.
T h i s r e q u i r e d d e f i n i n g t h e mode of p r o d u c t i o n and determining
a s much a s p o s s i b l e a b o u t technology, s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n , and i d e o l o g y from
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a . The new emphasis had f a r - r e a c h i n g p r a c t i c a l implications.
It encouraged a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t o l e a r n more about how p e o p l e ,
e s p e c i a l l y o r d i n a r y p e o p l e had l i v e d i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s . T h i s l e d t o t h e
e x c a v a t i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t s , c a m p s i t e s , and workshops, which were a l l c l a s s e s
o f s i t e s t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s had tended t o i g n o r e i n t h e p a s t .
Yet d e s p i t e t h e f r u i t f u l c h a l l e n g e s t h a t h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m posed
f o r a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , t h e new M a r x i s t archaeology l a b o u r e d under some s e v e r e
r e s t r i c t i o n s . Development was c o n c e p t u a l i s e d i n terms of a u n i l i n e a r scheme
of socio-economic f o r m a t i o n s t h a t was a l l e g e d l y d e r i v e d from t h e work of
Mam and E n g e l s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e l a t t e r ' s The Origin of the Family, Private
Property and t h e S t a t e . P r e - c l a s s s o c i e t i e s were d i v i d e d i n t o s u c c e s s i v e
p r e - c l a n , m a t r i a r c h a l c l a n , p a t r i a r c h a l c l a n , and t e r m i n a l c l a n s t a g e s ;
f o l l o w e d by t h r e e forms of c l a s s s o c i e t y : s l a v e , f e u d a l , and c a p i t a l i s t .
T h i s scheme t h r o u g h which, i n t h e words of E r n e s t G e l l n e r (1983:27) 'mank i n d was i n e x o r a b l y frog-marched towards i t s e v e n t u a l s a l v a t i o n ' was n o t
regarded a s s u b j e c t t o c r i t i c i s m .
I n s t e a d , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s were r e q u i r e d t o
i n t e r p r e t t h e i r f i n d i n g s i n l i n e with i t a s well a s with t h e ' c l a s s i c a l
w r i t i n g s ' of Marxism.
T h i s was no s i m p l e t a s k s i n c e t h e works of Marx and
E n g e l s were n o t always e a s y t o harmonise w i t h t h i s dogmatic e v o l u t i o n a r y
formulation.
A r c h a e o l o g i s t s were a l s o f o r b i d d e n t o u s e t h e c o n c e p t s of d i f f u s i o n and
m i g r a t i o n t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e changes observed i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s . T h i s
r e s t r i c t i o n was v i g o r o u s l y championed by N i c o l a i Marr, a l i n g u i s t t u r n e d
a r c h a e o l o g i s t who was p u t i n c h a r g e of archaeology w i t h i n t h e S t a t e Academy
f o r t h e H i s t o r y o f M a t e r i a l C u l t u r e (GAIMK). Marr claimed t h a t a l l
l i n g u i s t i c changes were r e f l e c t i o n s of s o c i o - c u l t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s r a t h e r
t h a n o f e t h n i c h i s t o r y . Because of t h i s , even s i m i l a r l a n g u a g e s need n o t
b e h i s t o r i c a l l y r e l a t e d , w h i l e t h e same p e o p l e could speak t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t
l a n g u a g e s a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of t h e i r socio-economic development. T h i s
made it p o s s i b l e t o i g n o r e even t h e most obvious e v i d e n c e of e t h n i c changes
i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d and t o t r e a t t h e r e c o r d of each r e g i o n from
e a r l i e s t t i m e s t o t h e p r e s e n t a s a sequence of s t a g e s i n t h e development of
a s i n g l e p e o p l e . For example, Marr argued t h a t i n t h e Crimea a s i n g l e
p o p u l a t i o n had become I r a n i a n - s p e a k i n g S c y t h s , German-speaking Goths, and
f i n a l l y S l a v s . A s a r e s u l t of such views p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h
c o n c e r n i n g e t h n i c t y p e s and t h e i r movements i n p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s r a n t h e
d a n g e r of b e i n g s t i g m a t i s e d as r e a c t i o n a r y o r even f a s c i s t ( l e t t e r of Childe
t o Braidwood 1.8.1945).
Too d e t a i l e d a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a r t e f a c t t y p o l o g i e s
and c h r o n o l o g i c a l problems was a l s o viewed a s b o u r g e o i s and r e a c t i o n a r y .
Such b e h a v i o u r was i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Montelian approach, which had been
r e j e c t e d on t h e grounds t h a t i t was f o r m a l i s t and i d e a l i s t . T h i s a t t i t u d e
d i s c o u r a g e d t h e f o r m a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a r t e f a c t s and t h e s y s t e m a t i c
d e f i n i t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c u l t u r e s ; a development t h a t some modern
S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s b e l i e v e h a s s e r i o u s l y h i n d e r e d t h e development of
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h e i r c o u n t r y by comparison w i t h t h e r e s t of
Europe ( B u l k i n e t a l . 1982: 288-9).
I n 1935 t h e government c a l l e d f o r h i g h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a n d a r d s among
a r c h a e o l o g i s t s . The name and d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n t e n t of a r c h a e o l o g y were
r e s t o r e d , a l t h o u g h t h e new f o r m u l a t i o n was d e s i g n a t e d ' S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g y '
t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e i t from t h e f o r m a l i s t a r c h a e o l o g y p r a c t i s e d i n o t h e r
c o u n t r i e s . Much of t h e programmatic and p o l e m i c a l l i t e r a t u r e of t h e
p r e c e d i n g f i v e y e a r s was pronounced o b s o l e t e , a major j o u r n a l (Sovetskazja
ArkheoZogia) was begun, new e d u c a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s were e s t a b l i s h e d , and
b e t t e r q u a l i t y work and t h e p r o d u c t i o n of s t a n d a r d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e p o r t s
were demanded. A r c h a e o l o g i s t s were a l s o a l l o w e d once more t o d i s c u s s
sequences of t e c h n o l o g i c a l a g e s and t o a v e r y l i m i t e d d e g r e e t o i n v o k e
While t h e s e
m i g r a t i o n and d i f f u s i o n ( C h i l d e 1940 ; Miller l956 :108-1 1 )
changes r e c t i f i e d some of t h e shortcomings of t h e t u r b u l e n t p e r i o d of
t r a n s i t i o n t h a t had w i t n e s s e d t h e b i r t h of S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g y , t h e t h r e e
p r i n c i p a l weaknesses o u t l i n e d above c o n t i n u e d t o a f f e c t i t .
C h i l d e was f a v o u r a b l e impressed by t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of museums i n t h e
S o v i e t Union, t h e l a v i s h e x p e n d i t u r e s of p u b l i c f u n d s t o s p o n s o r e x c a v a t i o n s
on a much l a r g e r s c a l e t h a n i n Western Europe, and t h e u s e t h a t was made of
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s t o e d u c a t e t h e p u b l i c . H e was a l s o a t t r a c t e d by t h e
new d i r e c t i o n s b e i n g t a k e n by a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y t h e
e x c a v a t i o n of l a r g e numbers of h a b i t a t i o n s i t e s . A t t h a t t i m e , S k a r a B r a e ,
where C h i l d e (1931) had worked from 1928 t o 1930, was one of t h e few p r e h i s t o r i c communities t h a t had been c a r e f u l l y s t u d i e d n o r t h o f t h e Alps.
C h i l d e a l s o took home r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s by S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s s u c h a s
Y.Y. K r i c h e v s k i y , who s t u d i e d t h e B a t t l e Axe c u l t u r e s of c e n t r a l Europe and
l a t e r t h e T r i p o l j e c u l t u r e , and P.N. T r e t i a k o v , who s p e c i a l i s e d i n R u s s i a n
and S l a v i c archaeology ( C h i l d e 1958b:71-2).
The s i n g l e work t h a t i n t h e
long-run was t o i n f l u e n c e him t h e most was Clan S o c i e t i e s of t h e S t e p p e s of
E a s t e r n Europe by A.P. Kruglov and G.V. P o d g a y e t s k i y ( 1 9 3 5 ) . T h i s book was
t o provide t h e i n s p i r a t i o n f o r h i s l a t e r cross-cultural g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s
about b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s ( C h i l d e 1944a:78-97; 1945a), b u t more g e n e r a l l y was
t o s u g g e s t t o him t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p o t e n t i a l of a M a r x i s t a p p r o a c h t o
archaeology.
Yet C h i l d e d i d n o t a c c e p t t h e e n t i r e program of S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g y .
While admiring how S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s s o u g h t t o e x p l a i n c u l t u r a l change
i n t e r m s of i n t e r n a l p r o c e s s e s and awakened t o t h e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e of a
Marxist approach, h e r e f u s e d t o a d o p t t h e i r scheme of socio-economic
f o r m a t i o n s o r any o t h e r u n i l i n e a r f o r m u l a t i o n of s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n ( C h i l d e
1944b:23).
L a t e r h e was t o denounce t h e S o v i e t approach f o r f o r c i n g
a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t o assume i n advance t o b e t r u e what i t was t h e i r d u t y t o
prove was s o ( C h i l d e 1951 :28-9 ; 1952a)
Moreover, h e d i d n o t see how
a r c h a e o l o g i s t s might hope t o i n f e r many of t h e s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s of s o c i a l
organisation t h a t could r e l a t e t h i s formulation t o t h e i r research. Despite
f r e q u e n t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of h i s p o s i t i o n , most n o t a b l y by J u l i a n Steward
(1953), C h i l d e n e v e r advocated u n i l i n e a r e v o l u t i o n i s m . He saw s o c i e t i e s
developing a l o n g v e r y d i f f e r e n t l i n e s i n Europe and t h e Near E a s t and i n
New L i g h t on t h e Most Ancient E a s t h e had s t r e s s e d t h a t w h i l e t h e a n c i e n t
c i v i l i s a t i o n s of Egypt and Mesopotamia had a r i s e n i n s i m i l a r e n v i r o n m e n t s ,
they had evolved p o l i t i c a l and economic s y s t e m s t h a t were v e r y d i f f e r e n t
from one a n o t h e r .
C h i l d e a l s o r e f u s e d t o s t o p viewing d i f f u s i o n a s a major p r o c e s s t h a t
promoted c u l t u r a l development. H i t l e r ' s s e i z u r e of d i c t a t o r i a l power i n
Germany i n 1933 made him k e e n l y aware of how c l o s e l y a r c h a e o l o g y and r a c i s t
p o l i t i c a l movements had become i n t e r t w i n e d i n t h a t c o u n t r y and of t h e d a n g e r s
of a s i m i l a r combination e l s e w h e r e . K o s s i n n a ' s p r o c l a m a t i o n s of t h e b i o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y from e a r l i e s t t i m e s of t h e German p e o p l e s
had developed o u t of t h e same c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s a s had t h e d o c t r i n e s of
N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m and h i s Germanocentric v e r s i o n of European p r e h i s t o r y
enjoyed t h e p u b l i c a p p r o b a t i o n of l e a d i n g Nazi o f f i c i a l s .
C h i l d e was q u i c k
t o p o i n t o u t t o h i s s t u d e n t s and t o t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
.
.
c u l t u r e s c o u l d n o t b e e q u a t e d w i t h s p e c i f i c r a c i a l t y p e s and t h a t b i o l o g i c a l
d i f f e r e n c e s d i d n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e v a r y i n g c u l t u r a l achievements of
d i f f e r e n t peoples.
On t h e c o n t r a r y , c u l t u r a l p r o g r e s s had r e s u l t e d from
t h e p r o g r e s s i v e breakdown of i s o l a t i o n among neighbouring groups and
h u m a n i t y ' s p o o l i n g o f i d e a s on an e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g s c a l e ( C h i l d e 1933a,
1933b). Long b e f o r e , h e had invoked d i f f u s i o n a s a n a n t i d o t e t o t h e
n a t i o n a l i s t i c t h e o r i e s of Kossinna and o t h e r German a r c h a e o l o g i s t s ; now h e
c o n s c r i p t e d i t t o play a leading r o l e i n t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t fascism.
B o a s i a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s employed t h e concept of d i f f u s i o n f o r s i m i l a r ends
i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Because of t h i s , C h i l d e was d i s t r e s s e d t o f i n d S o v i e t
a r c h a e o l o g i s t s r e j e c t i n g t h i s concept. H e r e f u s e d t o abandon i t and c o n t i n u e d
t o c a s t i g a t e h i s S o v i e t c o l l e a g u e s f o r f a i l i n g t o pay a d e q u a t e a t t e n t i o n t o
i t . While a g r e e i n g t h a t a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s s h o u l d a t t e m p t
t o e x p l a i n changes i n t e r m s of developments w i t h i n c u l t u r e s and a l t e r a t i o n s
i n t h e n a t u r a l environment ( C h i l d e 1958c:5), he a s s e r t e d t h a t i t 'cannot be
u n M a m i a n l t o invoke d i f f u s i o n t o e x p l a i n t h e s p r e a d of domestic animals o r
p l a n t s and by e x t e n s i o n many c l a s s e s of i d e a s (1946:24).
H e a l s o reminded
M a r x i s t s t h a t n e i t h e r Marx n o r Engels had r u l e d o u t m i g r a t i o n s i n p r e h i s t o r i c
t i m e s (l945b36).
C h i l d e a l s o r e f u s e d t o abandon t h e major emphasis t h a t h e p l a c e d on
t y p o l o g y , which h e saw a s e s s e n t i a l f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g r e g i o n a l c h r o n o l o g i e s
and t r a c i n g c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s between one r e g i o n and a n o t h e r . He had
l i t t l e r e s p e c t f o r t h e s l o p p y manner i n which S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s handled
t h e s e m a t t e r s . I n 1957 h e d e s c r i b e d t h e i r p r e h i s t o r i c c h r o n o l o g i e s a s a
s e r i e s of h o p e l e s s l y vague g u e s s e s t h a t d i d ' n o t even a t t r a c t , s t i l l l e s s
c o n v i n c e him' ( D a n i e l 1958:66).
C h i l d e ' s wide-ranging e x p e r i e n c e a s a
p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o l o g i s t l e d him t o i n c o r p o r a t e what h e b e l i e v e d were t h e
i m p o r t a n t i n n o v a t i o n s of S o v i e t archaeology i n t o h i s own work and t o r e j e c t
what h e saw a s i t s s h o r t c o m i n g s . I n t h e f r e e r and more c r e a t i v e p o s t - S t a l i n
e r a , S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e confirmed t h e wisdom of C h i l d e ' s a c t i o n s by
working t o modify p r e c i s e l y t h o s e f e a t u r e s of e a r l y S o v i e t archaeology t h a t
h e found o b j e c t i o n a b l e .
I n s o doing t h e y have moved beyond what he regarded
a s a ' s u p e r f i c i a l , , l i t e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n ' of Mamist i d e a s ' t o m a s t e r t h e
d e e p e r i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e method' (1952a:26).
Leo K l e j n ( 1 9 8 2 ) , i n
p a r t i c u l a r , h a s become a powerful exponent of t h e importance of formal
a n a l y s i s f o r t h e i n i t i a l p r o c e s s i n g of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a . H e a r g u e s t h a t
such an approach i s e s s e n t i a l i f archaeological data a r e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o
t h e f u l l e s t d e g r e e p o s s i b l e t o a M a m i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of human h i s t o r y .
I n t h e decade f o l l o w i n g h i s f i r s t v i s i t t o t h e S o v i e t Union, C h i l d e
p u b l i s h e d t h r e e books d e a l i n g w i t h c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n : Man Makes Himself
(1936), What Happened i n History (1942a), and Progress and ArchaeoZogy
(1944a).
The f i r s t two were w r i t t e n f o r t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c a s w e l l a s f o r
p r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and have c o n t i n u e d t o be widely r e a d , w h i l e t h e
t h i r d was i n t e n d e d m a i n l y f o r a r c h a e o l o g i s t s . C u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n was a
t o p i c of t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r e s t t h a t had remained important i n M a m i s t t h i n k i n g
b u t had p r e v i o u s l y been of l i t t l e importance i n C h i l d e ' s w r i t i n g s . I n M m
Makes Himself h e i n t e r p r e t e d t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d a s e v i d e n c e of a
d i r e c t i o n a l p r o c e s s whereby t h e i n c r e a s i n g s c i e n t i f i c knowledge a c q u i r e d by
human b e i n g s gave them e v e r g r e a t e r c o n t r o l o v e r n a t u r e and l e d t o t h e
f o r m a t i o n of new and more complex s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l systems. The views
e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s work were p e r h a p s n o t t o o f a r removed from t h e i d e a l i s t
M o n t e l i a n c o n c e p t of c u l t u r a l change ( C h i l d e 1958b:72).
I n What Happened i n History C h i l d e a t t e m p t e d i n a much more e x p l i c i t l y
M a m i s t f a s h i o n t o f o r m u l a t e e x p l a n a t i o n s of c u l t u r a l change t h a t were
f o c u s e d n o t on t e c h n o l o g i c a l knowledge a s a prime mover b u t on s o c i a l ,
p o l i t i c a l , and economic i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e r o l e they played i n b r i n g i n g
a b o u t change. I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s of d i a l e c t i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m ,
he viewed e v e r y s o c i e t y a s c o n t a i n i n g w i t h i n i t s e l f b o t h p r o g r e s s i v e and
c o n s e r v a t i v e t e n d e n c i e s which a r e l i n k e d by dynamic u n i t y a s w e l l a s by
p e r s i s t e n t antagonism. The l a t t e r p r o v i d e s t h e e n e r g y t h a t i n t h e l o n g
r u n b r i n g s a b o u t i r r e v e r s i b l e s o c i a l change. Hence e v e r y s o c i e t y c o n t a i n s
w i t h i n i t s e l f t h e s e e d s f o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e and t h e
c r e a t i o n of a new s o c i a l o r d e r (Tringham 1983:95).
C h i l d e d i d n o t embrace u n i l i n e a r e v o l u t i o n i s m i n t h e s e works anymore
t h a n h e d i d a t any o t h e r t i m e .
He c a r e f u l l y documented t h e s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e c i t y s t a t e s t h a t had emerged i n Mesopotamia
and t h e d i v i n e monarchy t h a t u n i t e d Old Kingdom Egypt. These d i f f e r e n c e s
were a t t r i b u t e d t o d i v e r g e n t s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g
a g r i c u l t u r a l s u r p l u s e s t h a t had developed i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e i r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from t r i b a l t o c l a s s s o c i e t i e s . Nor d i d h e s u b s c r i b e t o t h e n a i v e f a i t h
i n t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of p r o g r e s s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e d many v u l g a r i s e d v e r s i o n s
of Mamism a s w e l l a s t h e u n i l i n e a r e v o l u t i o n i s m of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . C h i l d e
wrote u n d e r t h e shadow of expanding Nazi power and viewed t h e f u t u r e sombrely.
The l a c k of f a i t h i n human p r o g r e s s t h a t had c h a r a c t e r i s e d a r c h a e o l o g y and
t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i n Western Europe s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y had a l r e a d y
been r e f l e c t e d i n h i s e a r l i e r work ( T r i g g e r 1978:64-70).
Yet h i s pessimism
l e d him t o make a n important c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e M a r x i s t e x p l a n a t i o n of
change by p r o v i d i n g a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t
impede s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t h a n of t h o s e t h a t promote them.
Such a
c o n t r i b u t i o n was e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t a t a t i m e when S o v i e t s c h o l a r s , p e r h a p s
a s a r e s u l t of p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e ( c f . B a i l e y and L l o b e r a 1981 and Dunn
1982), had c e a s e d t o d i s c u s s t h e A s i a t i c Mode of P r o d u c t i o n . T h i s w a s t h e
only form of c l a s s s o c i e t y t o which Mam had n o t a t t r i b u t e d i n h e r e n t
dynamism. C h i l d e p r o v i d e s u s w i t h no e v i d e n c e t h a t h e was aware of s p e c i f i c
s t u d i e s of t h e A s i a t i c Mode of P r o d u c t i o n by S o v i e t s c h o l a r s o r of t h e
c e s s a t i o n of t h e s e s t u d i e s . Yet h i s own w r i t i n g s k e p t a l i v e w i t h i n t h e
Marxist t r a d i t i o n a n a n a l y s i s of major t h e o r e t i c a l problems r e l a t e d t o t h i s
t y p e of s o c i e t y d u r i n g a p e r i o d when S o v i e t s c h o l a r s had t e m p o r a r i l y abandoned them. C h i l d e ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Mamism a t t h i s t i m e was c l e a r l y n o t
of t h e ' n a i v e and o p t i m i s t i c ' t y p e t h a t A l i s o n Ravetz (1959:66) h a s a t t r i buted t o him.
I n t h e s e e v o l u t i o n a r y s t u d i e s , C h i l d e a r g u e d t h a t a t any l e v e l of s o c i a l
development, b u t e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e a r l y c i v i l i s a t i o n s , e n t r e n c h e d p o l i t i c a l
h i e r a r c h i e s and i n f l e x i b l e systems of r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s c a n s l o w o r even h a l t
s o c i a l and economic change. He d i s t i n g u i s h e d between p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i e t i e s
where t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n favour a n e x p a n s i o n of p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s
and t h e r e i s a harmonious r e l a t i o n s h i p among t h e means of p r o d u c t i o n , s o c i a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s , and t h e dominant system of b e l i e f s and c o n s e r v a t i v e s o c i e t i e s
i n which s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s b l o c k change. The r u l i n g c l a s s e s i n
t h e e a r l y c i v i l i s a t i o n s sought t o f o r e s t a l l t e c h n o l o g i c a l changes t h a t m i g h t
t h r e a t e n t h e i r c o n t r o l of s o c i e t y . They d i d t h i s by c o n c e n t r a t i n g w e a l t h i n
t h e i r own hands, e x e r c i s i n g b u r e a u c r a t i c c o n t r o l o v e r c r a f t s m e n , i n h i b i t i n g
t h e p u r s u i t of t e c h n i c a l knowledge, and p a t r o n i s i n g magic and s u p e r s t i t i o n
on a l a v i s h s c a l e , a s w e l l a s by t h e e x e r c i s e o f f o r c e . They o n l y s u c c e e d e d ,
however, a t t h e c o s t of making i t more d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e i r own s o c i e t i e s t o
compete w i t h more p r o g r e s s i v e n e i g h b o u r i n g o n e s ( C h i l d e 1947). C h i l d e t h u s
a s c r i b e d i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n s h a p i n g h i s t o r y t o b o t h t h e b a s e and s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t i e s . Y e t h e was c a r e f u l t o q u a l i f y t h a t where t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e was dominant, i t s i n f l u e n c e could o n l y b e n e g a t i v e .
It h a s s i n c e been
maintained by S o v i e t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t h a t t h i s view i s i n a c c o r d w i t h o r t h o dox Marxism (Petrova-Averkieva 1980:24).
C h i l d e ' s s t a n c e a l s o p r o v i d e s a d e f i n i t i v e answer t o t h o s e B r i t i s h
M a r x i s t s , such as George Thomson (1949), who a c c u s e d him of i g n o r i n g c l a s s
c o n f l i c t i n t h e e a r l y c i v i l i s a t i o n s . Childe argued t h a t s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n
o c c u r r e d s l o w l y , i f a t a l l , i n those c i v i l i s a t i o n s p r e c i s e l y because such
s t r u g g l e s were b l u n t e d by h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s techniques
of s o c i a l c o n t r o l . These c o n t r o l s made t h e e a r l y c i v i l i s a t i o n s f a r more
i n t e g r a t e d i n a Durkheimian s e n s e t h a n a r e modern c a p i t a l i s t ones. He d i d
n o t i g n o r e t h e concept of c l a s s s t r u g g l e i n e a r l y c i v i l i s a t i o n s o r r e j e c t i t
b e c a u s e h e thought i t i n a p p l i c a b l e f o r study u s i n g a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a . On
t h e contrary, h e d i d not f i n d i t u s e f u l f o r explaining Oriental s o c i e t i e s ,
which h e b e l i e v e d had remained s t a t i c over long p e r i o d s of time. I n h i s
a n a l y s e s of C l a s s i c a l s o c i e t i e s , and i n p a r t i c u l a r of t h e Roman Empire, he
p l a c e d more emphasis on s t r u g g l e s among groups w i t h i n s o c i e t i e s t o c o n t r o l
w e a l t h and power and on t h e s h i f t i n g p a t t e r n s of p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l . I t i s
p o s s i b l e t h a t h i s d i f f e r i n g t r e a t m e n t of a n c i e n t Near E a s t e r n and C l a s s i c a l
c i v i l i s a t i o n s was based on Marx's own d i s t i n c t i o n between O r i e n t a l and Slave
s o c i e t i e s . He may n o t have made t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n e x p l i c i t t o avoid drawing
a t t e n t i o n t o a b i t t e r c o n t r o v e r s y among Marxist h i s t o r i a n s .
A MARXIST PHILOSOPHER
Throughout h i s c a r e e r , Childe avoided p u b l i c l y c r i t i c i s i n g t h e Soviet
Union i n o r d e r n o t t o g i v e s a t i s f a c t i o n t o i t s right-wing enemies. Yet a t
l e a s t from h i s f i r s t v i s i t t h e r e he was aware of i t s t o t a l i t a r i a n p o l i t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e and disapproved of i t ( C h i l d e 1937:15, 1956:22, 41). He was
e s p e c i a l l y b i t t e r a b o u t t h e a c t i o n s of t h e S o v i e t government d u r i n g t h e
p e r i o d of t h e H i t l e r - S t a l i n p a c t ( l e t t e r of Childe t o O.G.S. Crawford 1940).
T h i s estrangement may a c c o u n t f o r h i s lessened enthusiasm f o r t h e accomp l i s h m e n t s of S o v i e t archaeology a t t h i s time. H i s a t t i t u d e was reversed
a f t e r t h e S o v i e t Union was a t t a c k e d by Germany i n 1941. Childe became a
member of t h e S o c i e t y f o r C u l t u r a l R e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e USSR, was one of t h e
s c h o l a r s who r e p r e s e n t e d B r i t a i n a t t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of t h e 220th a n n i v e r s a r y
of t h e Academy of S c i e n c e s i n Moscow i n 1945, and t r a v e l l e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n
t h e S o v i e t Union i n 1953. The b r i e f l a p s i n g of h i s i n t e r e s t i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and methodological accomplishments of S o v i e t archaeology e x p l a i n s what h e
meant when h e w r o t e i n ' R e t r o s p e c t ' t h a t
It was o n l y l a t e r t h a t I r e r e a d S o v i e t p r e h i s t o r i a n s i n t h e
b r i e f i n t e r v a l d u r i n g which a sympathetic a t t i t u d e t o t h e USSR
was n o t o n l y u s e f u l f o r g e t t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
p r o v i n c e t h a t was c r u c i a l f o r my own s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s , b u t was
a l s o cornmended by p u b l i c opinion and t h e S t a t e (Childe 1958b373).
It i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i n t h e e a r l y 1940s he should have reread
and s t u d i e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t h e had o b t a i n e d i n Russia
i n 1935. Beginning i n t h e l a t e 1930s, i n c r e a s i n g p a t r i o t i s m had encouraged
a s t r o n g e r emphasis on u s i n g t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d t o t r a c e t h e o r i g i n s
of t h e v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l groups t h a t make up t h e S o v i e t Union ( M i l l e r 1956:
T h i s approach had much i n common w i t h t h e o l d e r n a t i o n a l i s t i c
107-56).
a r c h a e o l o g i e s of C e n t r a l Europe and hence d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t a methodological
advance o v e r t e c h n i q u e s w i t h which h e was a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r . Moreover, he
must have found any n a t i o n a l i s t i c approach t o archaeology d i s t a s t e f u l .
R a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u i n g t o l e a r n from S o v i e t archaeology i n t h e f i n a l phase
of h i s c a r e e r , C h i l d e used i t s accomplishments i n t h e 1930s a s a b a s i s f o r
p i o n e e r i n g new a p p l i c a t i o n s of Marxism t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
d a t a . Henceforth p r o g r e s s along t h e s e l i n e s was t o be based on C h i l d e ' s own
i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d understanding of t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s of
Marxism.
I n ScotZand Before t h e Scots (1946), which was based on t h e Rhind
l e c t u r e s h e had d e l i v e r e d i n Edinburgh two y e a r s e a r l i e r , Childe attempted
t o a p p l y a Marxist approach t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a s p e c i f i c corpus of
Western a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a . He sought t o i n f e r t h e p r e h i s t o r i c s o c i a l
o r g a n i s a t i o n of Scotland from information concerning s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s ,
houses, h a n d i c r a f t s , t r a d e , and b u r i a l customs and by t h e s e means t o t r a c e
t h e development of s u c c e s s i v e forms of s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s e d by
l a r g e r s o c i a l groups and g r e a t e r economic and p o l i t i c a l i n e q u a l i t y . H e
concluded t h a t t h i s approach gave ' a p i c t u r e of S c o t l a n d ' s development which
was f a r more r e a l i s t i c and f a r more h i s t o r i c a l ' t h a n had been a c h i e v e d w i t h
m i g r a t i o n i s t hypotheses i n h i s e a r l i e r s t u d i e s of S c o t t i s h p r e h i s t o r y ( C h i l d e
1958b:73).
Yet h e r e f u s e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y t o s u b s c r i b e t o t h e dogmatic scheme
of s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n used by S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s o r t o r u l e o u t d i f f u s i o n
and m i g r a t i o n as s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s b r i n g i n g a b o u t s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l change.
I n t h e l a s t two decades of h i s l i f e , C h i l d e worked t o a c q u i r e a more
profound and l e s s dogmatic understanding of M a m i s m a s a n a n a l y t i c a l t o o l and
t o apply i t t o t h e s t u d y of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a . A s p a r t of t h i s e f f o r t h e
read widely i n t h e f i e l d of philosophy. A f t e r Marrism was r e p u d i a t e d by
Joseph S t a l i n i n 1950 i n h i s e s s a y 'Concerning M a m i s m i n L i n g u i s t i c s ' ,
Childe became more p o i n t e d i n h i s c r i t i c i s m of what h e b e l i e v e d were e r r o r s
o r major shortcomings i n S o v i e t archaeology. Y e t h i s o b j e c t i o n s were t h e
same ones t h a t h e had been making e i t h e r i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y s i n c e t h e
1930s. Like a l l M a r x i s t s , Childe regarded a h i s t o r i c approach a s u n i t i n g a l l
of t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . He argued t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of any g e n e r a l i s a t i o n
can only be e s t a b l i s h e d i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s . T h i s
is because t h e r u l e s t h a t account f o r human b e h a v i o u r , and human b e h a v i o u r
i t s e l f , change a s new forms of s o c i e t y develop. As e a r l y a s t h e 1930s,
Russian p s y c h o l o g i s t s had p o i n t e d o u t t h a t formal l o g i c a l thought i s a
c u l t u r a l a r t e f a c t ; a p o i n t t h a t w a s f u r t h e r d r i v e n home t o C h i l d e by C.G.
Darwin's (1938) demonstration t h a t t h i s l o g i c had been compelled t o change
s i n c e t h e time of A r i s t o t l e i n o r d e r t o accommodate i t s e l f t o new t y p e s of
e m p i r i c a l d a t a . Because of t h i s , human h i s t o r y i s g e n u i n e l y c r e a t i v e . It
i s c a p a b l e of b r i n g i n g i n t o being novel and o f t e n u n f o r e s e e n s o c i a l o r d e r s
and new forms of human self-awareness.
Yet Childe continued t o b e convinced t h a t such p r o g r e s s was n o t i n e v i t a b l e . Some s o c i e t i e s remain s t a t i c , while o t h e r s r e g r e s s o r even d e s t r o y
themselves. I n h i s opinion, a Marxist a n a l y s i s p r e c l u d e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of
predetermined change. F u n c t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s account f o r many s i m i l a r
f e a t u r e s of s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n t h a t a r e s h a r e d by u n r e l a t e d c u l t u r e s w i t h
analogous modes of production. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t of
c u l t u r e s and of i n d i v i d u a l sequences of change i s determined t o s o g r e a t a
degree by p r e - e x i s t i n g c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s and by a c c i d e n t a l c o n t a c t s w i t h
o t h e r s o c i e t i e s , a s w e l l a s by t h e n a t u r e of t h e b r o a d e r world s y s t e m
w i t h i n which they occur t h a t t h e i r d e t a i l e d n a t u r e cannot b e p r e d i c t e d . A s
Childe (1936:llO) put i t , t h e p r e c i s e form of t h e B r i t i s h c o n s t i t u t i o n o r of
P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n t h e 19th c e n t u r y could n e v e r b e deduced from t h e c a p i t a l i s t
system a l o n e . H i s r e j e c t i o n of determinism presaged t h e views of l a t e r
It
Marxist s c h o l a r s i n Western Europe, such a s Jean-Paul S a r t r e (1960).
a l s o a c c o r d s , however, with orthodox Marxism, which d e n i e s t h a t g e n e r a l laws
can e x p l a i n a l l t h e d i v e r s e f e a t u r e s of c o n c r e t e human development ( P e t r o v a Averkieva 1980:21).
I n Social EvoZution ( l 9 5 l ) , Childe r e a f f i r m e d h i s b e l i e f i n m u l t i l i n e a r
e v o l u t i o n b u t argued t h a t over time u n r e l a t e d c u l t u r e s s h a r i n g t h e s a m e mode
of production would tend t o evolve i n c r e a s i n g l y s i m i l a r s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s . Y e t t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s develop i n d i f f e r e n t ways and v a r i e d
sequences because of environmental d i f f e r e n c e s , h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t s , and
t h e s o c i e t i e s involved being i n i t i a l l y d i s s i m i l a r . Thus t h e r e a r e many more
ways t o move from one l e v e l of s o c i e t y t o a n o t h e r t h a n t h e r e a r e s t a b l e forms
i n which t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e i s i n c l o s e a c c o r d w i t h t h e b a s e . Because of
t h i s , s o c i a l r e a l i t y r a r e l y a c c o r d s with an i d e a l t y p e .
I n h i s l a t e r works, C h i l d e e x p l i c i t l y t r e a t e d Marxism n o t a s a s e t of
dogmas b u t a s what a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s would now c a l l a r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y ( H a r r i s
1979). H e a c c e p t e d t h a t ' t h e mode of production i n m a t e r i a l l i f e determines
t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and i n t e l l e c t u a l processes
of l i f e ' and t h a t ' i t i s n o t t h e consciousness of people which determines
t h e i r ' e x i s t e n c e ; i t i s on t h e c o n t r a r y t h e i r s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e which d e t e r mines t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' (Man and Engels 1962, I : 3 6 2 - 3 ) .
Yet h i s a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s s t r a t e g y l e f t much scope f o r an i n d u c t i v e approach t o t h e
s t u d y of t h e p a s t . Unlike old-fashioned u n i l i n e a r e v o l u t i o n i s t s , v u l g a r
M a r x i s t s , and many n e o - e v o l u t i o n i s t s , h e d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t a small number
of t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s can e x p l a i n most of t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e archaeol o g i c a l r e c o r d ( C h i l d e 1947, 1979). He a l s o i n s i s t e d t h a t i t was necessary
t o u s e s p e c i f i c a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a t o t e s t and develop Marxist f o r m u l a t i o n s
r a t h e r t h a n assume t h e y a r e c o r r e c t and impose them on t h e f a c t s (Childe
1951:29).
Because h e r e c o g n i s e d t h e complexity and i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s of
s o c i e t a l d a t a , h e d i d n o t s e e k t o e q u a t e e x p l a n a t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n i n t h e
s o c i a l s c i e n c e s a s American a r c h a e o l o g i s t s were l a t e r t o do. While t h e
S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t Alexander Mongait, i n h i s c e l e b r a t e d declamation on
'The Crisis i n Bourgeois Archaeology', p r a i s e d Childe f o r r e c o g n i s i n g ' t h a t
s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h i s i n t h e s o c i a l i s t camp', h e d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o add t h a t
C h i l d e had n o t succeeded ' i n overcoming many of t h e e r r o r s of bourgeois
s c i e n c e ' ( t r a n s l a t e d i n M i l l e r 1956:15l). While Childe knew t h a t f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s contemporary S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s could not o r would n o t
i d e n t i f y h i s l a t e r t h e o r e t i c a l works a s Marxist, h e expressed t h e hope t h a t
' o l d Marx might have' ( l e t t e r of Childe t o A. Gordon 20.11.1956).
Today
S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n c r e a s i n g l y r e c o g n i s e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of h i s l a t e r
c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e Marxist t r a d i t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s , while
Western a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who a r e f a m i l i a r with Marxism i d e n t i f y him a s being
one of t h e f i r s t l i b e r a l M a r x i s t s c h o l a r s of Western Europe. I n h i s f i n a l
y e a r s h e was n o t merely a consumer of Marxist concepts but a c r e a t i v e Marxist
t h i n k e r advancing an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between
human b e i n g s and t h e i r t o t a l environment (Lindsay 1 9 8 1 : ~ ) .
I n Society and KnotlZedge (1956) Childe equated t h e Marxist concept of
t r u e c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h a n o b j e c t i v e t e c h n o l o g i c a l understanding t h a t allows
p e o p l e t o t r a n s f o r m t h e i r environment i n a p r e d i c t a b l e f a s h i o n and f a l s e
c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h t h e myths and b e l i e f s t h a t r a t i o n a l i s e and deny t h e
t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n c a p a c i t i e s of human groups and d i s g u i s e c l a s s i n t e r e s t s a s
some form of a l t r u i s m . He argued t h a t while f a l s e consciousness p e r i s h e s
w i t h t h e t y p e of s o c i e t y t h a t produced i t , t r u e consciousness becomes t h e
b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r human p r o g r e s s . Because i t i s based on an understanding
of p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l r e g u l a r i t i e s , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s can understand t r u e
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , however f a r removed t h e mode of production of t h e i r own
s o c i e t y i s from t h a t of t h e one they a r e studying. A r c h a e o l o g i s t s can
t h e r e f o r e a s p i r e t o s t u d y t h e h i s t o r y of technology, which i s i n e f f e c t a
c h r o n i c l e of t h e triumph of t r u e over f a l s e consciousness.
I n h i s l a s t book, l?ze Prehistory of European Society (1958a), Childe
i d e n t i f i e d s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n a s t h e p r i n c i p a l a s p e c t of human behaviour
t h a t was c a p a b l e of o r d e r l y c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n and t h e understanding
of which was a c r u c i a l o b j e c t i v e of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d y . He observed t h a t
v a r i a t i o n i n s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n was f a r more l i m i t e d than v a r i a t i o n i n
c u l t u r a l t r a i t s and argued t h a t t h e l a t t e r a c q u i r e t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n terms of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e s o c i a l system. The main
p r a c t i c a l problem t h a t C h i l d e was c o n f r o n t i n g was how a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence
c o u l d b e used more e f f e c t i v e l y t o r e c o n s t r u c t p r e h i s t o r i c s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
systems. T h i s problem t r o u b l e d him much more t h a n i t d i d S o v i e t archaeol o g i s t s of t h e 1950s s i n c e h e b e l i e v e d t h a t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a must provide
a n independent t e s t of Marxist t h e o r i e s . Hence independent means had t o b e
found f o r i n f e r r i n g s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n from a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a .
H e was n o t , however, o p t i m i s t i c about how much could b e accomplished
along t h e s e l i n e s (1958a:12-14).
Constrained by t h e t y p o l o g i c a l method
t h a t h e had used a l l h i s l i f e , h e d i d n o t seem t o r e a l i s e t h e importance of
settlement p a t t e r n s o r funerary data f o r i n f e r r i n g s o c i a l organisation.
Y e t i n t h e p a s t h e had made important c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
both s o r t s of evidence ( C h i l d e 1931, 1942b, 1945a). Moreover, i n a r e v i e w
of Prehistoric .&rope h e had chided Grahame C l a r k f o r n o t going beyond
d e s c r i p t i o n s of house t y p e s and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s t o s p e c u l a t e about s o c i a l
o r g a n i s a t i o n and r e l a t i o n s of production ( C h i l d e 1952b).
F a r from r e j e c t i n g Marxism a s a b a s i s f o r a n a l y s i n g a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a ,
i n t h e l a s t two decades of h i s l i f e C h i l d e had i n i t i a t e d a h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e
d i a l o g u e between Marxist t h e o r i e s and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f a c t s . T h i s o p e r a t i o n
made a Marxist approach more v i t a l than even f o r h i s work. Yet, i n h i s f i n a l
y e a r s , h e f e a r e d t h a t h i s h e a l t h g e n e r a l l y and i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s memory and
h i s c a p a c i t y t o i n n o v a t e were f a i l i n g . H e was a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e d
new k i n d s of d a t a and new t e c h n i q u e s of a n a l y s i s t o answer b u t h e was u n a b l e
t o t r a n s c e n d t h e t y p o l o g i c a l method and e x t r a c t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . H i s new t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e a l s o caused him t o
doubt t h a t many of h i s f a v o u r i t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of European p r e h i s t o r y were
c o r r e c t (Childe 1958b:74).
Yet h e d i d n o t f i n d himself producing s i g n i f i c a n t
r e v i s i o n s of t h a t p r e h i s t o r y . The f a u l t d i d n o t s e e m t o him t o l i e i n h i s
Marxist approach, which was r a i s i n g important new q u e s t i o n s , b u t i n h i s own
ageing, which h e b e l i e v e d precluded f u r t h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o d u c t i v i t y .
Gathercole (1982) and o t h e r s (Lindsay 1981:xvii; Green 1981:121) have
suggested t h a t C h i l d e was h i t h a r d by N i k i t a Khrushchev's r e v e l a t i o n of
S t a l i n ' s crimes and t h e S o v i e t i n v a s i o n of Hungary and t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g
d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t may have been a f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o h i s s u i c i d e . T h i s
is i n keeping w i t h what G a t h e r c o l e h a s argued was t h e p a s s i o n a t e n a t u r e of
h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l and p o l i t i c a l commitment t o Marxism. Yet t h e r e i s sound
evidence t h a t h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h p o l i t i c a l movements had begun f a r
e a r l i e r a s a r e s u l t of h i s involvement w i t h Labour p o l i t i c s i n A u s t r a l i a .
He had a l s o long been aware t h a t t h e S o v i e t Union was governed by a t o t a l i t a r i a n regime t h a t r e q u i r e d even a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h e r s t o t r e a d w a r i l y .
Yet h i s v i s i t t h e r e i n 1945 had a l s o convinced him t h a t t h e r e was a modest
but h o p e f u l i n c r e a s e i n freedom t o do r e s e a r c h i n t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ( l e t t e r
of C h i l d e t o Braidwood 1.8.1945).
There i s a l s o c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t h e
viewed t h e Soviet i n t e r v e n t i o n i n Hungary a s e q u a l l e d i n f o l l y by t h e B r i t i s h
government's behaviour d u r i n g t h e Suez c r i s i s ( l e t t e r of C h i l d e t o A. Gordon
20.11.1956).
Far from b e i n g d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h M a r x i s m a s an a n a l y t i c a l
t o o l , i n h i s l a t e r y e a r s Childe had been e n r i c h i n g h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t
and r e a l i s i n g i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . He had shown h i s
c a p a c i t y t o be a n o b j e c t i v e and i n many r e s p e c t s a detached s c h o l a r i n t h e
e a r l y s t a g e s of h i s c a r e e r when h e pursued h i s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s independently o f , and perhaps a s a r e f u g e from, d i s i l l u s i o n i n g p o l i t i c a l
e x p e r i e n c e s . H i s a c c e p t a n c e of t h e Marxist p r i n c i p l e of t h e u n i t y of p r a x i s
and t h e o r y (Childe 1956) d i d n o t l e a d him t o conclude t h a t t h e shortcomings
of t h e S t a l i n regime were proof of t h e e r r o n e o u s n e s s of Marxism.
CONCLUS ION
There i s s t r o n g evidence t h a t C h i l d e ' s f i r s t s t e p s towards a c q u i r i n g
a s y s t e m a t i c understanding of Marxism and a p p l y i n g i t t o h i s work were t a k e n
a s a r e s u l t of h i s exposure t o S o v i e t archaeology i n 1935 and h i s renewed
study of Soviet p u b l i c a t i o n s i n t h e e a r l y 1940s. I n t h e l a t e 1930s, h e
became a sympathetic b u t p e r c e p t i v e c r i t i c of S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g y , a c c e p t i n g
only what h i s long e x p e r i e n c e a s a p r e h i s t o r i a n l e d him t o f i n d sound and
u s e f u l . H i s r e f u s a l t o employ f i r r i s t i d e a s and h i s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h
f a c t o r s impeding human p r o g r e s s b e a r w i t n e s s t o h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e
and h i s r e f u s a l t o b e c o n s t r a i n e d by p a r t y d i s c i p l i n e . He c l e a r l y saw
h i m s e l f a s t h e h e i r of Europe c r a f t s m e n and s c h o l a r s whom h e b e l i e v e d had
p r e s e r v e d t h e i r freedom of movement i n a s u p r a - n a t i o n a l economy from t h e
Bronze Age t o t h e p r e s e n t (1958a:172-3).
He s t r o n g l y advocated t h e r i g h t
of s c h o l a r s t o exchange i d e a s by means of p u b l i c a t i o n s , correspondence and
v i s i t s , and p u b l i c l y condemned e f f o r t s by Western governments t o curb such
a c t i v i t i e s . H e a l s o e x p r e s s e d h i s a d m i r a t i o n f o r S o v i e t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who,
u n d e r s e v e r e c o n s t r a i n t s , d i s p l a y e d i n t e l l e c t u a l courage ( l e t t e r of Childe
t o Braidwood 1.8.1945).
He was a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h Mamism a s a n a n a l y t i c a l
t o o l from M a m i s m a s a p o l i t i c a l movement o r a s i t was e x e m p l i f i e d i n S o v i e t
s o c i e t y . A t t h e end o f h i s l i f e h e was d e f e a t e d n o t by h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t
w i t h M a m i s m a s a r e s e a r c h s t r a t e g y b u t by what h e saw a s h i s own i n a b i l i t y
t o d e v e l o p new a n a l y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s t h a t would p e r m i t him t o c a r r y h i s
M a r x i s t a n a l y s i s of p r e h i s t o r y forward. He was a l s o a s s a i l e d by t h e f e a r
t h a t h i s c r e a t i v e l i f e was o v e r and by a growing h o r r o r of l o n e l i n e s s ,
h e l p l e s s n e s s , and s e n i l i t y . Yet, a s h i s work h a s been t a k e n up by a younger
g e n e r a t i o n of a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a f t e r two decades of r e l a t i v e n e g l e c t , i t h a s
become c l e a r t h a t t h e g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s h e f o r g e d i n t h e 1950s c o n s t i t u t e d
a s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h i n t h e 1970s and 1980s.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h i s p a p e r i s b a s e d on t a l k s on Gordon C h i l d e and S o v i e t archaeology
g i v e n i n May 1983 a t t h e A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y , a s a g u e s t of t h e
Department of P r e h i s t o r y , Research School of P a c i f i c S t u d i e s , and t h e
Department of P r e h i s t o r y and Anthropology, The F a c u l t i e s , and a t La Trobe
I wish t o thank
U n i v e r s i t y a s a g u e s t of t h e D i v i s i o n of P r e h i s t o r y .
P r o f e s s o r N i g e l Oram and M r s Oram f o r t h e i r h o s p i t a l i t y w h i l e I was i n
Melbourne. My v i s i t t o A u s t r a l i a was a s a g u e s t of t h e A u s t r a l i a n Academy
I was a l s o a t t h a t time t h e r e c i p i e n t of s a b b a t i c a l
of t h e Humanities.
l e a v e from McGill U n i v e r s i t y and a Leave Fellowship of t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s
and Humanities R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l of Canada.
REFERENCES
A l l e n , J . 1981 P e r s p e c t i v e s of a s e n t i m e n t a l journey: V. Gordon C h i l d e
Austmlian Archaeology 12: 1-1 1
i n A u s t r a l i a 1917-1921.
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Department of Anthropology
McGill University
Montreal