Nationhood and the Nationalities in Pakistan Author(s): Hamza Alavi Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 24, No. 27 (Jul. 8, 1989), pp. 1527-1534 Published by: Economic and Political Weekly Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4395049 . Accessed: 31/05/2013 16:19 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . Economic and Political Weekly is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Economic and Political Weekly. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SPECIAL ARTICLES Nationhood and the Nationalities in Pakistan Hamza Alavi lWhereasin Europe nations were constituted into states, in post-colonial societies the problem is invertedstates have to be transformed into nations. This problem tends to be less acute where national liberation has been achieved through a long-drawn mass struggle, but the'movement for Pakistan had a trajectory which did not include such a process. Political debate and conflict in Pakistan have revolved around the question: what is the legitimate place of sub-national aspirations and demands within a larger concept of Pakistani nationhood? The wbrst contradictions of the politics of ethnicity have been concentrated and have taken violent forms in Sindh. MORE than four decades after the state of Pakistan was created.it is still a country in searchof an identity.That is not becausethe issue of our nationhoodhas not preoccupied our minds. To'thecontrary,it is one that wt have been obsessed with. Much blood has 'OFFICIAL NATIONALISM' Up to a point, it might be said that' Pakistan is not alone among third world countries in this predicament; among countries where state power lies in the hands of one dominant ethnic group, alienating the been spilt just on that ground. Political debate and conflict has revolvedaround the rest. In Europe, where sub-national groups have also come forward in recent times with question: What is the legitimate place of sub-national aspirations and demands demands for autonomy and national selfwithin a larger concept of Pakistani na- determination, the historical perspective tionhood. There is a tension and a dialec- nevertheless has been rather different. There, by and large, national unification movetical opposition between these two levels of political identity, which has never been ments preceded formation of nation states resolved, for those in power have tended to so that the resulting states embraced peoples look upon sub-national movements as a who, in the course of such movements, had developed a sense of common purpose and threat to 'the nation' and subversive of comnion identity that brought them together national unity. as nations. In post-colonial societies such In the eyes of the articulateleadershipof sub-national groups, the Pakistan 'nation' processes, that weld peoples together, have has been appropriated by Punjabis who tended to be rather tenuous. So it was, to dominate the ruling bureaucracyand the a degree, in the case of the Pakistan movemilitary that has effectively been in power ment. Whereas in Europe, nations were conin Pakistan since its inception; in partner- stituted into states, in post-colonial societies ship, they might say, until the mid-seventies the problem is inverted: to transforrh states with Muhajirs who were relatively well into nations. This problem tends to be less acute where representedin the Punjabi dominated state apparatus.Membersof the under-privileged national liberation has been achieved regionshavetendedto see themselvesas sub- through a long drawn mass struggle for inject peoples who have not been given their dependence and self-determination, which rightful place in the nation. In their eyes, has brought peoples together to constitute with a subtle inflection of meaning, the 'na- nations, in their march towards a common tion' is transmutedinto 'country'.They exist destiny. The Pakistan movement has had a within its boundaries and are subject to its trajectory that has not included such a pro-. laws and institutions. But the 'concept of *cess. In any case the whole issue becomes 'country' is not evocative like that of the more problematic where a single ethnic nation. It does not draw upon a deeply group finds itself in control of the state embeddedsense of identification;it does not apparatus, through its disproportionate have the same emotive and legitimising representation in the state bureaucracy and charge.It does not give 4uite the same sense the military, as in Pakistan. There ruling of belonging and commitment, as that of military bureaucratic oligarchies, having apthe nation. The peoples of Pakistanhavenot propriated state power, identify the state and yet fused into a single community.The story the nation narrowly with their own partiof the Bengalimovement,culminatingin the cular purposes and interests. liberation of Bangladesh, is a manifest exIf, in the circumstances, it were to be ample of this-Pakistan-has yet to become claimed that Pakistan is a unified nation that what Benedict Anderson speaks of as the would be tantamount to what Anderson imagined community which, as he puts it, speaks of as "official nationalism". a nais "conceived as a deep horizontal com- tional identity that is not spontaneously radeship"that cuts across boundaries and generated from below, but is imposect from social groups and penetrates with varying above by those at the heart of the power degreesof consciousness, a great variety of structure in the country, in reaction to social terrains LAnderson,1983: 161. powerful sub-national movements that evoke Economic and Political Weekly a far more powerfulpopular responsein all regions outside the Punjab. The rxation,in that context, is made into a propertyof the privileged groups. Repression of subnational movements by the ruling bureaucracyand military,in the name of 'national unity' in the circumstances,is self-defeating for that only deepens their sense of alienation; their sense of being a subject people. THE SALARIAT There is one class which has been central to this problem, both with regard to the Pakistan movement as well as regional nationalism within Pakistan after independence. This is a'section of the urban middle. class, those with educational qualifications and aspirations for jobs in the state apparatus, the civil bureaucracy and the military. I have called it the salariat [Alavi, 1987].This class has a particularsalience in colonised societies with a predominantly agrarianproductionbase wherethe colonial (and post-colonial) state apparatus has a dominating presence in the urban society and is the principal employer. Associated with the salariat are urban professionals, lawyers and doctors, as well as the intelligentsia,writers,poets, teachersand journalists, who share the life experiences and many of the aspirations of the 'salariat'.It is from amongst these that an articulate component of the political leadershipis also drawn. The Indian salariat, in its contemporary form, originated in the 19th century when the colonial regimemade changes in the administrative and the legal system that was now to be workedby those who had received an anglo-vernaculareducationratherthan a classical education in Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit. Those who acquiredthe requisite educational qualifications were recruited into the colonial state apparatus as clerks or bureaucrats.These 'westernisedoriental gentlemen' as they were contemptuously referredto by British civil servantsin India were to play a key role in shaping the style and direction of early Indian nationalist politics and they wereat the centre,throughout, of the Pakistan movement. The salariatis internallydifferentiated,for July 8, 1989 This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1527 speakers,were both patronised and looked down upon by the ruling Unionists of the Punjab and their leaders like Sir Fazli Hussain, founder of the Unionist Party. By contrast Bengali Muslims were much under-representedin salariat jobs, despite their relatively higher educational levels [Basu, 1974.. In Sindh the urbanpopulation before the partition was -overwhelmingly Hindu, as indeedwas the Sindhisalariat,the Amils. But Hindus were driven out of the country, following well organisedrioting in Karachi in January 1948, leaving a social vacuum which was filled by incoming Urdu speaking Muhajirrefugees from India. Sindhi Muslimswereoverwhelminglyruraland' the SindhiMuslim salariatelementwas very small at the time. Likewisethe Baluch ana INDIA AND PAKISTAN:THE DIFFERENCES Pathans were under-represented,although the latter were well established in the Lines of ethnic cleavages within the south military.The relativelywell educated Urdu Asian salariat are in large part a reflection speaking Muslims of northern India were of historical occupational specialisation in traditionallywell establishedin salariatposiIndia by communities, as well as by uneven tions and after the partitionthese Muhajirs regional extension of the process of the colshared control over state power as junior onial transformation of Indian society. partners of the dominant Punjabis. Given Some communities have traditionally been that source of patronage and support, associated with state employment. Under the Muhajirswerewith the Punjabisin supporseveral hundred years of Muslim rule, many ting the notion of an indivisiblePakistannaHindu communities nevertheless occupied tion. But their position was shatteredby the a key role in the state apparatus, such as the weakeningof bureaucraticpowerby Bhutto's Kayasthas and Kashmiri Brahmins in noradministrativereforms,and decisivelyso by thern India or Amils in Sindh. It was much the Zia regime that followed. Against that later that members of other. communal, occupational, groups begn to be drawn towards background Muhajirs abandoned their earlier position and declared themselves to salariat careers and it is not surprising be another disadvantaged ethnic grouptherefore that they found themselves greatly giving rise to a new movement,the Muhajir under-represented in' state employment. Qaumi Mahaz (MQM), the Muhajir NaThe factor that influenced an uneven tional Front. Ethnic politics in Sindh have regional development of the salariat in India followed an uneven course because at one was early proximity to or distance from the level the small and weak Sindhi speaking nodal points of colonial rule in India which salariat in that province has found itself in fanned out from its intitial bases in Calcutta, directcompetition at the local level with the Madras and Bombay and later Delhi. Those Urdu speaking Muhajirs while at the nacommunities that were established in these places had an edge over those who were tional level they both find common ground by virtue of Punjabi domination from the more distant and who had poorer access to centte. the new educational institutions and salariat While the salariat has been at the centre positions. This was affected too by the areas of concentration of missionary activity, a of ethnic politics in Pakistan, it does not channel through which the new education standalone in this. This appliesin particular was purveyed. to sons of landownersor rich peasants for As far as Pakistan is concerned an imporexample, who can afford to put their sons tant factor in the regional equation was the through higher education so that they may move into salariat positions which has not patronage bestowed by a grateful colonial been their traditional occupation. In such regime on Punjabis for their help to the colQnial regime in putting down the so-called cases we can say that thereis an organiclink 'Indian mutiny', the first Indian war of inthat ties the salariat with the classes from which they originate.Beyond directorganic dependence. Punjabis, whether Muslims, Sikhs or Hindus, were rewarded in many difbonds, by virtue of kinship, there are also ferent ways, including land grants in the other kindsof linkagesthat mobilisebroader sections of society behind salariat politics newly created canal colonies of the Punjab. But that included special attention to educathat.dominatesour political life. This is partion. This was availed of by urban Punjabis ticularly an effect of the pervasive role of who by virtue of being drawn into the governmentin our society and its personalissalariat followed the political leadership of ed character. Linkages that create possithe Muslim League rather than the Unionist bilitiesof personalaccess to the bureaucracy are much valued, sought after and cultiParty that Was in power in the Punjab, the party of landownersof the Punjab,a multi- vated. Personswho come withinwidersocial ethnicpaty that defendedlandlordinterests. networksthat potentiallyprovidesuch conUrban Punjabis, 'predominantly Urdu tacts and connections with actual and prothose in its upper echelons, senior bureaucrats and military officers, hold positions of power. Their position is qualitatively different from that of lower level functionaries. But they share a common goal in a struggle for access to the limited opportunities for state employment. In that struggle the salariat has a tendency to divide and align along ethnic lines in order to draw wider support and solidarity in their struggle for a greater share of the available jobs as well as the limited places in institutions of higher education, the source of credentials for future jobs. Students, aspiring occupants of salariat positions, are therefore aligned with the respective salariat groups and play an active role in salariat politics. 1528 spective members of the salariat, such as fellow villagers or even those who can invoke their shared ethnic identity, will tend to identify themselvesas such and give their backingto the ethnic politics of the salariat. They have a stake in their installation in public office and their promotionsto higher positionswithinthe bureaucracyfor theycan then hope to invoketheirmediationand help that would providefor them a point of fruitful access to the bureaucraticmachine. In the case of sub-nationalmovementsfor regionalautonomy,ambitiouspoliticiansare also drawninto the game of ethnic politics. Wherethey havelittle hope of gainingpower at the centre,an alternativeis to profit from possibilities of acquiring influential public office at a local or provinciallevel.They have a stake in the goal of greater provincial autonomy which would put greater power and more resourcesat their disposal. They resortto chauvinisticrhetoricas a powerful means of mobilisingsupportwhen they have little else to offer to the common people. On the other hand, one can see the logic of the politics of membersof privilegedand dominant ethnic groups who hold key positions in the bureaucracyand the military, and thereby are in control of state power, who feel threatenedby politics of ethnicity and denouncesuch politicalappealsas parochial' and particularistic.They invokeinstead appeals for loyaltyto largerentitiessuch as the 'Pakistan nation' or the 'brotherhood of Islam' in the name of which they try to delegitimise regional ethnic demands. They invoke an 'official nationalism'. Finally, in considering the reasons for Pakistan politics being overshadowed by politics of ethnicity we must consider our long historyof authoritariangovernmentby a bureaucraticand military oligarchy,seen to be predominantly Punjabi. There have been few opportunities, therefore, for the common people to participatein democratic processes. They feel alienated from the political system with no sense of participation in it. Pakistan and India provide contrasting cases of this. In India the plurality of salariat groups in the higher reaches of governmentand the absence of dominance by any single one of them has necessitated a political system through which those who are in positions of power in the state are obliged to operate a process of negotiation with different sections, groups and regions of Indian society, in a wide varietyof ways, in order to aggregateauthority in their exercise of state power. Such processes of negotiation operate both withih th? ruling Congress Party and between the Congress and regionally powerful political parties. There is therefore a wider degree of participation in the process of government. In Pakista:q,by contrast,thereis the dominance of a single salariat group, the Punjabis, in the military and the bureaucracyand the tenuous characterof democracyin the country, even when it has been allowed formally to exist. As a result there is an absence of Economic and Political Weekly July 8, 1989 This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions political negotiation under authoritarian that Muslims made up in quality what they rule, which has heightened the sense of lacked in overall numbers! Aligarh and alienation and exclusion of the under- Lucknow were the main political bases of privilegedregionalgroups, who are made to the Muslim salariat who hijacked the Muslim feel as outsiders in their own country. League as soon as it was founded [cf Alavi, SALARIAT-BASED NATIONALMOVEMENT The salariat was at the heart of early Indian nationalism whose main slogan was not yet independencebut rather'Indianisation' of governmentserviceand 'self-government' witlrinthe empire. Under conditions of colonial rule the salariats from different parts of India were, initially, united in that 'common goal. Yet even at this early stage ethniccompetitionwithinthe Indiansalariat was beginning to make its appearance.The movement of the Muslim salariat that ultimately culminated in the formation of Pakistan was -.only one of several such movements.Othersincluded the Scheduled Castes Federation, the Brahmin vs nonBrahminmovement in south India and the unsuccessful movement led by E V RamaswamyNaicker,the Periyar(greatsage) who gave a call for the formation of a separate state of Dravidisthan, a state of the nonBrahminpeople of south India. Naickersupportedthe Pakistanmovementand wasgiven a seat on the platform at the Madras session of the MuslimLeague.Naicker'sdream and also his failureto mobilisethe different, putativelyDravidian,people of south India behind his Tamil-led movement illustrates very well the character and the limits of politics of the salariat. This limitation is reflectedin the historyof the MuslimLeague too. It did verybadly in the electionsof 1937 and, ironically, it was at its weakest in Muslim majority provincesof India. It was by virtue of certain special circumstances that surfaced when independence was in sight, that broughtabout a swingin political alignments of powerful landlord groups in the Muslim majoriMyprovinces, that the Muslim League was able to muster forces that lay behind the creation of Pakistan. The heartof Muslim nationalismin India was in the UP and Bihar, Muslim minority provinces. Muslims there had held a lion's share of government jobs. But with thee switch to an Anglo-vernacular system of education and changes in the colonial administrativeand legal systems as well as the very rapid expansion in the size of the salariatin the latterhalf of the 19thcentury, parallel with the construction of a new colonial economy in India [cf Alavi, 1989], there was a relativelygreaterincreasein the non-Muslim component of the salariat. Muslims saw themselves losing their preeminence. Their share in the highest ranks of governmentservice declined f-rotn64 per cent in 1857 to about 35 per cent in 1913. This was a remarkabledecline in privilege, for Muslims were only about 13 per cent to 15 per cent of the total population of the UP inrthat period. Under the leadershipof Sir Syed Ahmad Khan they demanded a parityin quotasfor governmentjobs, arguiing Economic and Political Weekly Pakistanmovementweredefinedand unified by a religious ethnic criterion namely, 'Muslim'. Pakistan was not created, as is ideologically representedby some interests in Pakistantoday,to createan 'Islamic'state 1987]. Jinnah, a leader of the Indian National [cf Alavi, 1987]. The Pakistan Muslim League was held to be the champion of Congress, was invited to joint them in 1913. Muslim nationalism. But the social roots of It is component of the Muslin salariat that was later to come to Pakistan as Muhajirs. Muslim nationalism were quite shallow. It is quite remarkablethat the PakistanmoveIn the Punjab the Muslim salariat was also ment was at its weakestin Muslim majority quite sizeable, for about 32 per cent of those provinces.As has been pointed out political educated in English in the Punjab were power in the Punjab lay in the hands not of Muslims, rather less than their share of the the Punjabisalariatbut, rather,in the hands total population which was over 52 per cent of powerfullandownerswho wereorganised (Census 1931). The Punjabi Muslim salariat behind the right wing landlord party, the. joined that of the UP and Bihar in the Unionist Party,the partyof Hindu and Sikh Muslim national movement, declaring that as well as Muslim landownerswho despised they were under-represented by way of their the urban salariat groups even when they proper share of government jobs. These patronised them. relatively more advanced components of the Muslim salariat in India were the, main base In Sindh the pattern was virtually idenfor the Pakistan movement. It was a very tical exceptfor the fact that an ethnic Sindhi limited base. speaking Muslims salariat was virtually, non-existent. Muslim in Sindh were either The salariat based Indian national movelandlordsor peasants,the waderasand haris. ment was able to extend its base both by virSindhi urban society was overwhelmingly tue of getting the backing of the Indian naHindu, except for a certain numberof nontional bourgeoisie, anxious to get the colonial Sindhi Muslims who had migratedto cities regime off its back and also by virtue of of Sindh in the wake of colonial developpolitics of mass mobilisation inaugurated by ment. It is only in relativelyrecenttimes that Mahatma Gandhi which triggered off the acSindhi speaking Muslims, who were pretive support of the subordinate classes behind dominantly rural, have begun to come forthe movement for independence. That was ward to claim their share of salariat posinot the style of politics of the Muslim League tions. Muslimsof Baluchistanwerelikewise leadership. Mass mobilisation being absent backwardas also those of Sarhad,although in this case, the requisite political weight was secured only when a deal was made by Jinriah some sub-regional variations existed. In these regions the Muslim League was to be with landlord leadership of the Muslim at the mercyof landlordsand tribal leaders. majority provinces, especially in the Punjab and Sindh. That secured, nominally at least, The claim of Muslimnationalismin India the adoption of the Muslim League label by was that Indians were divided into two naright wing landlord dominated governments tions, the Hindu nation and the Muslim nathat were in power in those provinces and tion. The moment that Pakistan was estagave the Muslim League some kind of manblished Muslim nationalismhad fulfilled its date on the basis of which it was able to objective and had outlived its original pursecure the final result. But the Muslim pose. There were two interestingresponses League's dependence on landlords of Sindh to this new situation. FirstlyJinnah himself and Punjab for securing its goals and its inburiedthe two-nationtheoryin his inaugural ability to mobilise the Muslim masses was speechgivenon August 14, 1947to the newly to have far reaching consequences 'for the established constituent assembly of state of Pakistan. Pakistan.In that historicspeech he declared in the clearest possible terms his commitPolitics of ethnicity, based on the proment to the idea of secular citizenship in blems and aspirations of different salariat Pakistan. From the principal forum of the groups, have developed differently in India new state he declared: and Pakistan in two respects. Firstly ethnic movements in Pakistan have taken the form You may belong to any religionor creed. primarily of sub-nationalism, although a Thathas nothingto do with the businessof secondary theme of localised ethnic conflicts the state... We are startingwith this funand competition has not been absent. In damentalprinciple,that we are all citizens of one state... I thinkwe shouldkeepthat India, by contrast, politics of ethnicity have, in frontof us as our idea and you will find by and large, been displaced on to local that in courseof time Hinduswill cease to arenas, taking the form of communalism be Hindus and Muslims will cease to be and inter-commun'al conflict over quotas for Muslims,not in the religioussense because jobs and places in institutions of higher that is the personalfaith of each individual education that lead to salariat and profesbut in the politicalsense,as citizensof the sional careers. state [Choudhury,1967:21-22]. Secondly, we find that in the case of Jinnah's speech was a clear declaration of Pakistan there has been a succession of ethnic definitions and re-definitions,ac6cor- secularcitizenshipin the new state, a speech ding to changingcontexts of ethnic politics. that ideological vested interestsin Pakistan To begin with the salariatgroupsbehind the have a hard time explaining away. July 8, 1989 This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1529 ASSERTION OF REGIONAL IDENTITIES A rather different response to the creation of Pakistan was the affirmation of their own regional identities, as against the common identity of 'Muslim', by under-privileged regional salariat groups in Pakistan vis-a-vis the dominant Punjabis. There was a fresh reckoning of the distribution of privilege and deprivation. Virtually overnight there were ethnic re-definitions. The salariat groups of East Bengal, Sindh, Sarhad and Baluchistan promptly re-defined their identities as Bengalis, 5indhis, Pathans and Baluch and demanded fairer shares for themselves in jobs in the state apparatus. The respective regional, sub-nationalist, movements exploded into view the day after Pakistan came into being. The state of Pakistan was now represented by them as an instrument of Punjabi domination, with their control of the bureaucracy first under secretary-general Choudhry Muhammed Ali and later under governor Ghulam Mohammed. The fact that neither general Iskandar Mirza nor general Ayub Khan, who held the reins of power after them were Punjabis made little difference to that perception, for given the Punjabi positions within the bureaucracy and the military power was seen to be securely in Punjabi hands. The articulation of Bengali and Pathan identities, respectively, on the basis of both region and language, was relatively unproblematic. The first expression of the demands of the East Bengal salariat came when Shaikh Mujibur Rahman, as a young student leader, put the aspirations of the people of East Pakistan before Jinnah when he visited Dacca. The powerful Bengali language movement, symbolically so, for language is above all the instrument of the pen-pushing salariat, was triggered off by the announcement in 1952 that Urdu would be the national language of Pakistan. The Bengali movement demonstrated its power in the East Pakistan election of 1954 when the 'ruling' Muslim Party secured no more than 10 seats out of a total of 309. Here the Bengali salariat was far more effective in the political arena than the Muslim League had been in the. 1937 elections. In 1937 the social base of the victorious Krishak Proja Party in Bengal was.made up of rich peasants and jotedars, who demanded abolition of zamindari, to get rid of the overlords who dominated their lives. That objective was achieved by zamindari abolition in East Bengal in 1951. In the elections in East Bengal in 1954 and subsequently, the leading issues were salariat demands. The rich peasants and jotedars, whose sons made up the East Bengal salariat, were solidly with them. Hence their landslide victories. These were solid votes against 'Punjabi' domination. The problem of ethnic identity is rather more complicated in Sindh and Baluchistan. tiating criteria of ethnic groups, a number of separategroupscan be demarcatednamely Baluchproper,Brahuis(or Brohis),Lassis, Makranisand in the north-easterndistricts Pushtuns who are Pathans rather than Baluch.The literatureof Baluchnationalism repudiates angrily attempts to fragment them on the basis of such criteria. Instead they have produced historical accounts of convergentoriginsof these differentsections of a singlepeople,the Baluch.It is the dominant Punjabirulinggroups,they argue,who emphasiseand try to exploitsuch differences to disrupt Baluch unity. The Baluch on the other hand resist such attempts to divide them and stridentlyproclaimtheirunity.The only exception that some of them are preparedto make is in the case of Pushtuns and they accept the idea of Pushtun areas of Baluchistanbeing amalgamatedwith the neighbouringSarhadprovince.Affirmations of BaluchunityaredirectedagainstPunjabis and other outsiders who monopolise jobs and most profitable occupations in Baluchistanto the exclusion of the Baluch. CASE OF SINDH It is in Sindhthat the worstcontradictions of the politics of ethnicity in Pakistan are concentrated and they take violent forms. Sindh is truly a multi-ethnic province. In a sense it has always been so, for historically it has been inhabited by a substantial number of Baluchi speaking people who, although they may speak Baluchi at home, are neverthelessregardedas Sindhi;some of them areSindhinationalistleaders.Likewise, there are migrants from Cutch in India (business communities) who have lived in Sindh (mainly Karachi) for many generations and have played leadership roles in Sindhi politics. For example Mahmood Haroon, who is from such a background, was among prominent delegates at a conference organised at Sann, the home of G M Syed, when the Sindh Natiornal Alliancewas foundedin 1988.FerozAhmad, a militant Sindhi extremist, who is an Ismaili, also belongs to this category.Hence we can see that Sindhi identity is a mixture of many different elements, a product of historical evolution. But a distinction is made in the case of those who havecome to Sindh after the partition. They are not categorised as Sindhis although they have lived in Sindh for decades. These include Muhajirs speaking refugeesfrom India who came in at the partition and also Punjabis and Pathans who have mjgratedto Pakistan since then. Forty yearsago whena flood of refugees,uprooted from India poured into Pakistan (similar numbers of Hindu and Sikh refugees were uprooted from Pakistan areas and were driven over the border across to India), the Punjabidominatedrulingoligarchyensured In Sindh, especially, it is an explosive issue that refugees from East Punjab andMnthe that has torn that province apart in violent main only those, weresettledin WestPunjab c,onflict. In Baluchistan if cultural criteria so that ethnically and linguisticallyPunjab wereto be interpretedtoo rigidly,as differen- remainedhomogeneous; only a handful of 1530 refugees from other parts of India found their way into that province. All refugees other than those from East Punjab, i e, mainly the Urdu speaking refugees from northern and central India, were settled in Sindh,althoughPunjab,beinga muchlarger province, had a greater capacity to absorb these refugees and offer them a livelihood. With Sindhi Hindus, the predominantelement of Sindhi urban population having been driven out and the influx of Muhajirs into Sindh, the ethnic composition of Sindh was radically altered. Some of the Urdu speakingrefugeesfrom India who were funnelled into Sindh settled on the land. But the bulk of them took the place of urban Sindhi Hindus, either as tradersor professionalsin the big cities and small towns of Sindh. The Urdu speaking Muhajirsalso initially providedthe bulk of the urban working class in Sindh. Sindhi speaking urban population in Sindh thus became quite minute. Whereas before the partition Sindh'scities were predominantly non-Muslim now they are predominantly Urdu speakers. As Sindhis started coming up in salariat they found that they had not only to deal with Punjabidominationof the state apparatusbut also to competewith the relatively more advanced Muhajirs. Although initially (after the partition) the populationof Sindh'scities was overwhelmingly Muhajir in composition, their ethnic composition changed substantiallywith the influx of Pathan and Punjabi workerswho providedadditions to the working force for the growing inciustries. As a result according to the 1981Census only 52 per cent of the population of Sindh consisted of those whose first language was Sindhi.Urduspeakersweremorethan 22 per cent of the total. But they predominatedin the urban areas of Sindh where they were reckonedto numberover 50 per cent of the population. The Muhajirurbanmajority is less pronounced as one moves to smaller towns which, after all, are mere extensions of the ruralsociety.But along with Punjabis and Pathans they are an overwhelmingmajority of the three major industrial cities, namely Karachi, Hyderabadand Sukkur. In Karachi, the capital of Sindh, a metropolisof over8 million people, 54.3 per cent of the population (in 1981)were urdu speakers,i e, mainly Muhajirs.13.6per cent were Punjabi speakers and 8.7 per cent Pushto speaking Pathans from the Sarhad. In that capital of Sindh, those whose first language was Sindhi numbereda mere 6.3 per cent. That is the grievance of Sindhi nationalists.They have become strangersin their own land. However,it might be said that the census figures probably underestimate, as some experts believe, the numbersof Pathansand Punjabisin Karachi, manyof whom live in katchiabadis or shanty towns where there has been under-enumeration. An estimated 40 per cent of the population of the city live in these slums. By contrast Sindhis who live in Karachi Economic and This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions belong to the lower middle class and above, many of them being absenteelandlordsand their retinues. Likewise in the other major cities of Sindh, Hyderabad and Sukkur, native Sindhi speakers are in a very small minority. A rather different kind of complication in the ethnic composition of Sindh arises from the influx of privileged groups from outside. These are mostly Punjabis. Large tracts of land in Sindh, brought under irrigationsince independence,wereallottedby the rulingbureaucraticmilitaryoligarchyto senior officers of the bureaucracyor the military or their relatives, rather than to Sindhis. These new landlords-inSindh tend mostly to be absentee landlords and they brought with them Punjabi tenants or labourers,whom they could better control and rely upon than local Sindhis. So this is a double deprivation, of lands as well as jobs. In urban areas too valuable land and propertyhas been allottedto personsin these categories. Punjabis are taking over industries and large businesses also from the (mainly) Cutchi businessmen of Sindh. Becauseof proliferationof state controls of a variety of kind, over the operation especially of industrial enterprises, the established businessmen have found it increasinglymore difficult to cope with them, the more so during the eleven years of Zia's military dictatorshipwhen rule of law gave way to arbitrarydecisions by military officers. As a result many of the traditional businessmen have retreatedinto trade and many have transferred their operations abroad. In their place a new class of Punjabi capitalists has taken shape. These are not just any Punjabis but rather they are close kinsmen of senior bureaucrats and militaryofficers. Their kinshiplinks play an important part in their ability to negotiate bureaucratichurdleswhich the old established bourgeoisiefound it difficultto negotiate. Both Sindhis and Muhajirs have found themselvespushedinto the backgroundand resent these developments. MUHAJIR POLITICS The ethnic orientation of both Sindhis and Muhajirs has undergone significant changes in recent years, dramaticallyso in the case of Muhajirs.At the time of the partition Muhajirswere well establishedin the bureaucracy,though not in the armed services which is estimatedto be around85 per cent Punjabis,most of the restbeing Pathans (these are not confirmed or verifiable figures).It must be said, however,that there do exista number,though a diminishingone, of very seniorMuhajirofficersand generals. general Mirza Aslam Baig, Zia's successor is, for example,a Muhajir.However,as the significant alignments in the military are those amongstPunjabiofficersand generals, Muhajir officers do not representa power base on their own. They are ratheroften the 'least evil' choice of powerful rival groups of Punjabi officers. Economic and Political Weekly Muhajirpresencein the bureaucracywas an importantsourceof patronagefor them. In-thecircumstancesthey identifiedpolitically with conceptsof Pakistannationhoodand some evenwith Islamicideology and opposed demands of regionalethnic groups. That ideology was in continuity with their political orientation in the past for, along with urban Punjabis, Muhajirs were the bulwark of Muslim Nationalism in India and providedmany of the principalleaders of the Pakistanmovement.In Pakistanthey werelargelynon-political, for their linkages with the bureaucracywerepersonaland particularistic.Insofar as they weredrawninto the political arena they tended to back Islamic ideological parties such as the Jamaat-i-Islami or the Jamiat-i-Ulama-iPakistan, The bureaucracy, with its important Muhajir component, used to be presided over by the tightly organisedCSP, the Civil Serviceof Pakistan,successorto the colonial ICS, the so-called 'Steel Frame'of colonial rule. For two and a half decades after independence, it was the senior partner in the bureaucratic-militaryoligarchy that ruled Pakistan [cf Alavi, 1983]. It was powerful enough to keepthe militaryat bay evenduring the martiallaw regimeof GeneralYahya Khan. The situation changedradicallyafter Bhutto'sadministrativereforms,that broke its back and the bureaucracyceased to be the powerful entity that it used to be. Ironically that opened the way for unrest-rainedmilitary rule under General Zia for the one great barrierin the way of military hegemony was removed. With the collapse of bureaucraticpower, it was also the case that the Muhajirs lost their patrons in the structureof state power which now passed into unchallenged Punjabi hands. It took a little time for these changes to manifest their effects in Muhajirpoliticsalthough it must not be forgotten that Muhajirs played a big role in movements againstAyubKhanwhichled him to transfer the capital awayfrom Karachi,the principal Muhajir centre. Soon Muhajirs were to abandon their pre-occupationwith affirmations of Pakistani nationhood and they abandoned,in the process,their supportfor Islamic fundamentalistparties. They lined up behind politics of ethnicity. Hitherto Muhajirs had agitated against the quota system for jobs and admissions into institutionsof highereducation, which are at the core of ethnic politics. As late as December 1986 a Jamaat-i-Islami Urdu. weekly,readmostly by Muhajirs,carriedan article entitled: 'Quota System: Denial of Justiceand the Swordof Oppression'( Kota Sistam: Adal ki Nafi Aur Zulm ki Talwar in Takbeer,December 24, 1986). But the Muhajirs were to change this stand. The quota system in Pakistan dates back to the 1950s when it was introduced in deference to East Bengali ethnic demands. Unlike the system in India where quotas are based on local communalcriteriaand areleft to local authorities to work out and implement, in Pakistanthey areregional, 10per cent of the places being awarded'on merit',50 per cent for the Punjab, and 19 per cent for Sindh, of which 11.4per cent was for 'ruralSindh' and thus for predominantlySindhispeakers, and 7.6 per cent for urban Sindh, mainly Muhajir.A quota of 11.5per cent was fixed for Sarhad and 3.5 per cent for Baluchistan and the rest for Azad Kashmirand Federally Administered Territories. However, there were problems with implementationof the quota system. Given Punjabi control over the administrativemachinery,it has not been too difficult for a Punjabi to poach places from the other groups by obtaining false 'Certificates of Domicile' in say Quetta in Baluchistanor Hyderabadin Sindh, depriving the locals. With the total collapse of bureaucratic powerand consolidationof the powerof the Punjabi dominated army, Muhajirs began to feel that they were losing ground heavily and their bureaucratic patrons were no longer able to help them quite as much as before.They had littleto gain, they felt, from agitating for abolition of the quota system. In March 1984a new movement, called the Muhajir Qaumi Mahaz (MQM), i e, the MuhajirNationalFront,was set up, its main impetus deriving from a Muhajir students' organisation. They now demanded that Muhajirs be recognised as the fifth nationality of Pakistan and that they should be allotted a 20 per cent quota at the centre and between 50 per cent and 60 per cent in Sindh. They also want it to be ensuredthat quotas in Sindh reservedfor Sindhispeakers and Muhajirs, respectively,are not poached by Punjabis. The MQM took the urban centres of Sindh by storm. EMERGENCEOF MQM The MQM has emergedthroughthe 1988 elections as the third largest party in the country-one might even say that in effect it is the second largest, for the Islamic Democratic Alliance, reckoned second, it itself no more than a precariouspatchwork of 9 parties,cobbledtogetherunderpressure from above, to present a viable opposition to the PPP. The MQM was founded in March 1984 by some Muhajir students' groups. Its rise as a major force on the national scene was quite dramatic. That was precipitatedby certain events in September 1986when a plannedMuhajirprotestmarch from Karachito Hyderabadwas stopped by the police at Sohrab Kot, the 'gateway'to Karachiand the participantsbeatenup. That was the catalytic moment in its subsequent meteoric progress. The emergenceof the MQM as a major political force was not merely a matter of Muhajirsgettingorganisedas such. It marked a sea change in their political attitudes. So far Muhajirshad championed the cause of Pakistan nationhood and were a major support for extremeright wing Islamic fundamentalist parties such as the Jamaat-i- July 8, 1989 This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1531. Islami. But now the national identity was dropped.Only a few monthsearlierit would have been thought to be unbelievablethat Muhajirswould rally behind a slogan that said: "We have not signed a contract to uphold Pakistan and Islam!" (Ham nain Pakistanaur Islam ka thekanahin liya hat). Havingfor decadesdeclaredquite militantly that theiridentitywas Pakistaniand Muslim and that they opposed all ethnic movements as communal, they now decided to pursue communal politics. Overnightthere was an ethnic redefinition for now they declared themselves to be Muhajirs rather than Pakistanis. Instead of moving towards an end to communalismand to ethnic conflict, the rise of the MQM, in the face of strident Sindhinationalism,furtherconsolidatedthe hold of communalism in Pakistan politics. Sindh politics, however,have been in a state of flux. In 1983 the Movement for Restorationof Democracyin Pakistan was to launch a nationwideprotest against Zia. In the event, it was in Sindh that an exclusivelySindhimovementarose,with great fury and power.Based on Sindhi speakers, it turned out to be narrowlya rural movement for it failed to rally the urban population, mainly Muhajirs, because of its sectarian Sindlhislogans. Neverthelessit was a most powerfulmovementthat stretchedthe repressivestate apparatusto the limit in trying to contain it and put it down. Attempts were made by the Zia regime to turn that movementinto communal rioting and there was plenty of evidence of agents provocateurs at work. The leadership of the Sindhi movementsucceededin securingthe help of local level Muhajirleadersand prominent members of their community to stand with the Sindhis on their platformsin order to preventtheir struggle against the centralgovernmentfrom degeneratinginto an inter-communalconflict. That experience had some impact on the thinking of some sections of the Sindhi leadership,especially its more radical sections. They began to realise that their movement had failed because of their inability to rally the urban population without which no movement in Sindh could succeed; and that if they had managed to involve the Muhajirs, their movementwould havebeen irresistible.They began to see that Muhajirs were a part of the peoples of Sindh, indeed a part of the Sindhi people. An important and influential section of the Sindhi leadershipbegan to redefineSindhi identity.HistoricallySindhiidentityhad alwaysbeen ratherproblematicin that multiethnic province. Many people from other regions have settled in Sindh, such as the Baluch who still speak Baluch at home but are recognised as Sindhis-many Baluchis are in fact in positions of leadership in Sindh. There are also Cutchis in Sindh. Cutchis a bridgebetweenSindhand Gujarat (in India)and the Cutchilanguageis cognate with Sindhi. Thereare other gsroupsof early migrantsin Sindhi.That includesthose who are (putatively)of Arab origin, the Syeds, 1532 who came with the Arabconquerorof Sindh in the eighth century AD, Mohammad bin Kassim. Apiongst these would be counted G M Syed, the fatherof Sindhinationalism. EXTENDING SINDHI IDENTITY In 1986one found Sindhi leaders and intellectualsengaged in discussingcriteriaon the basis of which Sindhi identity might be redefinedso as to includealso Muhajirswho are now an integralpart of the population of Sindh, whom they would like to carry with them in their struggle for provincial autonomy. One can recognisethat achievement of greaterprovincialautonomywould benefitthe ruralSindhispeakersmoredirectly because of the rural bias in the political system and the franchise. If unity *with Muhajirsbroughtthem nearerto that goal, it is the Sindhi speakers who would stand to gain most, even if the benefits wereto be sharedwith Muhajirs.Togetherthey would get the dominant Punjabis off their backs. At that time many Sindhi leaderswerekeen to extendthe concept of Sindhi identity,accordingly,althoughtherewerea chauvinistic few who campaignedvigorously against it. In the cse of at least one of these in the latter category,suspicions werevoiced that he was an employee of the ubiquitous interservices intelligence, the notorious ISI (which was reportedby the London based Financial Times to have 1,00,000 persons working for it). Such a possibility is not at all unlikely and cannot be ruled out. It would have suited the interests of the Zia regimeto generateconflict betweenSindhis and Muhajirsand evennow that would serve the purposes of those who would like to see a weak governmentin power even if it is a democraticallyelected one. Sindhileaderswho favouredextendingthe concept of Sindhi identity, argued that being a Sindhi was not a matter of place of origin or one of language that one spoke. If that were so, how could the Baluch in Sindh be accepted by them for so long as fellowSindhisand so manyof them acknowledgedand honouredas Sindhileaders.They argued that the Baluch in Sindh were Sindhis because they had roots in Sindh. They would extend that principle to Muhajirs. Muhajirs, they argued, were uprooted 'by fate and the forcesof history'fromtheirown soil in India and deposited in Sindh. They had struckfreshroots in Sindhas the Baluch and the Cutchis had done before them. These Sindhi leaders and intellectuals repudiatedquite forcefullythe paternalistic designation of Muhajirsas 'new Sindhis',a term that was widely used in the past but which, implicitly,deniesMuhajirsfull status as Sindhis. They insisted that they are full Sindhis, without any qualification. Descent they said, was no criterion of ethnicity nor was it religion or language. It was a question of roots. Applying that criterionof rootedness, to other groups in Sindh, they took the view that Punjabisin Sindhwould not qualify for inclusion within the expandednotion of being Sindhi.Thesearemostlybureaucratsand membersof the armed forces or their close relatives who have secured large grants of land from the government, and who have brought with them their retinueof Punjabi sharecroppersand labourers. These Punjabis, the Sindhi leaders and intellectuals argued have come to Sindh as conquerors and usurpers,on the strengthof statepower. They remain Punjabis for they have their roots in Punjab which is exploiting the resourcesof Sindh. They should therefore be expelledfromSindhand the land restored to Sindhi hands, the sons of the soil. Such Sindhi ethnic redefinitions, impelled,. by recognition of need for political realignments,are most interestingto see. It was likewise in the case of Muhajirs, responses to some degree to re-alignments to Sindhi positions, but also, and especially, to changes on the national scene. This included the change in the ethnic selfdefinition of Muhajirsand the dramaticrise of the MQM in the mid-1980s.The Muhajirs now abandoned their opposition to the very conceptionof sub-nationalities.Earlier Muhajirshad repudiatedthe idea of ethnic identityor nationalityin favourof Pakistan nationhood and Islamic brotherhood for which such divisions were repugnant. The MQM demandedinsteadthe recognitionof Muhajirsas the fifth nationalityof Pakistan and virtually overnight Muhajirs rallied around it overwhelmingly.The process of ethnic redefinitioncontinued further.In the face of SindhimoderationMuhajirsrealising that their own future is tied up with the future of Sindh as a whole, which cannot be resolved except in company with Sindhi speakers, changed tack once again. More confident after their resoundingsuccess in the local elections of Spring of 1987, they reoriented their approach, to prepare the groundfor closer politicalco-operationwith Sindhi speakers. Now they declared that Muhajirs were not a nationality by themselves. They were only a sub-nationality within the largerSindhi nationality, Sindhi speakersbeing the other sub-nationalgroup. Togetherthey constituted Sindhi nationality. Given Sindhi reorientations too, for a time it looked not at all unlikelythat the two would move closer in the political arena towards some kind of a United Front in order to win concessions from the centre. However, the political situation was to change once again, after the death of Zia and the electionsof 1988.The self-definition of Muhajirsas a sub-nationalitywas thereforeshort-lived.With the new re-alignments, they revertedto their claim to be the fifth nationality of Pakistan. STRANDSIN SINDHI LEADERSHIP Sindhi re-alignments were taking shape also. A conference was held in Sann, the home of G M Syed, the grand old man of Sindhi nationalism, where the Sindh National Alliance was founded. It was a very broad-based conference where delegates Economic and Political Weekly This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions July 8, 1989 comprised the whole political spectrum among Sindhi speakers. A central issue in the debate turnedout to be the name of the alliance, whether it should be Sindh National Alliance or Sindhi National Alliance. The former would leave the door open for Muhajirs to be invited in, and several speakerssuggestedthat they should be. The latter alternativewas designed to close the doors on Muhajirsbeing brought into the Allianceat all. It is significantthereforethat it was the former option that was adopted. There are elements within the Sindhi leadership who have resorted to extreme chauvinistic rhetoric vis-a-vis Muhajirs. Some of them speak of 'Muhajir Separatism' which is both an absurdand also a mischievousnotion. It is intendedto arouse Sindhifearsthat Sindhwill be dismembered. This is nonsense because the cities in which Muhajirspredominatecannot be lifted out of their ruralenvironmentin order to constitutea Muhajiristan.Moreover,a verylarge proportion of Muhajirs do not live in the three large cities but are dispersed throughoutSindhin small ruraltowns where their livelihoods depend on their relationships with Sindhispeakerswho predominate there. Indeed these Muhajirs, now in their third or even fourth generation in Sindh, have learnt Sindhi at school and have been undergoinga process of Sindhification. In the 1983movementdespite attemptsto promote Sindhi-Muhajir riots, to split and disrupt the powerful Sindhi movement, Muhajirs and-Sindhis stood united, a fact which does much credit to both the Sindhi and Muhajirlocal level leadership.But it is sad, in the circumstances,to find scholars such as Feroze Ahmed fanning the fires of Sindhi chauvinismand progressivejournals 'publishingsuch material. On the otherhand thereareSindhileaders whose eyes are focused on the problem of getting the authoritarianhand of the central governmentoff their backs and to win a greaterdegree of regional autonomy for Sindh.These morepragmaticleadersof Sindhi speakerscannot be unawareof the fact that, given the rural bias in our political system, it is they ratherthan the Muhajirs, who would predominatein the government of Sindh, as is the case at present.They have nothing to lose by an alliance with Muhajirs and indeed much to gain vis-a-vis the centre. Motivesof leadersof Sindhispeakerswho resort to an extreme chauvinistic rhetoric and violent anti-Muhajirslogans must remain much more suspect. In the case of many of them, leaders whose political fortunes have waned, this strategy of outbidding more 'moderate'leadershipby extreme sfogans would, hopefully for them, revive discreditedpolitical fortunesand foster personal political ambitions. There is at least one Sindhi chauvinistic leader who is preachingwhat is tantamountto fascism.He has been demandingthat all those who are not nativeSindhispeakersshouldbe expelled from Sindh. In the case of non-Sindhi inEconomic and Political Weekly dustrialworkershe declares:'Let them take they industrieswith them. We do not want them here:Likewise,he demandsthat Muhajirs should be expelled from Sindh. When asked wherethey might go-for by now we have third and fourth generation Muhajirs who know no other home than where they are-this leader replies that this should be no concern of his or the Sindhi people. "Hand them over to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. He should find some place for them somewhere in this world. That is his job' This is a variant 9f the 'final solution' of the Nazis. This mischievousand vicious campaign offers nothing concrete to the Sindhis. Those who know the political leaderswho are conducting such a vicious campaign see the hand of the centralgovernmentin this and are able to point out concrete examples of patronageand positionsof veryconsiderable profit that have been bestowed on such individuals and their close relatives by a grateful central government for such campaignsdirectlybenefitcentralpowerby causing disruption, divisions and conflict amongstthe peopleof Sindhand undermine possibilities of united action on their part in the interest of the region as a whole. LEFT'S NAIVETY Paradoxically,objectivelyat any rate,the authoritariancentre is helped ideologically in this by groups on the Left, mainly in the Punjab, who tend to take utterly naive and quite misinformed positions vis-a-vis the Sindhi movements. They feel ideologically committed to the right of oppressed nationalitiesto nationalself-determinationand regional autonomy. But when they look-at Sindh, they see only the movement of Sindhi speakersas a legitimatemovement.They have not yet overcome their suspicion of Muhajirsto recognise that they too are an oppressednationality,standingside by side with Sindhis. Their suspicions of Muhajir politics are grounded in the fact that until the mid-eighties, Muhajir politics were hostile to the idea of natioinal selfdeterminationin the name of Pakistaninationhood and Islamic unity. Muhajirs had supported central authoritarian rule and Islamic fundamentalism.When the MQM appearedon the scene they were taken unpreparedfor it and they havenot yet figured out how to evaluateit. They haveyet to come to terms with the sea change in Muhajir politics, their abandonmentof Islamic fundamentalismand their emergenceas a subnational group whose claims, hardly less valid than those of Sindhinationalism,need to be located justly and fairly within the overall picture. At this point one might add that the ethnic problemin Sindh does not involveonly the contending claims of the rival salariat groups, although that class has been at the core of ethT -"'litics. It concerns also a complexrn._,re of ethnic groupsthat make up the industrial working class in Sindh, concentratedmainlyin Karachi,Hyderabad and Sukkur. Ethnic divisions have been exploited to break up the unity of the industrialworkingclass whereasin periodsof militantworkingclass action, as in the early 1970s,ethnic conflicts amongst workershas tended to recede into the background and lost from sight. Industrialworkersin Sindhare,almostentirely,non-Sindhis.Beforeindependence,the workingclass in Karachi,engagedmainlyin transport (railways,the docks and various forms of urban transport) were overwhelmingly Baluch (Makrani)migrantworkers. Immediately after the partition, Muhajirs made up the bulk of the working class in Sindh'sindustrialcities Karachi,Hyderabad and Sukkur.As industrialisationprogressed in the 1950sand 1960s,moreworkerswere pulled in from densely populated agriculturalregionsof Sarhadand the Punjab (i e, its extreme north-westerndistricts in the Potowararea)wherefarmsweresmall and fragmented, incapable of providing a livelihood, so that traditionally there has been a 'pusheffect' forcingmembersof farm familiesto look for employmentoutside. In Sindh, by contrast, there was no such push effect so that membersof farm families did not seek outside work and the workingclass in Sindhthereforewas not recruitedfromthe immediate hinterland. It is only in very recent years that farm mechanisationby Sindhi landlords is causing eviction of Sindhi sharecroppers,the haris,who arebeing forced to look for urbanemploymentin a period of relative industrial stagnation. Powerful vested interests are at work in Karachiwhichhavegeneratedethnicconflict between working class ethnic groups, notably Pathans,against Muhajirs.Rioting has become endemic in Karachi and the people areterrorisedby gangs equippedwith automatic weapons, transportedaround in trucks. Some brilliant investigative journalists, especially those who have contributedto the monthly Herald, haveexposed the hand of well organ-iseddrugs mafia and those engaged in trade in illegal arms and, not least, racketeersin urbanland, who were behind these so-called ethnic riots. Karachi has large areas of vacant land around it, areas into which the rapidly expanding city has been pushing. Vacantland is seized by the racketeers,developed as housingprojectsand the houses sold at great profit to themselves.The city administration has been able to do nothing for it is itself under the control of the mafia. Given extraordinarylevelsof official corruption,the mafias also control the agenciesof 'law and order',both the police and also the military at the local level. In the circumstancesthey have a relatively free hand. They do not tolerate any official projects that might interferewith their own very profitableoperations. The organisedviolenceof thesemafias has sometimesbeen explainedawayas ethnic conflict that masks its real purposes -on behalf of powerful interests. But once violence begins, inevitably, in the wake of su.chconflicts ethnic antagoqisms escalaste. July 8, 1989 This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1533 1988 ELECTIONS More recently,in the context of the 1988 elections, some remarkable changes in alignments lhavetaken place. Despite the powerfulthrustof Sindhinationalism,it was the PPP that got solid supportfrom the Sindhi speaking part of Sindh's electorate. Those Sindhi nationalistcandidateswho insisted on standing in the elections were routed. The PPP and notably its Sindhi leadership had consistently distanced itself from Sindhi nationalism. When approached by some chauvinisticSindhi nationalistleaders in 1987, who invited the PPP to join them in sponsoring the Sindh National Alliance, the PPP Sindhi leaders spurned them saying that they were a 'national' party and could not thereforeespouse regionalcauses. The PPP refused to align itself with particularistic Sindhi demands. The PPP also kept out of the Sindh National Alliance. There is an understandable logic in the PPP's anti-communalposition. If it was to come to powerat the centre,it had to carry the electorate of the Punjab. Punjab was hostile to regionalist movements that challenged Punjabi domination. Despite that consistent position of the PPP leadership,already in 1986 there were clear indications that if general elections were to be held, Sindhi votes would go to the PPP. In my discussions with Sindhi intellectuals and Sindhi nationalist leaders in 1986 in Hyderabad, they all put it in somewhat emotive language legitimising their decision to abandon, temporarily at least, their Sindhi nationalist cause. They said that "We have a debt of blood to discharge.Thereforethis time it will be the turn of the daughterof ZulfiqarAli Bhutto. Our turn will come the next time' Bhutto had given his life for them, they said. That debt must be repaid by voting for his daughter. Behind that ideological justification for their electoral tactics, practical reasons for taking such a coursewerequite evident.Sindhi nationalists could have no hope of forming a governmentat the centre and without-thatnothing would be delivered.Voting for Sindhi nationalist candidates would thereforebe an empty gesture.On the other hand Sindhileadersoccupiedpowerfulpositions in the PR not least Benazir Bhutto herself.Even if in deferenceto her 'national' positionshe wouldnot go quiteso far as they might wish, it would not be unreasonable, they thought, to expect that she would go some little way at least to redress Sindhi grievances. Ethnic strategies were re-'assessedin the context of the 1988 elections. Despite the more florid rhetoric of some Sindhi nationalists, in the face of the consistent position of the PPP in distancing itself from them, Sindhis,nevertheless,voted solidly for the PPP. Those few Sindhi nationalist leaders who insisted on standing on a nationalistplatform,facedignominiousdefeat. Half a loaf was still something,as far as the 1534 Sindhi electorate was concerned. Just protest would achievenothing. Thereare so far few signs that Sindhi nationalists will get eventhe few concessionsthat they hoped for and their disaffection is already making itself felt. Defeated and discreditedSindhi nationalist leaders are using this to try and stage a come back. Their rhetoric has taken on a more chauvinistic tone. A wave of rioting has been sweeping through the cities of Sindh, followingattacksby motorisedarmed gangs, equippedby automaticweapons,who have driven, with impunity, through wards of cities of Sindh, killing indiscriminately. As the history of communalism in the subcontinent has shown, once such violence is unleashed, it becomes self-generating and communal riots escalate with mutual reprisals. Against such a backgroundof inter-communal tension and indeed bloody violence, a demonstration was organised in Karachi in the name of the Sindh National Alliance, "the first big demonstrationof its kind",as was reported (Jang Daily, April 3, 1989). This would not be quite true, for in 1987an even bigger demonstration, in the form of a Peace March, was organised in Karachi, after some extremely vicious communal rioting. That demonstrationand procession was led by leaders of all communities, Sindhi, Muhajir, Pathan and Punjabi, and to good effect. HOPEFUL SIGN Be that as it may, the recent Sindh National Alliance demonstration was led by defeated and discreditedright-wingleaders such as Hamida Khuro and Hafeezuddin Pirzada in company with ultra-chauvinists such as Rasool Bux Palejo. But it was addressedalso by saner voices such as that of Abdul WahidAresar,chairmanof the largest of the Sindhi nationalist parties, the Jiye Sindh Mahaz. The demonstration was organised against continued immigration and settlementof outsidersin Sindh but for the chauvinistsit was clearlyan anti-Muhajir event. On the other hand Aftab Meerani, a seniorministerin the PPP-ledSindhgovernment, declaredthat the demonstrationwas a conspiracyagainstthe democraticgovernment of the PPP. The speechof Abdul WahidAresar,chairman of the JiyeSindh Mahazwas in marked contrast to that of some of the others mentioned above. He said that just as the people of Sindh, while voting for the PPP on pragmaticgrounds, nevertheless,could not be identified with the PPP, so also the fact that the Urdu speaking Muhajirshad voted solidly for the MQM did not mean that they did not havetheirdifferenceswith the MQM or that they should therefore be identified with that party.The fact that therehad been an electoral polarisation did not mean that these two peoples of Sindh were therefore aligned against each other in rival camps. He continued that political conditions do not remain constant and fresh alignments would emerge.He appealedto both Sindhis and Muhajirsto stand shoulderto shoulder in their struggle to solve the collective problems of Sindh and he was confident that they would do so. The solution of problems of Sindh did not lie in rioting and conflict between Sindhi and Urdu speaking people of Sindh. It was a courageous speech in the context of attempts to arouse Sindhi chauvinistic feelings. What is significant is that this speech from the leaderof the most important of the Sindhi nationalist parties (and groups) was receivedwith enthusiasm. It is a hopeful sign for the future. References Alavi, Hamza, 1983: 'Class and State in Pakistan' in Hassan Gardezi and Jamil Rashid (eds), Pakistan: The Roots of Dictatorship, Zed, London. -, 1987: 'Pakistan and Islam: Ethnicity and Ideology' in Fred Halliday and Hamza Alavi (eds), State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan, Monthly Review Press, New York. -, 1989: 'Formation of the Social Structure of South Asia under the Impact of Colonialism' in Hamza Alavi and John Harriss (eds), Sociology of Developing Societies: South Asia, Monthly Review Press, New York. Anderson, Benedict, 1983: Imagined Communities, Verso, London. Basu, Aparna, 1974: Growth of Education and Political Development in India: 1898-1920, OUP, Delhi. Choudhury, G W (ed), 1967: Documents and Speeches on the Constitution of Pakistan, Dacca. 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These good results have been achieved mainly due to the increased priceof vitaminA prevailingthroughoutthe yearand the increasedproductionof vitamin A from 49 to 59 MMU, an increase of 20 per cent. Therehavealso been marginalprice and volume increases in pharmaceutical specialities. Economic and Political Weekly This content downloaded from 194.27.149.45 on Fri, 31 May 2013 16:19:06 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions July 8, 1989
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