FINAL REPORT
SPHAGNUM BOG LITERATURE REVIEW FOR THE BAKER
RIVER RELICENSING PROJECT
FERC PROJECT NO. 2150
Prepared by:
René Martin
19997 Hwy 9
Mount Vernon, WA 98274
Phone: (360) 422-6510
e-mail: [email protected]
Prepared for:
Puget Sound Energy
Baker River Project Relicense
Wildlife and Terrestrial Resources Working Group
August 24, 2003
Unpublished Work © 2003, Puget Sound Energy, Inc.
Sphagnum Bog Literature Review for the Baker River Relicensing Project; Final Report 8/24/03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................................ 1
DISTRIBUTION .......................................................................................................................................................... 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPHAGNUM BOGS IN WASHINGTON .................................................................... 4
FORMATION OF PEATLANDS............................................................................................................................... 5
ASSESSMENT OF PEATLANDS.............................................................................................................................. 6
CHEMISTRY ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
VEGETATION .............................................................................................................................................................. 8
Herb-dominated community types.................................................................................................................... 9
Carex cusickii/Sphagnum spp. ...........................................................................................................................................9
Carix sitchensis/ Sphagnum spp. ........................................................................................................................................9
Eriophorum chamissionis/ Sphagnum spp..........................................................................................................................9
Rhynchospora alba/ Sphagnum spp..................................................................................................................................10
Shrub-dominated community types................................................................................................................ 10
Kalmia occidentalis-Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp............................................................................................10
Kalmia occidentalis/ Sphagnum spp. variant....................................................................................................................10
Kalmia occidentalis-Ledum groenlandicum/ Xerophyllum tenax/ Sphagnum spp. variant...............................................10
Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp. variant................................................................................................................11
Ledum groenlandicum-Gaultheria shallon / Sphagnum spp. variant................................................................................11
Ledum groenlandicum-Carex rostrata / Sphagnum spp. variant ......................................................................................11
Spiraea douglasii/ Sphagnum spp.....................................................................................................................................12
Tree-dominated community types................................................................................................................... 12
Pinus contorta/ Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp....................................................................................................12
Pinus monticola/ Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp.................................................................................................12
Tsuga heterophylla/ Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp............................................................................................12
Tsuga heterophylla/ Sphagnum spp..................................................................................................................................13
WATER SOURCE ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
STUDIES CONDUCTED IN THE BAKER RIVER WATERSHED ................................................................... 14
POSSIBLE NEXT STEPS ............................................................................................................................................. 15
LITERATURE CITED.............................................................................................................................................. 17
LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................................................... 18
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Distinctions between bogs and fens from the literature. ................................................................................ 7
Table 2. Polygon locations and mapping information on Sphagnum spp. records obtained from the T2/T5 and T16
studies. ...................................................................................................................................................... 14
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INTRODUCTION
Peatlands are wetlands typified by the accumulation of dead plant matter, peat, caused by slow
decomposition. Peatlands occur when the production rate of organic matter exceeds the
decomposition rate (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000) and are characterized by deep accumulation of
organic matter (>30 cm; 12 in; Crum 1992). The slow rate of decomposition is usually due to a
combination of acidity, water-logging, and anoxic conditions (Glaser 1987, Crum 1988), with
slow decomposition rates maintained by cold weather conditions. Peatlands are typically found
in areas with relatively short growing seasons and the dominant plant found in bogs is Sphagnum
moss (Cronk and Fennessy 2001). Nevertheless, in western Washington, Oregon, and
California, peatlands are common in areas with year-round growing seasons (Bob Zeigler,
Wetland Biologist, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, personal communication).
In the literature, peatlands are typically divided into two categories: fens and bogs. These two
terms describe the peatland based on a continuum of factors that include vegetation (Sphagnum
vs. shrub dominated), chemistry (acidic vs. circumneutral), and source of water (rainfall vs.
groundwater) (Dennison and Berry 1993, Mitsch and Gosselink 2000, Kulzer et al 2001). Fens
tend to be higher in pH than bogs (from 4.0 in extremely poor fens to 8.0 in extremely rich fens;
Crum 1988), and are fed by groundwater that tends to carry minerals. Fens are often relatively
high in calcium concentration, and may be considered minerotrophic (nourished by mineral-rich
waters) due to their water source. In contrast, bogs mainly receive rainwater, termed
ombrotrophic (literally rain-fed) or ombrogenous, and tend to be nutrient and mineral poor, with
a low pH (< 4.0; Crum 1988) (Cronk and Fennessy 2001).
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Because they are higher in nutrients, fens are often dominated by sedges (Cronk and Fennessy
2001). Categorized by pH, there are typically three main classes of fens: intermediate fen (pH
5.2 to 6.4); transitional rich fen (pH 5.8 to 7.0) and extremely rich fen (pH 7.0 to 8.4) (Sjors
1950). While pH and species composition are often used to categorize a wetland as a bog or a
fen, there exists ambiguities in definitions, leading Bridgham et al. (1996) to suggest that the
term peatland be used to describe any wetland that falls into the category of fen and/or bog. For
the purposes of this study, two classifications will be used to categorize fens/bogs based on
guidelines set out by the Washington State Department of Natural Resources: Sphagnum Bogs
and Minerotrophic. Sphagnum Bogs are defined similarly to that described above: low pH,
rainwater fed, and dominated by Sphagnum spp. and/or Sphagnum peat soils. Minerotrophic
wetlands are similar to what is described above as transitional and extremely rich fen: pH
generally above 5.5, fed by water in contact with mineral soils, very little Sphagnum, and may
include either organic or mineral soils (Kunze 1994). The primary focus of this report will be on
Sphagnum Bogs.
DISTRIBUTION
Peatlands are found throughout the world in areas with cold climates and high humidity, mainly
in the northern hemisphere (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). One third of the world’s peatlands are
found in Canada (Cronk and Fennessy 2001). The United States ranks third in the world for
peatland resources (Vitt 1994), with the majority of peatlands found in northern states, primarily
Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan (Glaser 1987), and Maine (Damman and French 1987).
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However, some are found in the south at higher elevations, such as in the Appalachian Mountains
of Virginia, Maryland, and West Virginia (Cronk and Fennessy 2001).
Washington is ranked as being the 21st of all 50 states in peatland resources (Malterer 1996).
Kulzer et al. (2001) identified 250 Sphagnum Bogs in low-elevation areas of western Washington
(areas less than 600 m or 2,000 ft above sea level). The Baker Lake reservoir falls into the area
described by Kulzer et al. as the Puget Sound physiographic province, and by Kunze (1994) as
the Northern Puget Trough Region. This region contains the majority (71%) of the total
peatlands identified in western Washington. It has a climate that supports peatland development
with a fairly high average annual precipitation (1096 mm; 43.14 in.), and fairly low average
annual temperature (10.6 °C; 51.1 °F – based on 1961-1990 averages) (Kulzer et al. 2001).
Peatlands in the Puget Sound region are mainly found in depressional ecosystems, where the
landscape is slightly depressed on lowland flats, irregular plateaus, or on benches along hillsides.
Peatlands are also commonly found in lacustrine areas, mainly associated with glacial lakes,
accounting for about 20% of the total peatland area found in this region (Kulzer et al. 2001). In
western Washington, sloping bogs, or bogs occurring in areas of high rainfall on appreciably
sloping land surfaces, exist. Sloping bogs are commonly found along the Hoh River system on
the Washington coast (Bob Zeigler, Wetland Biologist, Washington Department of Fish and
Wildlife, personal communication).
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CHARACTERISTICS OF SPHAGNUM BOGS IN WASHINGTON
Rigg (1958) estimated that the average time of the beginning of sedimentary peat accumulation
occurred in western Washington around 12,000 years ago. He found that the accumulation of
peat in this area averages at 0.62 mm (0.02 in.) per year; however, accumulation rates may not be
constant, and depend on climate and water table levels among other things.
The two main peat types that underlie Sphagnum-dominated peatlands in the Puget Sound region
are Sphagnum peat and sedge and grass muck, each being found in about 35% of the total
underlying peat materials in the region (Kulzer et al. 2001). In muck soils, organic remains are
decomposed to the point where identification is impossible, and are typified by inundation and
drying, allowing oxygen to enter the soil profile and increased decomposition (Bob Zeigler,
Wetland Biologist, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, personal communication). In
peat soils, plant parts can still be identified, as decomposition rates are often lower than in muck
soils. The other peat types found in the region, by abundance, are sedge and grass peat, mineral
peat (contains organic materials with a large amount of mineral materials in the mix), and
sedimentary peat (formed from remains of microscopic plants or sedimentary materials).
Ericaceous shrubs that are commonly only found in peatland habitats in western Washington
include Kalmia microphylla, Ledum groenlandicum, and Vaccinium oxycoccous (Kulzer et al.
2001).
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FORMATION OF PEATLANDS
Peatlands in boreal and northern regions typically form from paludification, the development of
bogs on terrestrial areas due to water-logging in the absence of a constant water supply (Crum
1988). However, in western Washington, the most common development of peatlands occurs in
association with lakes (Kulzer et al. 2001). This lake-fill development occurs initially through
the development of fens, or open (i.e. little or no canopy cover), sedge containing areas that are
rich in minerals and high in productivity. At this time, pH is buffered by high concentrations of
calcium bicarbonate, and high concentrations of oxygen are also typical. Eventually, waterlogging decreases the amount of oxygen in the peatland and rates of decomposition slow, creating
a build-up of anaerobic peat. This causes a transition from a sedgy, wet fen, to a wet Sphagnum
lawn, through to a higher, drier, acidic area dominated by Sphagnum.
The acid nature of Sphagnum Bogs is a result of several processes, the main one being cation
exchange by Sphagnum (Crum 1988, Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). During this process,
Sphagnum binds with free cations (e.g. Na+, Mg++, Ca++, K+) in the water and exchanges them for
hydrogen ions, thus increasing the acidity of the surrounding water (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000,
Kulzer et al. 2001). In increasing the acidity of the wetland, Sphagnum is able to eliminate
competition from other plants that can not tolerate low pH levels. As these plants die off,
Sphagnum will grow over the dead organic matter, further building up the underlying peat layer
(Kulzer et al. 2001).
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ASSESSMENT OF PEATLANDS
Peatlands are often differentiated along the bog-to-fen continuum based on three main variables:
chemistry, vegetation, and source of water. Table 1 illustrates the varying definitions of bog and
fen from the literature, mainly based on pH levels. Very little agreement exists in the literature
on what criteria to use in determining where a particular peatland falls along this continuum;
however, summarized below are the main factors used to determine peatland classification,
particularly as they relate to the Puget Sound region.
Chemistry
In general, pH is often used as the main chemical measure used to distinguish peatlands. On
average, historic pH ranges for bogs are 3.4 – 4.9, and for poor fens are 4.0 – 6.7, with
Sphagnum-dominated peatlands typically having a pH well below 5. Four bogs sampled in King
County, Washington had mat pH values of 4.2, 4.6, 4.17, and 4.66 (Kulzer et al. 2001). Other
studies have measured additional parameters in distinguishing peatlands, such as cation
concentration (specifically Ca++), and alkalinity (e.g. Sjors 1950), where increased cation
concentrations and alkalinity represent richer fens. However, these measurements may be
misleading, as high calcium (Ca++) concentrations have been found in areas classified as bogs,
and alkalinity may vary based on vegetation composition only. Phosphorus may also be a
limiting nutrient and indicative of bogs; however, this varies between areas as well (Bridgham et
al. 1996).
While there exists confusion in the literature on how to define a peatland, there is general
agreement on what chemical parameters should be measured in the field in order to assess the
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status of a peatland. These include: pH, alkalinity (mg CaCO3/L), acidity (mg CaCO3/L),
hardness (mg/L), conductivity (uS/cm), calcium (mg/L), magnesium (mg/L), potassium (mg/L),
sodium (mg/L), sulfate (mg/L), chlorine (mg/L), dissolved oxygen (DO) (mg/L), turbidity
(NTU), total phosphorous (TP) (mg/L), soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) (mg/L), nitrate (NO3)
(mg/L), nitrogen dioxide and nitrate (NO2+NO3) (mg/L), and ammonia (NH3) (mg/L) (Kulzer et
al. 2001).
Table 1. Distinctions between bogs and fens from the literature. Distinctions are mainly based
on pH; however, see Sjors (1950). Table modified from Kultzer et al. 2001.
Author
← More Acidic
Less Acidic →
Mitch and
Bog: Sphagnum dominated
Fen: sedge and grass dominated
Gosselink
(2000)
Vitt (1994), Bog: Sphagnum
Poor fen: Sphagnum
Moderate
Extreme
Halsey et
dominated
dominated pH 4-5.5
rich fen pH
rich fen pH
al. (1997)
pH < 4
5.5-7
7-8.5
Gignac and
Sphagnum dominated (bogs and poor fens)
Rich fens
Vitt (1990)
Moor and
Ombotrophic
Mesotrophic mires
Rheotrophic mires
Bellamy
mires
(1974)
Malmer
Bog pH < 4.2
Poor fen
Rich fen pH > 5.5
(1986)
Sjors
Moss
Extreme
TransInterTransExtreme
(1950);
pH 3.7-4.2
poor fen
itional
mediate
itional rich rich fens
definitions
pH 3.8-5.0
poor fen
fen
fens
pH 7.0 –
based on
pH 4.8-5.7 pH 5.2-6.4
pH 5.8 8.4
community
>7.0
composition
and pH
Kulzer et al. suggest some general considerations for water chemistry sampling, including
sampling from particular types of peatland water such as:
1)
water from within mat where living Sphagnum is the substrate;
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2)
water from natural depression pools within the mat that have muck as a substrate (i.e.
no living Sphagnum);
3)
water from a deep central pool surrounded by living Sphagnum;
4)
water from an artificial depression found within a living Sphagnum mat;
5)
water from a piezometer inserted at a depth of 0.3-0.6 m (1-2 ft) in the Sphagnum mat,
and;
6)
pore water squeezed from living Sphagnum.
They also suggest that when monitoring the health of a peatland, fungal and bacterial assays
should be performed as an early indicator of changes in the chemical environment of acid waters.
Vegetation
Kunze (1994) describes the vegetation communities associated with low elevation Sphagnum
bogs found in the Puget Sound Region, with four herb-dominated community types, two shrubdominated community types, and four tree-dominated community types. These are summarized
below. Numbers in parentheses indicate average percent cover or a range of cover values.
In general, herb-dominated community types are likely to occur early in the seral stages of
peatland succession. They are often wetter (e.g. seasonally flooded and saturated), more nutrientrich, and higher in pH than other community types. Shrub-dominated community types typically
occur later in the seral stage of peatland succession. They may also be fairly wet and higher in
pH and nutrients than peatlands found further along in succession. Forested community types are
often considered to occur later in the successional stage of peatlands, and may represent a climax
system (Kulzer et al. 2001).
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Herb-dominated community types
Carex cusickii/Sphagnum spp.
This community is common in the region, and forms a narrow band along the edge of Sphagnum
mats next to open water, or occasionally as a large floating mat over a pond or lake surface. The
substrate is mostly Sphagnum and fibrous peat. This community is considered to be a likely
ecotone between Sphagnum Bogs and Minerotrophic wetlands. Indicator species of this
community include: Agrostis scabra (1-5%), Carex cusickii (25-25%), Menyanthes trifoliata (010%), Potentialla palustris (2-20%), and Sphagnum spp (100%).
Carix sitchensis/ Sphagnum spp.
This community type occupies small areas of the region. It typically is found on firm substrates,
or quaking mats (mats in which the peat layer and plant cover is only partially attached to the
basin bottom or is floating like a raft; Mitsch and Gosselink 2000) next to open water. It is
perpetually wet and may experience seasonal flooding. Substrates tend to be a mixture of fibrous
(peat composed of the remains of herbaceous plants, mostly sedges) and Sphagnum peat.
Indicator species include: Carex sitchensis (30-70%), Carex cusickii (15-20%), Potentilla
palustris (5-30%), and Sphagnum spp. (100%).
Eriophorum chamissionis/ Sphagnum spp.
This is an uncommon community type in the region, occurring on thin layers of floating
Sphagnum. Indicator species are Eriophorum chamissionis (30%) and Sphagnum spp. (100%).
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Rhynchospora alba/ Sphagnum spp.
This is a common community type found in a wide band along margins of quaking Sphagnum
mats, near open water or inland of the Carex cusickii community type. Soils of this community
are saturated year-round. Indicator species include: Cladina rangiferina (1-5%), Drosera
rotundifolia (5-15%), Kalmia occidentalis (1-10%), Rhynchospora alba (15-60%), Sphagnum
spp. (5-100%), and Vaccinium oxycoccos (1-35%).
Shrub-dominated community types
Kalmia occidentalis-Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp.
This is a very common community type in the region, found mostly on moderately quaking to
firm mats. The tops of hummocks are often dry, with wet inter-hummock areas. Substrates are a
mix of Sphagnum, fibrous, and heath (peat composed mainly from the remains of shrubs) peat.
Soils may be saturated year-round or seasonally relatively dry. Several variants of this
community type exist, and they are outlined below.
Kalmia occidentalis/ Sphagnum spp. variant
This variant may cover large areas or form a mosaic with the Ledum groenlandicum/Sphagnum
spp. variant. It is wetter than the next three variants, and drier than the final variant listed in this
series. Substrates may include firm, relatively dry peat or saturated portions of quaking mats.
Indicator species include: Drosera rotundifolia (1-5%), Kalmia occidentalis (25-45%), Ledum
groenlandicum (1-25%), Sphagnum spp. (80-100%), and Vaccinium oxycoccos (2-25%).
Kalmia occidentalis-Ledum groenlandicum/ Xerophyllum tenax/ Sphagnum spp. variant
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This is a dry variant occurring in the southwestern portion of the region. It is seasonally saturated
or flooded. Substrates include a mix of heath, fibrous, and Sphagnum peat. Indicator species are
Gaultheria shallon (5-10%), Kalmia occidentalis (50-60%), Ledum groenlandicum (15-50%),
Pteridium aquilinum (2-7%), Sphagnum spp. (2-3%), and Xerophyllum tenax (35-40%).
Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp. variant
This variant forms a dense, tall shrub zone around upland margins of some bogs, or adjacent to
forested bog communities. It is less common than the first two variants described, and is
typically found in areas with high canopy cover. Indicator species include: Gaultheria shallon
(1-50%), Ledum groenlandicum (50-90%), and Sphagnum spp. (0-90%).
Ledum groenlandicum-Gaultheria shallon / Sphagnum spp. variant
This variant may cover large areas, and is often the main bog vegetation at a site. It typically
occurs on firm peat which may be saturated or seasonally dry. Indicator species are Gaultheria
shallon (1-50%), Kalmia occidentalis (0-10%), Ledum groenlandicum (50-90%), and Sphagnum
spp. (20-90%).
Ledum groenlandicum-Carex rostrata / Sphagnum spp. variant
This variant occurs in wet pockets, and is often in the transition zone between Sphagnum bogs
and minerotrophic wetlands. It is saturated or permanently flooded. Includes Carex rostrata (1030%), Kalmia occidentalis (1-15%), Ledum groenlandicum (5-90%), and Sphagnum spp. (0100%).
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Spiraea douglasii/ Sphagnum spp.
This community type is mainly found in the southwestern portion of the region. It occurs in
shallow glacial scours or kettles with small drainage basins. This community is likely ecotonal
between Sphagnum Bogs and Minerotrophic peatlands. The main indicator species are
Sphagnum spp. (40-100%) and Spiraea douglasii (50-90%).
Tree-dominated community types
Pinus contorta/ Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp.
This community type is found scattered throughout the region. It is typically found in dry areas
that may experience some seasonal flooding. Substrates are a combination of Sphagnum, fibrous,
heath, and woody (peat composed of particles of partially decomposed wood) peat. Indicator
species include: Gaultheria shallon (2-20%), Ledum groenlandicum (30-75%), Pinus contorta
(20-50%), and Sphagnum spp. (50-90%).
Pinus monticola/ Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp.
This is a rare community type in the region, and is found mostly in the southern end. Indicator
species include: Ledum groenlandicum (50-80%), Pinus monticola (10-15%), Sphagnum spp.
(20-90%), and Spiraea douglasii (5-10%).
Tsuga heterophylla/ Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp.
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This is a common community type found throughout the region on saturated quaking mats or on
relatively dry sections of bogs. Indicators are: Gaultheria shallon (15%), Ledum groenlandicum
(30-60%), Sphagnum spp. (0-90%), and Tsuga heterophylla (15-20%).
Tsuga heterophylla/ Sphagnum spp.
This is a rare community type in the region, occurring on deep Sphagnum peat with a low water
table (30 cm/12 inches below surface). It has the same indicator species as the Tsuga
heterophylla/ Ledum groenlandicum/ Sphagnum spp. community type, however Tsuga
heterophylla is found in higher concentrations. Indictor species are Gaultheria shallon (2-5%),
Ledum groenlandicum (2-5%), Sphagnum spp. (1-2%), and Tsuga heterophylla (80-90%).
Water Source
The source of water is often used to separate the various types of peatlands, with the extreme end
influenced only by rainwater, and the other by mineral-rich groundwater. It is often quite
challenging to determine water source, and water chemistry may be a better indicator on which to
define peatlands (Kulzer et al. 2001).
Water movement may have the largest effect on peat accumulation, both through physical effects
and chemical ones. Water supply may bring in nutrients to the bog, affecting the vegetation
composition of the community. In addition, flooding or increased water levels may subject the
upper part of the peat layer to oxygen, which would increase anaerobic decomposition, and thus
deepen the peat layer. Conversely, lowering groundwater may result in a shift from anaerobic to
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aerobic decomposition processes, causing a shift from acidic conditions to ones more reflective
of rich fens or non-peat accumulating wetlands (Kulzer et al. 2001).
STUDIES CONDUCTED IN THE BAKER RIVER WATERSHED
Records of wetland locations containing Sphagnum spp. within the Baker River project area were
obtained from several studies including the vegetation mapping project (Study T2), wetland
inventory (Study T5) and the rare pant survey project (Study T16). These records may assist in
determining where bogs may be located in the project area. Table 2 describes these locations.
Table 2. Polygon locations and mapping information on Sphagnum spp. records obtained from
the T2/T5 and T16 studies. An asterisk in the percent cover column indicates that
Sphagnum was considered to be a dominant plant.
Study
T2/T5
T2/T5
T16
T16
T16
T16
T16
T16
T16
Polygon
740-02
735
746-02
761-03
761-02
740
734
703
746-01
Map No.
Ortho 67
Ortho 60, 65
Ortho 15
Ortho 15
Ortho 15
Ortho 15
Ortho 14, 16
Ortho 12
Ortho 15
Percent Cover
> 1%
2%
Unknown
*
*
*
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Records of wetland locations containing Sphagnum spp. within the Baker River watershed could
also be obtained from Grizzly bear spring forage study (Study T12). Field work on this project
has just been completed. Multiple wetlands were sampled where botanists observed floating
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mats of Sphagnum vegetation. These records are now being summarized and will be
incorporated into the final draft of this report.
The Washington Natural Heritage Program (WNHP) maintains a database of the locations of
endangered, threatened and sensitive plants and high-quality wetland ecosystems. This
information system is managed by the Washington Department of Natural Resources. The
WNHP does not currently assign a statewide status to the non-vascular taxa. Therefore, we could
not use the database to identify locations of rare species of Sphagnum that might indicate the
presence of a bog or fen. The WNHP does not maintain a comprehensive inventory of all
wetlands in the state and the database includes information only on those areas that have been
surveyed by program scientists and found to be relatively undisturbed high-quality wetlands. The
WNHP wetland information does not describe whether these wetlands may be a bog or fen.
Three mid-elevation freshwater wetlands were documented in or adjacent to the Baker River
watershed. All three wetlands were located approximately 4 to 5 miles west of Lake Shannon
near Washington Monument (T36N R08E S07 E2ofSE; T36N R08E S08 W2ofSW; T36N R08E
S18 NEofNE).
Possible Next Steps
In addition to information obtained in the T2, T5, T16 and T12 studies, possible locations of bogs
in the study area may be obtained from LANDSAT photos and soil maps available from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest.
LANDSAT photos of the Puget Sound region are taken every three years with each photo
covering 9 square miles of area (14.5 km). These are false color photos, consisting of three true
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Sphagnum Bog Literature Review for the Baker River Relicensing Project; Final Report 8/24/03
colors and one near infra-red. Each land characteristic (e.g. bogs, old-growth forest, lakes)
reflects a particular color signature that is consistent throughout the photo. To identify potential
bog locations in the Baker River project area, the photos could be examined and likely bog areas
identified. If the area identified on the photo is a bog, a key could be developed based on the
color signature of the bog on the photo. This key could then be used throughout the photo(s) to
identify additional bogs in the area. A topographic map can be overlaid on the photo to
determine the location of the bog(s) (R. Nichols, Geologist-Watershed Specialist, USDA Forest
Service, Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, personal communication).
To identify locations containing bogs that may be too small to identify using the false color
photos, or to confirm locations selected using the photos, soil inventory maps of the area may
also be used. These maps identify the physical properties of the soils in the area, and can provide
locations of areas that contain soils that are typical in bog locations (e.g. muck or peat soils).
These maps are available as a Geographic Information System (GIS) layer, making them a
relatively easy and efficient method of identifying possible bog locations that are not immediately
identifiable using photos (R. Nichols, Geologist-Watershed Specialist, USDA Forest Service,
Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, personal communication).
A general inventory of wetlands in the Baker River watershed is also available from the U.S.
Department of the Interior. The National Wetland Inventory (NWI) maps produced from this
effort could also be used to identify potential bog locations. Each wetland area is described by a
code on the map, with PML used to represent palustrine areas with moss and/or lichen. Specific
maps of the area can be obtained to identify these areas; however, a quick overview of the NWI
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Sphagnum Bog Literature Review for the Baker River Relicensing Project; Final Report 8/24/03
maps did not yield any potential bog locations (personal observation). Puget Sound Energy also
conducted a review of aerial photographs of the basin and mapped additional wetlands not
identified by the NWI effort (Study T-15). The T-15 map could also be used to identify potential
bog locations.
LITERATURE CITED
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Sphagnum Bog Literature Review for the Baker River Relicensing Project; Final Report 8/24/03
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Cox, D.D. 2002. A naturalist’s guide to wetland plants: an ecology for Eastern North America.
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Sphagnum Bog Literature Review for the Baker River Relicensing Project; Final Report 8/24/03
Pastor, J., B. Peckham, S. Bridgham, J. Weltzin, and J. Chen. 2002. Plant community dynamics,
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Unpublished Work © 2003, Puget Sound Energy, Inc.
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