Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
Rob Linné, Adelphi University
Leigh Benin, Adelphi University
About the Film
The HBO documentary Triangle: Remembering the Fire tells an historic
story that is still relevant today.
On March 25, 1911, a catastrophic fire broke out at the Triangle Waist
Company in New York City. Trapped inside the upper floors of a ten-story
building, 146 workers - mostly young immigrant women and teenage girls were burned alive or forced to jump to their deaths to escape an inferno that
consumed the factory in just 18 minutes. The tragedy changed the course of
history, paving the way for government to represent working people, not just
business, for the first time, and helped an emerging American middle class
to live the American Dream.
The people of New York City already knew these girls from 1909's Uprising
of the 20,000, when shirtwaist workers, most of them recent immigrants
from Eastern Europe, went on strike demanding higher pay, shorter hours
and better conditions. An event in American history missing from most
textbooks, it was the first great uprising of women - at a time when they
didn't have the vote.
Organized by the newly created International Ladies Garment Workers
Union (ILGWU), the workers had marched in the streets, stood on picket
lines and been beaten by hired thugs. When many of them later appeared on
the ledges of the burning Asch Building, without any chance of survival, it
broke the hearts of New Yorkers who remembered their pleas.
Worst of all, the fire was preventable. Safety precautions such as sprinklers
and fire drills existed at the time, but were not required by government
regulations, which would have cost businesses money.
As public outrage grew after the fire, the city responded quickly to demands
for change in the workplace and Tammany Hall officials worked with the
fledgling ILGWU to enact legislation improving safety, conditions and
wages for garment workers, serving as the foundation of today's labor
standards.
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
Subject Areas
Middle and High School level
Social Studies: United Sates History and Government; English: American
Literature; Communications and Media Literacy
Initiating Lessons
Motivating questions initiate brief discussions that stimulate student interest
in a new topic, and transition statements introduce the lesson.
Middle School Level
1) Question: What precautions do we take in school regarding fire safety?
(1) List all the precautions, and then (2) rank them in order of their
importance to protecting everyone’s safety.
Transition: Today we will learn about a tragic workplace fire that led to
many of the fire safety rules we now follow both at school and at work.
2) Students view a photograph of child labor. Students “free write” for five
minutes (1) about everything they see in the photo and (2) the emotions the
photo elicits.
Question: How would you feel if you could not attend school because you
had to work 10 hours a day in a dangerous factory?
Transition: Today we will learn how 146 workers, many in their teens, died
in a factory fire, and how the protest that followed this tragedy led to fire
safety laws.
High School Level
1) Questions: How many of you now have a job or have worked in the past?
What are/were the worst aspects of your job? Consider wages, hours,
benefits, pace of work, the level of respect from supervisors, sanitary and
safety conditions, etc.
Transition: Today we will learn about the hard labor and unsafe working
conditions at the Triangle Waist Company, where in 1911 one hundred and
forty-six workers, mostly young women, died in a tragic and historic fire.
2) Students view images from recent tragedies: Hurricane Katrina, Haiti
earthquake, Big Branch Mine explosion, Deep Water Horizon explosion, etc.
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
Students will briefly “free write” about their emotional reaction to these
images, and share their feelings.
Question: What did/should we all do in response to such tragedies?
Transition: Today we will learn about how people responded to the tragic
Triangle factory fire of 1911, and how their actions changed America.
3) Students view a news clip about the 2011 revolution in Egypt, when mass
demonstrations led to the fall of a longstanding, authoritarian regime.
Questions: Why do you think Egyptians risked their safety to demonstrate
their opposition to the regime? How do mass demonstrations create change?
What is the relationship between protest and democracy?
Transition: Today we will learn how in this country in 1909-1910 tens of
thousands of working people protested harsh factory conditions, and how
one year later hundreds of thousands changed America by protesting the loss
of 146 lives—mostly young women—in the infamous Triangle factory fire.
4) It has often been said that reforms are written in blood.
Questions: What does this mean? Why do you think this would be so?
Transition: Today we are going to learn how the deaths of 146 workers in
the Triangle factory fire led to major labor reforms,
5) In the 1930s, the Social Security Act (income for senior citizens), the
National Labor Relations Act (legal protection for labor unions),
unemployment insurance, the 40-hour workweek, and welfare for the poor,
were all passed into law as part of FDR’s New Deal.
Questions: What Depression Era conditions were each of these reforms
designed to address? How do you think working people during the Great
Depression felt about the relative importance of these laws?
Transition: Today we are going to learn why FDR’s Secretary of Labor
Frances Perkins later said that the New deal was born on the day of the
infamous Triangle factory fire, March 25, 1911.
Building Background Knowledge
Divide the class into four cooperative learning groups. Each group will work
together to search information online about the following topics before
preparing to report back to the class.
1) School textbooks often treat the women’s suffrage and labor movements
at the beginning of the 20th century as completely separate topics. Do
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
multiple searches of the following: Women’s Suffrage, the Uprising of the
20,000, and the Women’s Trade Union League.
Questions: How did the women’s suffrage and labor movements differ? To
what extent were they allied? Why?
2) Early in Triangle: Remembering the Fire, the filmmakers portray the poor
living and working conditions of immigrants in the early 1900’s. Research
the artists, writers, and reformers of the Progressive Era who focused
attention on working people: writer Upton Sinclair (The Jungle),
photographer Lewis Hine, and social worker Jane Adams (Hull House), etc.
Questions: How did they try to stir America’s conscience and change social
conditions for poor working people? How successful were they? To what
extent do we need such people today?
3) Research the so-called “New Immigrants,” who came to the US between
1880 and 1920.
Questions: Where did these immigrants come from? Why did they
immigrate to the US? Why did the US let them come? How were they
culturally different from earlier immigrants? How were they treated in the
US? To what extent were their expectations fulfilled? How did they change
America? What can we learn from their experience? How and why did the
US restrict immigration in the 1920s?
4) For three points in history—1911 (year of the Triangle Fire), 1961 (50year anniversary of the fire), 2011 (centennial of the fire)—find out what
percentage of US workers were in labor unions (union density). For those
same years, research wealth distribution by finding what percentage of US
income went to the wealthiest 10% of the US population.
Questions: Create bar or line graphs to represent your findings for union
density and wealth distribution. Why do you think union density changed as
it did? Consider government policy, economic conditions, and political
ideas. How do the changes on both graphs correlate? What might explain the
correlation? What inferences about unions and wealth distribution can you
draw from this?
Media Literacy
Young people coming of age today must navigate a world in which more
and more of their experiences are produced by corporations. An educational
approach to media literacy encourages young people to consciously view
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Teaching Guide
themselves as active players in this media-based culture, rather than simply
as passive consumers. Young people do influence the production of popular
culture through a constant feedback loop of consuming and producing;
however, most do not reflect deeply on how media saturation affects their
lives. Media literacy begins with an awareness of the tremendous role media
culture now plays in the formation of individual and social identities. Such
awareness leads to the question of how the producers of media pique our
desires and influence the ways we view ourselves and even our bodies. A
critical stance on media literacy encourages young people to “read their
worlds” through critical analysis of multiple texts— everything from films
to social networking sites, clothing store displays to advertising on school
televisions. The habits of mind involved in critiquing as well as creating
media require students to employ critical thinking and multiple modes of
learning.
Teachers employing media literacy as a central component of their
curriculums encourage students to sift through all of the media messages
they experience by asking some rather straightforward questions of each
text: Who is the intended audience for this message? What strategies were
used to capture the audience’s attention? What emotions are elicited? What
ideas or beliefs are validated in this message? From whose perspective is the
message coming? Who might gain in influence or monetary gains through
this message?
The activities in this section of the teaching guide offer some points from
which to enter into a conversation of the film through a media literacy
stance.
Media Literacy - Discussions
1) Political cartoons
Present still images of cartoons that are shown in the film. These can be
found at Cornell University’s Kheel Center website on the Triangle Fire:
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/photosIllustrations/slideshow.
html?image_id=775&sec_id=10#screen
Questions: For each of these media images published after the tragic
Triangle fire of 1911, answer the following questions: What is portrayed in
the image? What emotion(s) does the image elicit? How does the artist elicit
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
them? What does the artist want you to think about the fire? How persuasive
is the cartoon?
Activity: Create a cartoon to express your point of view about a current
event about which you have a strong opinion.
2) Music
Have students view these sections of the film without sound, and then the
same scenes with sound. (Approx. 5:40 - 7:10, 18:50-19:45, and 36:2037:25.)
Questions: For each scene, how does the music change the experience? How
effective is the musical score in furthering the filmmakers’ aims? Explain.
3) Imagery
Present photographic stills from Cornell University’s Kheel Center website
on the Triangle Fire:
a) Bodies on the sidewalk (images 10 through 12 of Triangle Fire)
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/photosIllustrations/slideshow.
html?image_id=752&sec_id=3#screen,
b) Body being lowered from window (image 19 of Triangle Fire)
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/photosIllustrations/slideshow.
html?image_id=761&sec_id=3#screen,
c) Bodies in the morgue (image 5 of Mourning and Protest)
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/photosIllustrations/slideshow.
html?image_id=793&sec_id=6#screen
News media and artists often struggle with the ethics behind the publication
of graphic images. For example, contemporary news media typically will not
show faces of recently deceased individuals. The directors of this film chose
to include these horrifying images.
Questions: What do you think were the filmmakers’ reasons for making this
decision? To what extent do you think the filmmakers were justified in this
decision? At what age should educators show students this film? What
would you say to a parent who objected to students your age viewing this
film?
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
4) Point of View
The opening and closing shots of any film are carefully thought out to
achieve maximum impact. This film opens with images of individual
victims, and ends with a recitation of victims’ names accompanied by their
photographs.
Questions: Why do you think the filmmakers begin and end with a focus on
the victims? What other elements of the film involve you emotionally with
the tragedy? Which parts of the film did you find most moving?
5) Tone
Replay the scene in which Dennis Clancy retells the story of the Triangle
fire based on what heroic elevator operator Joseph Zito passed down to him.
(Approx. from 14 min. into the film through 16 min.)
Questions: What is the emotional impact of this scene? How does the
crafting of the elements of this scene—voice, imagery, music, pacing—
achieve this?
Media Literacy - Activities
1) Research: Conduct an online search of reviews of the film.
Questions: What do the critics like or not like about the film? To what extent
do you agree or disagree with the critics?
Write: Write a meta-review of the reviews.
2) Interview: Students will videotape interviews of fellow students about
their reaction the film.
Questions: What did you like about this film? What didn’t you like? What
did you learn? What did you find most interesting? What in the film did you
find emotionally moving? To what extent would you recommend his film to
other young people?
Video Production: Create a short piece of video journalism about audience
reaction to the film by compiling clips of the interviews. Share the video
shorts with students in other classes.
3) Research: Find the section in your textbook, and/or other textbooks, on
the Uprising of the 20,000 and the Triangle Factory Fire.
Questions: Compare and contrast the textbook account(s) to the film. To
what extent does the textbook account do justice to the subject? How does
the experience of viewing the film differ from the experience of reading the
textbook article? What information and/or feelings did you get from the film
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
that you did not get from the textbook? How can the textbook account be
improved?
Write: Write a letter to the textbook publisher suggesting how their account
of these subjects might be improved.
4) View: Show still of policeman looking up with dead bodies at his feet,
which can be found on Cornell University’s Kheel Center website on the
Triangle Fire (image 9 of Triangle Fire):
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/photosIllustrations/slideshow.
html?image_id=751&sec_id=3#screen
Questions: Since this policeman is standing amidst dead bodies on the
sidewalk, why is he ignoring them? What do you imagine this policeman is
looking at? How does what we cannot see make this photograph more
poignant?
Write: Imagine that you are this policeman. Write a personal letter
describing what you experienced and how you felt.
5) View: Students will examine ways artists have memorialized the dead,
especially heroes or martyrs. Students will view images of a traditional war
monument and Maya Lin’s Vietnam Memorial.
Questions: Have students compare and contrast the emotional impact of
these memorials. Which do you think is more powerful? Why? How do
these two approaches reflect changes in how our culture memorializes those
lost to war and/or national tragedies?
Draw: There is only a small bronze plaque on the Brown (formerly Asch)
Building identifying it as the place where the Triangle fire occurred. What
kind of memorial would you like to see designed for the Triangle factory
fire? What elements would you want included in the memorial? Sketch a
proposed memorial for the site.
Oral History
Participating in an oral history project can be of great value to students.
They learn history by doing history. When students examine the past by
interviewing older people, they learn that that history happens to real people,
who also play a role in making history. When young people elicit personal
testimony about past times, history comes alive for them. Oral history
projects initiate intergenerational conversations that help students understand
who they are by showing them where they came from. Learning how their
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
family and community participated in historical events prepares students to
engage the events of their own time. Students who interview older relatives
and community members are amazed at what they learn and are truly
grateful for the experience. They also learn many important skills in the
process: how to do background research, craft questions and listen carefully
to the answers, use audio and video equipment, closely analyze texts, and
write about their findings.
Oral History - Discussions
1) Many documentaries on historical events rely heavily on historians to tell
the story. Triangle: Remembering the Fire, in contrast, advances the story of
the tragedy through interviews with family members of victims, survivors,
and others who played important roles in relation the tragedy.
Questions: Why do you think the filmmakers used personal narratives to
advance the larger story? To what extent do think that this approach was
effective?
2) Suzanne Pred Bass, grandniece of Rosie Weiner, who died in the fire,
becomes emotional during her interview and says, “I can’t believe how this
affects me emotionally.”
Questions: Why do you think that she feels so sad? What enables us to feel
emotionally attached to someone we have never met? Have you ever felt a
connection to another whom you have never met in person? To what extent
do you feel connected to the victims of the Triangle fire? Why? How does
feeling that we know the victims affect our attitude toward the fire?
3) Show clip of Susan Harris reflecting, “From a personal point of view, I’m
happy my grandfather didn’t have to go to jail. From the victims’ and
families’ point of view, if my daughter had died in the fire, and he hadn’t
been my grandfather, I probably would have shot him.” (Approx 30-31 min.
into the film) Through the interview with Susan Harris, the audience is able
to witness the conflicted emotions of a person who lost relatives in the fire,
but who also is the granddaughter of one of the owners of the Triangle
factory.
Questions: To what extent are we responsible for the actions of our
relatives? What does her personal story in particular say about the larger
story of the Triangle fire? Americans honor both property rights and human
rights, which sometimes conflict. To what extent does Harris’ conflicted
state of mind mirror our conflicting values?
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
Oral History - Activities
1) Read: Sheila Nevins’ Letter to a Dead Great Aunt.
http://www.wowowow.com/lifestyle/letter-to-a-dead-great-aunt-a-personalmemoir/
Questions: What emotions does the author express? Why does she feel
emotionally connected to a great aunt she never met and about whom she
seldom thought? Why did she write this letter?
Write: Write a letter to one of the victims shown in the film.
2) The personal stories told in this film reveal our larger national narrative.
Oral History: Students will conduct oral histories that ask family members to
reveal the family’s place in history. (See guides for conducting oral history
in Teacher Resources for this guide.) Ask such questions as: Where did our
family come from? Why did they come to the US? What is the work history
of family members? In what kind of conditions did grandparents or great
grandparents work? How have working conditions for family members
improved or deteriorated over the years? Did family members ever belong to
a labor union? How were they affected by the significant historical events of
their time? How did they respond? Compare and contrast their experience to
your own, their time to yours.
3) The producers of the film worked hundreds of hours researching the
tragedy and the families of the victims.
Oral History: Conduct oral histories in your local community on the topic of
a national or local event that greatly affected the residents. What were the
factors involved? How did the community react or come together? What
changes were made in response?
Organizing to Make a Difference - Then and Now
The themes of Triangle: Remembering the Fire, suggest that the tragedy
should not be explored simply as a history lesson about past problems that
have all been solved. Most of the Triangle Factory workers were young, but
many were also active politically, pushing against an industrial and political
system that was not responsive to their needs as workers and citizens. This
film can motivate young people to become politically active in their home
communities.
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
The activities in this section encourage a curriculum that moves beyond the
classroom walls and engages students in issues that will resonate with them,
such as child labor around the world or their own working conditions and
aspirations for their future work lives.
Organizing to Make a Difference - Discussions
1) The film outlines several factors that led to the high death toll in Triangle
fire.
Questions: What were these factors? Rank them in their order of importance.
Which were most important? How would you assign blame for the high
death toll? Rank those responsible in their order of responsibility. Although
many relatives of victims blamed Blanck and Harris, and some even wanted
to kill them, they were acquitted of manslaughter. Why? How do you assess
their responsibility? In response to the Triangle fire, what did working
people do to improve their conditions of employment? What can we learn
from them?
2) Public opinion often can influence public policy.
Questions: How did the public respond to the fire? How did the public’s
response affect politicians? Why? What did the government do to correct
the conditions that led to such a tragically high death toll? How effective
was government in addressing the problems that the fire exposed? What can
we learn from the Triangle fire about the importance of government to
working people?
3) Near end of film, Leigh Benin, whose cousin (19-year-old Rose Oringer)
jumped from the building to her death, said: "People forget the Triangle fire
at their peril...If people want to know what deregulated industry would look
like, look at the bodies on the sidewalk outside the Triangle building."
Questions: What is his attitude toward government’s role in maintaining safe
work conditions for citizens? Why do you agree or disagree? To what extent
is the question of government regulation of industry an important political
issue today? Why? How does the film suggest American politics were
changed after the fire? To what extent should government protect workers?
What is your perspective? What are the relative responsibilities of business,
government, and organized labor in protecting workers? Which of these are
most likely to fulfill their responsibilities? Why? Why should business,
government, and labor cooperate to insure the safety of workers? To what
extent do they cooperate? Why or why not?
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
Extension: Compare and contrast the statements of Leigh Benin and union
president Bruce Raynor near the end of the film. To what extent do they
agree or disagree? What is your position?
4) Frances Perkins later argued that the New Deal began on the day of the
Triangle fire. List the major New Deal reforms that directly affected
working people and organized labor.
Questions: What was her relationship to the Triangle fire and the New Deal?
To what extent was her claim that the New Deal began on the day of the
Triangle fire justified? Which New Deal laws are still essential and should
be maintained? How can we defend labor laws that we believe are still
needed? Are there any that should be overturned at this point in history?
Explain.
5) Show film stills of Massey Energy’s Big Branch Mine disaster in West
Virginia and British Petroleum’s Gulf Water Horizon oil rig explosion.
Questions: How do the filmmakers connect the history of the Triangle fire to
current events? What other recent tragedies here and abroad can be
compared to the Triangle Fire? How are they similar and how are they
different from Triangle? Why do unsafe conditions persist here and abroad?
What should we do? How can the memory of the Triangle fire be used to
make all workplaces safe?
Organizing to Make a Difference - Activities
1) Role Play: The young immigrant women who participated in the Uprising
of the 20,000 helped to build the labor movement. Many young people today
do not understand what a union is and cannot define labor related terms such
as strike or collective bargaining. Explain what unions do and review these
basic labor terms with the class. Conduct a roleplay of collective bargaining.
Establish a company with some students playing the owners and their
negotiators, and other students playing union leaders and their negotiators.
Set the stage by assigning roles and outlining issues involving salary,
benefits and working conditions that are to be negotiated. Provide
information about the company’s gross receipts, operating expenses, and
profitability. Provide a few specific work-related issues to negotiate, such as
unequal pay rates for men and women workers. Students will strategize
within their teams and then negotiate with one another, with the teacher
serving as mediator or arbitrator.
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Triangle: Remembering the Fire
Teaching Guide
Questions: How does collective bargaining prevent labor disputes? What are
the opposing interests of management and Labor? What are the ingredients
of a successful labor negotiation? What are the strengths and weaknesses of
each side? Why does each side have an interest in compromise? What is the
advantage to each side of agreeing to a contract? To what extent are labor
negotiations a zero sum game? What was the hardest part of negotiating a
contract?
2) Primary Sources: Have students compare the speech that Rose
Schneiderman delivered on April 2, 1911, soon after the fire, and the speech
on the fire that Francis Perkins delivered decades later.
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/testimonials/ootss_RoseSchn
eiderman.html
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/lectures/FrancesPerkinsLectu
re.html
Questions: Compare contrast their tone and conclusions about what the
tragedy meant for the US and American workers.
Write: Write a newspaper editorial, referencing these speeches, about a
current labor issue or event. Students will submit their opinion pieces for
publication around the time of the anniversary, March 25th.
3) Research: Many of the young women who died in the Triangle fire were
in their teens. Students will research articles on current issues surrounding
child labor both in the US and abroad. Explain both the ethical and
pragmatic issues that are raised, i.e., the companies that exploit child labor to
maximize their profits; the many families, especially in developing
countries, that need their children’s earnings to survive; and consumers in
the US looking for the best prices for their purchases.
Questions: What policies should the US adopt toward child labor here and
abroad? Should the US exert influence on developing countries regarding
child labor?
Debate: Students will prepare to debate the proposition: The US should use
its trade agreements with developing countries to establish standards for the
protection of child labor.
Service Learning: Students will carry on this debate in a wider public forum
by drafting letters to their representatives as well as to newspaper opinion
page editors.
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4) Research: Student activism to end sweatshops and protect child labor has
taken many forms.
Question: Which organizations and approaches are the most effective?
Service Learning: After researching various organizations working to end
sweatshops and child labor, create a media campaign to raise consciousness
about the issues and publicize some of the relevant organizations. Your
campaign could include multimedia public service announcements meant to
spread through social media sites. The class could choose one of the
organizations to work with to develop a local project in the service of the
organization’s mission.
Teacher Resources
Books:
The New York City Triangle Factory Fire, by Leigh Benin, Rob Linné,
Adrienne Sosin, and Joel Sosinsky. (Arcadia Publishing, 2011)
The Triangle Fire, by Leon Stein. (ILR Press, 2011)
The Triangle Fire: A Brief History with Documents, by Jo Ann E.
Argersinger (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2009)
Triangle, by Katharine Weber (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006)
The Triangle Fire, the Protocols of Peace, and Industrial Democracy in
Progressive Era New York, by Richard A. Greenwald (Temple University
Press, 2006)
Triangle: The Fire that Changed America, by David von Drehle. (Grove
Press, 2003)
Web Resources:
History:
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire
Cornell University’s comprehensive collection of primary sources related to
the Triangle Fire.
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http://rememberthetrianglefire.org
The Remember the Triangle Fire website includes a collection of materials
related to contemporary commemoration activities of the centennial of the
fire.
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/naw/nawshome.html
The National American Woman Suffrage Association collection in an online
database.
http://newdeal.feri.org
The New Deal network offers a comprehensive collection of primary
sources related to the New Deal.
http://francesperkinscenter.org/index.php
The Francis Perkins Center includes a large collection of materials related to
Perkins and her work.
Media Literacy:
www.mediaeducationlab.com
The Media Education Lab at Temple University focuses specifically on the
intersections of media studies, communication and education.
http://www.medialit.org
The Center for Media Literacy is an educational organization that provides
educational resources for the incorporation of media literacy into the
curriculum.
Oral History in the Classroom:
http://dohistory.org/on_your_own/toolkit/oralHistory.html
A step-by-step guide to conducting oral history.
http://www.oralhistory.org
The Oral History Association offers guidelines and materials for use in the
classroom.
http://www.foxfire.org
The Foxfire organization is one of the most influential oral history in the
schools programs.
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Child Labor and Sweatshops:
http://usas.org
United Students Against Sweatshops (USAS) is a grassroots organization of
youth and students working to stop sweatshops and child labor.
http://www.sweatfree.org
SweatFree Communities is one of the leading organizations addressing
global sweatshop issues.
http://love146.org
Love 146 works to end child trafficking.
http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Campaignandadvocacy/Scream/lang--en/
SCREAM—Supporting Children's Rights through Education, the Arts and
the Media—was created by the International Labour Organization to combat
child labor.
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