EVOLVING A STRATEGY FOR
DEVELOPING
SELF-MANAGED LEARNING (SML)
SKILLS
AMONG STUDENT-TEACHERS
VOLUME I
A Thesis Submitted to
The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN EDUCATION
Guide
Prof. N. Pradhan
Investigator
Ms. Lisa Joseph
CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDY IN EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION & PSYCHOLOGY
THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA
VADODARA 390 002
AUGUST 2013
CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDY IN EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION & PSYCHOLOGY
THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA
VADODARA 390 002
Certificate
This is to certify that the thesis entitled ―Evolving a Strategy for Developing SelfManaged Learning (SML) Skills among Student-Teachers” is an authentic and
original research work carried out by Mrs. Lisa Joseph in Centre of Advanced
Study in Education, Faculty of Education and Psychology, The M.S. University of
Baroda, Vadodara. No portion of this thesis is a reproduction from any other source,
published or unpublished without acknowledgement.
It is further stated that the doctoral research was carried out fulfilling the requisite
attendance criteria as per Ph.D. : 3(i) of The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara.
August, 2013
Vadodara
Guide
Prof. N. Pradhan
Head & Coordinator,
Dept. of Educational Administration,
Faculty of Education & Psychology,
The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I praise God Almighty for His great wisdom, strength and guidance throughout the
endeavour. It is not by my strength but by His spirit, this study has been done.
I take this fine opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude to my guide,
Prof. N. Pradhan, Head & Coordinator, Dept. of Educational Administration,
Faculty of Education & Psychology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda,
Vadodara, under whose constant supervision and encouragement the work has been
completed. I am grateful to him for his untiring patience and readiness to help me at
any time.
I am grateful to Prof. R.G. Kothari, Dean, CASE, Faculty of Education &
Psychology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, for his timely
help and co-operation to carry out the study.
I would also like to thank Prof. S.C. Panigrahi, Head, CASE, Faculty of Education
& Psychology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, for his
timely help and co-operation to carry out the study.
I am also grateful to Prof. S. Kumar, Retd. Dean, Faculty of Education &
Psychology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, for all his
help to carry out the study during the initial stages of the study.
I also take this opportunity to thank Prof. Annu Poonia, Principal, Vidya Bhavan
Teacher Training College, Udaipur, Dr. A.K. Paliwal, Reader, Vidya Bhavan
Teacher Training College, Udaipur, Dr. Sushma Taleshra, Reader, Vidya Bhavan
Teacher Training College, Udaipur, Prof. Arun Scaria, Retd. Vice-Principal, B.N.
College, Udaipur, for their painstaking effort in going through the material and
giving valuable suggestions.
Again my thanks goes to Mr. Dwivedi, Principal, Nimbark Teacher Training
college, Udaipur, Mrs. Madhu, Nimbark Teacher Training college, Udaipur, Mr.
Hanumanji, Nimbark Teacher Training College, Udaipur, and Mrs. Ameta,
Nimbark Teacher Training College, Udaipur for giving me the opportunity to
conduct the try out studies of the strategy.
I am also thankful to Dr. K.S. George, Principal, Titus II Teachers College,
Tiruvalla, Kerala, all the teachers and student-teachers of the college for their kind
co-operation for data collection.
I must thank my husband, Mr. Thomas Mathew and my family members for their
genuine help and inspiration to complete the work.
Sincere thanks and gratitude are expressed by the investigator to all those who have
contributed directly or indirectly to make this study a success.
August, 2013
Lisa Joseph
CONTENTS
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Content
List of Tables
List of Figures/Charts
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Learning in Historical Perspective
1.3
Definition of Learning
1.3.1 Learning as Acquisition of Knowledge
1.3.2 Learning as Acquisition of Skills
1.3.3 Learning as Acquisition of Attitude
1.4
Different Types of Learning
1.4.1 Active Learning and Passive Learning
1.4.2 Surface (Rote) Learning and Deep Learning
1.4.3 Horizontal Learning and Vertical Learning
1.5
Theories of Learning
1.5.1 Behaviourist Approach
1.5.2 Cognitivist Approach
1.5.3 Constructivist Approach
1.6
Components of Effective Learning
1.6.1 World Knowledge
1.6.2 Knowledge of Cognitive Strategies
1.6.3 Knowledge of Meta-cognitive Strategies
1.7
The Process of Learning
1.7.1 The Information Processing Theory
1.7.2 Implications for Learning
1.8
The Self-Managed Learning Strategy
1.8.1 Assumptions of the Present Study
1.8.2 The Modules
1.8.2.1 Goal Setting Skill
1.8.2.2 Information Location Skill
1.8.2.3 Information Processing Skill
1.8.2.4 Information Storing Skill
1.8.2.5 Information Retention Skill
1.8.2.6 Information Retrieval Skill
1.8.3 The Hypothesis of the Study
1.9
Rationale of the Study
1.10 Research Questions
1.11 Statement of the Problem
1.12 Objectives of the Study
Page No.
i
ii
iv
viii
ix
01-44
01
05
06
07
08
08
09
09
09
10
10
11
12
14
17
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19
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23
24
29
30
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31
32
33
33
33
34
34
35
35
39
40
40
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
Hypothesis of the Study
Operational Definitions of the Key Terms
Scope of the Study
Delimitations of the Study
Organization of the Report
CHAPTER 2 : REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.3
3.4
45-71
Introduction
45
Studies related to the Development of Self-Instructional Materials 46
Studies related to Cognitive Strategies
51
Studies related to Meta-Cognitive Strategies
58
Studies related to Study Skills/ Self-Managed Learning
63
Implications of the Review on the Present Study
69
CHAPTER 3: PLAN & PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY
3.1
3.2
40
41
42
42
43
72-96
Introduction
Development of the Strategy
3.2.1 Steps for Development of the Strategy
3.2.1.1 Conceptualization
3.2.1.2 Determination of Requirements
3.2.1.3 Identification of Skills, Sub-Skills & Techniques
Required for SML
3.2.1.4 Content Analysis
3.2.1.5 Determination of Terminal Behaviour
3.2.1.6 Development of the Strategy
3.2.1.7 Experts‘ Opinion and Views
3.2.1.8 Try Out
3.2.1.9 Preparation of the Final Draft
Effectiveness of the Strategy
3.3.1 Research Design
3.3.2 Variables of the Study
3.3.3 Population
3.3.4 Sample selected for the Study
3.3.5 Materials and Tools Used for the Study
3.3.6 Preparation of Tools for the Study
3.3.6.1 Preparation of Achievement Tests
3.3.6.2 Preparation of Opinionnaire
3.3.7 Procedure of Experiment
3.3.7.1 Preparation of the Group of Learners
for the Experiment
3.3.7.2 Administration of Pre-test
3.3.7.3 Establishing Equivalence of EG & CG
3.3.7.4 Administration of the Experimental Treatment
3.3.7.5 Administration of Post-Test
3.3.8 Data Analysis
Conclusion
72
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92
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96
CHAPTER 4 : DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION 97-144
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Introduction
Identification of the Skills, Sub-Skills and Techniques
for SML
Development of the SML Strategy
4.3.1 Preparation of the First Draft of the Strategy
4.3.2 Preparation of the Second Draft of the Strategy
4.3.2.1 Modifications made in the Strategy after
finding out Expert‘s Opinion
4.3.2.2 Modifications made in the Strategy after
Conducting the Pilot Study
4.3.3 Preparation of the Final Draft of the Strategy
Effectiveness of the SML Strategy
4.4.1 Performance of the Student-Teachers in Pre-Test
and Post-Test
4.4.1.1 Comparison of CG and EG with regard to
Pre-Test Scores
4.4.1.2 Comparison of CG and EG with regard to
Post-Test Scores
4.4.1.3 Comparison of Pre-Test and Post-Test
Scores of EG
4.4.1.4 Comparison of Pre-Test and Post-Test
Scores of CG
4.4.1.5 Comparative Performance of Student-Teachers
of EG in Various Skills of the Strategy
4.4.1.6 Student-Teachers of EG Performing at
Mastery Level
4.4.2 Opinion of the Student-Teachers towards the
Various Components of the SML Strategy
4.4.2.1 Opinion of the Experimental Group about
the First Module of the Strategy
4.4.2.2 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the
Second Module of the Strategy
4.4.2.3 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the
Third Module of the Strategy
4.4.2.4 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the
Fourth Module of the Strategy
4.4.2.5 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the
Fifth Module of the Strategy
4.4.2.6 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the
Sixth Module of the Strategy
4.4.2.7 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the
SML Strategy as a Whole
4.4.3 Opinion of the Experts About the SML Strategy
Discussion of the Findings of the Study
Major Findings of the Study
Conclusion
97
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144
CHAPTER 5 : SUMMARY
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
145-162
Introduction
Components of Effective Learning
The Process of Learning
The Self-Managed Learning Strategy
5.4.1 Assumptions of the Present Study
5.4.2 The Modules
Research Questions
Statement of the Problem
Objectives of the Study
Hypothesis of the Study
Scope of the Study
Delimitations of the Study
Methodology of the Study
5.11.1 Methodology of Developing the Strategy
5.11.2 Effectiveness of the Strategy
5.11.2.1 Research Design
5.11.2.2 Independent Variable
5.11.2.3 Dependent Variable
5.11.2.4 Sample
5.11.2.5 Materials and Tools used for the Study
5.11.2.6 Procedure of Validation of the Strategy in Brief
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Tenability of the Hypothesis
Major Findings of the Study
Suggestions for Further Research
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
Appendix I
Appendix II
Appendix III
Appendix IV
Appendix V
Appendix VI
Appendix VII
Appendix VIII
Appendix IX
Appendix X
Appendix XI
Appendix XII
Appendix XIII
Pre-Test
Post-Test
Answer key (Pre-Test)
Answer key (Post-Test)
Scoring key (Pre-Test/Post Test)
Opinionnaire (Module 1)
Opinionnaire (Module 2)
Opinionnaire (Module 3)
Opinionnaire (Module 4)
Opinionnaire (Module 5)
Opinionnaire (Module 6)
Opinionnaire (Self-Managed Learning Strategy)
Blue-Print
145
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151
151
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152
153
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156
156
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161
163-169
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Title
Page No.
3.1
Design of the Experiment
83
3.2
Details of Group
86
3.3
Weightage to Objectives
88
3.4
Weightage to Content
88
3.5
Weightage to Form of Questions
89
3.6
Weightage to Difficulty Level
89
3.7
Test of Significance of the Difference between Means
of Pre-test scores between EG and CG
94
Test of Significance of Difference between Means of
Pre-Test Scores of EG and CG
114
Test of Significance of Difference between Means of
Post-test Scores of EG and CG
116
Test of Significance of Difference between Means of
Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of EG
119
Test of Significance of Difference between Means of
Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of CG
120
Mean of Percentage of Marks obtained by the StudentTeachers of EG in the Various Skills of the Strategy
122
4.6
Performance of EG and CG in Post-Test
123
4.7
Student-Teachers EG & CG Performing at Mastery Level
124
4.8
Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 1)
125
4.9
Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 2)
127
4.10
Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 3)
129
4.11
Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 4)
130
4.12
Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 5)
132
4.13
Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 6)
134
4.14
Analysis of Opinionnaire (SML Strategy as a Whole)
135
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
LIST OF FIGURES/CHARTS
Fig./ Chart
Title
Page No.
Fig. 1.1
The Information Processing Model
25
Chart 4.1
Mean of Pre-Test Scores of EG and CG
115
Chart 4.2
Mean Scores of EG and CG in Various Skills of the SML
Strategy
117
Chart 4.3
Mean of Post-Test Scores of EG and CG
118
Chart 4.4
Mean of Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of EG
119
Chart 4.5
Mean of Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of CG
121
Volume II
Module –Goal Setting Skill
Module-II Information Location skill
Module-III Processing skill
Module-IV Information Storing skill
Module-V Information Retention Skill
Module- Vi Information Retrieval skill
232
261
292
313
334
350
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Education, as it is generally understood today is nothing but preparing people for
life. It is conventionally seen as a highly structured exposure to planned learning so
that the learners would acquire the required knowledge, skills and attitudes for living
life efficiently and effectively. Much of what people learn, are the result of this
interaction with both their physical and social environment around them. From the
time of their birth, individuals are exposed to the environment. As they listen to
what is spoken around or watch objects, they begin to take in details pertaining to
them. When what is perceived is organized into coherent whole, they begin to
understand. What is understood is retained. As a result of this type of retention,
knowledge and skills are acquired in an informal manner. As Piaget (1972) notes,
through the processes of assimilation and accommodation they keep on adding to
their world knowledge. However, this sort of informal learning is a slow process. It
would take a long time for people to learn all what they need to learn. To overcome
this difficulty and to help people acquire knowledge and skills they require, formal
system of education was introduced. Thus people generally learn, both through
informal and formal ways.
Apart from the informal and formal systems of education, there is yet another
agency that is at work today to provide people with education. Many people owing
to one or the other reason fail to get the formal education. To provide such people
opportunities, open schools and universities have been established. Unlike formal
system of education, no strict rules are being followed to get admitted into this type
of open institutions. These organizations prepare their own study materials and
supply the learners with them. These materials are self-contained and learners can
learn on their own at any place and time convenient to them. There is no face to face
instruction in these organizations as in the case of formal ones. However, in case, the
learners have problems in understanding, counseling sessions are made available to
make their doubts clear. So there are three types of agencies at work to provide
learners with opportunities for learning.
In spite of this, education today is encompassed by several problems. The world we
live in today has seen during the last four decades, much more changes than it had
seen from that period back to its inception. As Copa and Pease (1991) note, factors
such as expanding role of technology, changing job demands, increasingly global
inter-dependence of people, world wide competitions and markets, ecological
concerns and growing demand for improved system of education, shifts in the make
up of the labour forces, etc. are contributing in a big way to the drastic and pervasive
changes that are taking place all over the world. The world we live in therefore is
marked by continuous growth of knowledge and its application. This has brought
about many changes in all spheres of life and this has dramatically altered the life
style of people all over the world. As a result, more than ever before, people of today
use sophisticated tools and machinery both in their professional and personal lives.
As a result, the required work and social skills are becoming more and more
complex and sophisticated day-by-day. Traditional knowledge and skills are no
more capable of coping with the changing needs of the changing times. People are
left with no alternatives but change or perish. The skills and knowledge that seem to
be relevant today are becoming obsolete and outdated within a short span of time.
Old skills and knowledge are being replaced by new knowledge and skills. Under
these circumstances, people are compelled to keep on learning. People are therefore
forced to be lifelong learners.
As Erickson (1995) notes, people in general, among other things, need higher order
skills, technological competence, self-learning ability. In the same way, Sternberg
and Gregoren (2007) also note the need for learning to learn skills or self-directed
learning. They note that the people of today confront a world of changing
technologies, changing economies and changing job demands where permanent
positions are being replaced by short-term contracts. Ongoing full-time jobs are
being replaced by projects and field- work. In real life, no long-term mentality
means that individuals must constantly look for jobs, keep moving and be flexible,
innovative and resourceful. This implies that individuals can no longer go on with
the knowledge and skills they have picked up in schools and universities. If they are
to meet the challenging needs of the changing times, they have to continue learning
throughout their lives.
As it is seen, the existing knowledge and skills become irrelevant and as a result,
individuals have to change job skills several times in a life time. As Mc Clusky
(1974) puts it, it is impossible to provide the youngsters with a set of vocational
skills which will serve them throughout their lives. Unfortunately, schools and
colleges also do not make any attempt at inculcating learning to learn skills among
their students. When people find their skills and knowledge outdated, they may not
easily find experts waiting around them to help them overcome the situation. Under
such circumstances, people are left with no choice but learn the learning to learn
skills. Only when people are made educable they can be autodidactic and become
self-directed learners. To make people autodidactic and self-directed learners is no
simple task.
A person who is educable is one who has attained certain level of capacity for selflearning. As Cropley and Dave (1978) observe, when an individual attains the
capacity for self-learning, self-evaluation as well as positive attitude to learning,
desire for continued learning and a self-image as a learner, he or she can be
considered educable. Cropley and Dave continue to note that educability means
possessing of appropriate learning skills such as the ability to set oneself learning
tasks, to make use of the resources available for carrying them out and to judge
whether or not results meet the needs of the situation.
Only when people develop basic educability, they can be autodidactic. As
Dermazedier and Gisors (1983) state, when such factors as appropriate levels of
motivation, positive attitude, self-definition of oneself as a learner, belief in one‘s
own ability to learn, etc. are sufficiently developed, an individual can be
autodidactic. When all these qualities are available in an individual, he or she can
become a self-directed learner. In self-directed learning, learners do not learn simply
for the sake of learning. In it, they are playing the role of both the teacher and the
learner. In self-directed learning, the learners will find ways of meeting them. Selfdirected learning is thus a way of learning in which the learners set their own goals
for their own performance and devise learning strategies.
Learning to learn or self-managed learning as Megginson et al. (2001) state is the
most fundamental learning of all. As Hudgson et al. (1998) observe, the ability to
learn and become masters of one‘s own learning is the most important critical issue
for the 21st century. As Megginson et al. (2001) and Cottrell (2003) observe, the
benefits that self-directed learning or self-managed learning can shower forth are not
few. As they observe, learning is the key to developing a person‘s potential and
learning to learn is the key to effective learning. The capacity to learn to learn is an
asset that never becomes obsolete. Self-directed learning enables the individual to
meet the demands of change. It also gives people more choice about when and
where to study as well as how to study. In addition, it makes learning more effective
and enjoyable.
Further, there is no doubt that the quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its
citizens and the quality of the citizens is greatly dependent on the quality of their
teachers. The teachers of today are considered as facilitators of knowledge and not
dispensers of knowledge and skills. This implies that teachers are supposed to help
learners to learn on their own, so that they can become independent learners and thus
take responsibility of their own learning. Since the students enrolled in teachereducation programs are the future teachers of the nation, the investigator felt that
they are the most appropriate candidates to be equipped with learning-to-learn skills.
Moreover, by developing self-managed learning skills among student-teachers, they
will be better equipped to transmit the same knowledge and skills to their students
and thus turn out to be producers of life long learners. Thus a study that focuses on
developing self-managed learning skills among student-teachers is an issue that
needs due attention.
As it has been already discussed, existing knowledge and skills are becoming
obsolete within a short span of time and new knowledge and skills are taking their
place. Under these circumstances, if the required knowledge and skills for selflearning are identified, organized and developed into a strategy and made available
to people, they will be able to learn on their own and continue to live efficiently and
effectively. So development of a strategy of this kind was thought important. The
present study is an attempt in this direction. However, before embarking upon the
evolvement of the strategy, it was thought relevant to discuss at length what learning
is, what are the different ways in which people learn, the different theories of
learning are, components of effective learning, etc. In what follows, learning is
discussed in its historical perspective.
1.2
LEARNING IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
As it is generally known, humanity in its course of evolution has undergone several
stages. As it can be well presumed, there had been some sort of education going on
at all stages. It is pertinent here at least to look at education during the nomadic
days, education during settled life, and education in the gurukula days.
Education During Nomadic Days
As it can be generally understood, education and learning, to begin with, was a
symbiotic process. As the father went to the forest for hunting animals, gathering
fruits and digging out roots he took with him his sons and taught them the art of
hunting animals, gathering fruits and digging out roots. Meanwhile, the mother
stayed back and taught her daughters all that she needed to be taught. In this way,
the parents taught their children all what needed to be learned. In those days, the
knowledge and skills needed were very limited.
Education During Settled Life
Once humans started settled life and began agriculture, their education began to take
another form. Settled life and agriculture gave them a lot of leisure time as they did
not have to struggle as in their nomadic days. People began to live in groups. During
leisure time, they indulged in various social activities like sports and games, etc. In
the course of time, people with leadership qualities, began to exercise their control
over others. As a result, kings and nobles came into existence. During the days of
their settled life, they taught their children skills for carrying out agriculture,
maintaining home, etc.
Education During the Gurukula Days
In course of time, the kings and nobles wanted their sons to be educated. They put
them under the care of people who were known for their knowledge and wisdom.
This system of education known as gurukula system of education, in course of time
became more systematic. The children stayed with the guru in his residence. The
guru taught them skills and attitude. In those days, people did not need as much
knowledge and skills as required today. The learners left gurukulas only when their
education was completed. The education they got there was enough to lead a good
life.
Education Under the Corporate System
The gurukula system of education continued for long. However, by the middle of the
19th century, more pupils than the gurukula system could hold, came forward for
learning. To accommodate them all, the corporate system known as schools and
colleges were set up. With this more and more children began to attend schools.
Looking into the needs of individuals and groups, curricula was prepared and
experts called teachers were appointed. With all this, education became more
formal. Education in the corporate system, unlike those in the informal ways of
learning, was not natural but artificially created for the purpose of exposure, so that
children would learn.
As education and learning became common, scholars became more curious and
wanted to explore what happens when learning takes place. Many of them have
come out with their own definitions of learning and what happens when learning
takes place.
1.3
DEFINITION OF LEARNING
Nothing is so natural to us as learning and accomplishment are. Although learning is
an important topic in present day psychology, it is an extremely difficult concept to
define. To learn, as the Oxford English Dictionary defines it, is to gain knowledge or
skill in a particular field. According to Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia,
learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviours, skills,
values or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information.
Both these definitions emphasize the results of learning rather than the process itself.
The American writer, Peter Senge (1990) is critical of the view that equates learning
with the taking in of information; an act which he believes is only distinctly related
to real learning. In his opinion, real learning is closely related to what it means to be
human. In an almost metaphysical way he believes that ―Through learning we
recreate ourselves. Through learning we become able to do something we were
never able to do. Through learning we extend our capacity to create, to be part of the
generative process of life.‖
Learning is generally understood as a word that describes a change in an individual‘s
range and repertoire of behaviour. Psychologists usually define learning as a
relatively permanent change in behaviour due to past experience (Coon, 1985). After
having examined the several definitions of learning available, Arends (1994)
observes that most psychologists perceive learning as a relatively permanent change
in an individual‘s potential behaviour due to experience. A close examination of the
above definitions would soon reveal that learning mainly involves three aspects,
namely (i) some relatively permanent changes in the learner‘s behaviour, (ii) the
change may be in the potential rather than necessarily in the actual performance, and
(iii) the change must come about as a result of experience. The changes that occur in
an individual owing to learning may be felt in the existing cognitive structure
indicative of intellectual growth, development of newer life skills, methodological
skills, attitude, interests, etc. Thus owing to learning, changes could be experienced
not only in the individual‘s cognitive domain but also in their affective as well as in
the psychomotor domains.
1.3.1
Learning as Acquisition of Knowledge
Knowledge relates to information and understanding one gains through education or
experience. As learners focus their attention on what is heard or what is seen, details
pertaining to it enters the mind through the various sensory organs. As the
information enters the mind, prior knowledge pertaining to the matter already stored
in the memory sites also is drawn and both the incoming new knowledge and prior
knowledge get integrated and as a result knowledge is generated. This knowledge
that is constructed, depending upon the nature of processing involved, may go into
six hierarchical levels, viz. knowledge, understanding, application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation. While learning one should not be satisfied with just the
attainment of the lower level of knowledge such as knowing and understanding.
Real inculcation of knowledge visualizes the attainment of higher levels of
knowledge such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
1.3.2
Learning as Acquisition of Skills
As a result of learning, knowledge is not the only thing that is being attained. Along
with knowledge, learners pick up both skills and attitudes. A skill is a learned
activity that one develops through practice and reflection. To be skilled means to be
able to perform a learned activity well at will. Each major skill may consist of a
number of sub-skills. It is the totality of all these component skills that make up the
overall skill.
Skills as an ability to perform something, includes proficiency, competence and
expertise in the activity. Learning to drive a motor car, swinging a tennis racket or
even tying a shoe lace, etc. are examples of skills. As practice of such skills
continues, they become automatic and can be performed with little conscious
thought. As the skill become automated the brain processes shift from reflective to
reflexive.
1.3.3
Learning as Acquisition of Attitude
Apart from acquiring knowledge and skills, learning involves development of
attitudes. Attitude is a mental state held by an individual which affects the way that
person responds to events and organizes responses. Attitudes are commonly held to
have three essential components, namely (i) a cognitive dimension involving beliefs
and rationalizations that explain the holding of the attitude, (ii) an affective
dimension involving the emotional aspects of attitude such as likes, dislikes, feelings
of distaste, and (iii) a conative or behavioural dimension which involves the extent
to which the individuals are prepared to act on the attitude that they hold.
1.4
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNING
Depending upon the objectives for which people learn, they resort to different types
of learning. The main types of learning are (i) Active and Passive Learning, (ii)
Surface (rote) learning and Deep Learning, and (iii) Horizontal learning and Vertical
learning. The learning types have been presented in their two extreme forms in the
following section:
1.4.1
Active Learning and Passive Learning
Dewey (1933) described learning as an individual process, something that a person
does, not something done to one. He continues to note that learning is not an affair
of being told, but an active constructive process. Bruner‘s (1966) research confirmed
that people who are actively involved in making sense of the world rather than
passive receivers of information learn better. He explained that it is not, enough to
merely gather information. The more the learners are involved in the process of
learning, the greater is the retention. In active learning students use active methods
like role playing, project, assignment, inquiry and discovery or other such activities
for learning. They are at the centre of learning. As learners are actively involved,
they understand better. This results in better learning. Conversely, when people learn
through expository methods like lecture, demonstrations, etc. they have no role to
play. They remain passive, as research shows, passive learning results only in low
retention. In Self-Directed Learning, as learning is self-directed, it would yield
greater retention.
1.4.2
Surface (rote) Learning and Deep Learning
In surface learning, the teeth of the learner do not sink deep into the subject matter.
The learning is superficial. The main objective of rote learning is only to commit the
matter to memory or learn it by heart. The main techniques used for this type of
learning are repetition and drilling. When a learner tries to by-heart a poem for
example, he or she is repeating the poem over and over again, till they are able to
speak it out without any interruption. Similarly, when learners attempt to by heart
multiplication tables, they also resort to simple repetition until, they are able to
speak it out without support.
Unlike in rote learning, learners who are involved in deep learning, subject the
content mater to deep processing. They are not simply satisfied with getting a
superficial type of knowledge of the content they are learning. They not only strive
and attain the lower order skills of perception and understanding but also cross over
to the higher realms of higher order skills like analysis (critical thinking), synthesis
(creative thinking) and evaluation (judgment). Only when learners cultivate the habit
of deep learning, they will be able to make decisions, solve problems and
accomplish tasks with ease and efficiency.
1.4.3
Horizontal Learning and Vertical Learning
Apart from active and passive learning and rote and deep learning, there is yet
another type of learning known as Horizontal and Vertical learning. In vertical
learning, the learner goes deeper into the subject matter and tries to get firm grip
over the concepts being studied. The objective of such learning is to come into grip
with the subject matter and have mastery over it. In horizontal learning, on the other
hand, the objective is to cover the subject matter and other areas that are related to it.
In other words, horizontal learning is concerned with covering larger areas of subject
matter while vertical learning is concerned with going deeper into the concepts with
a view to getting mastery over it.
As seen above, even though there are different types of learning, it is the objectives
of learning that decides what type of learning is to be used in a learning situation. As
a self-directed learner, it is the role of the learner to decide which type of learning is
to be used, when and where.
1.5
THEORIES OF LEARNING
In the immediately preceding sections, attempts were made to define what learning
is, and what different types of learning are there. In the section that comes below,
different theories of learning are discussed. Learning as a process focuses on what
happens when learning takes place. From the end of the 18th century to the present,
several schools of thought existed and each school tried to study learning and bring
out their own theories as to what learning is. A learning theory is an attempt to
describe how people learn thereby helping people understand the inherently complex
process of learning. Multiple theories continue to evolve with each addition to the
knowledge base in the field of learning. If this goes on at this rate, in the foreseeable
future, there will undoubtedly be numerous competing theories on learning as well
as numerous variants of those theories to cover specific types of individuals and
learning situations. According to Hill (2002), learning theories mainly play two main
roles. One of these roles is that they provide us with vocabularies and conceptual
frameworks for interpreting the examples of learning that are observed. The other
role that theories play is to give suggestions as to where to look for solutions to
practical problems. The theories do not provide us with solutions, but they do direct
our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions.
Even though there are quite a number of theories as well as their variants, three of
the most important theories are taken up and described here, namely, (i)
Behaviourism, (ii) Cognitivism, and (iii) Constructivism. These three theories are
taken up and discussed so as to illustrate the commonalities and differences existing
among them.
1.5.1
Behaviourist Approach
Behaviourism as a theory of learning was primarily developed by B.F. Skinner. It
loosely encompasses the work of scholars like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie
and Hull. What characterize these investigators are their underlying assumptions
about the process of learning. All of them hold three basic assumptions related to
learning. The first of these assumptions is that learning is manifested by a change in
behaviour. Second, the environment shapes behaviour. And third, the principle of
contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and
reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be
repeated). These three basic assumptions are central to explaining the basic process
of learning according to behaviourism.
This approach is thus concerned with changes in an individual‘s behaviour that
occurs as a result to learning. Therefore, the behavioralist focuses primarily on the
development of skills and abilities, as opposed to knowledge. For behaviorism,
learning is the acquisition of new behaviour through conditioning, referred to as
classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is a process whereby a
subject is conditioned to respond to a certain stimulus from the environment. A well
known example of this process is Pavlov‘s dog, which was trained to salivate when a
bell was rung. This training was accomplished by repeatedly ringing a bell just prior
to the dog‘s receiving food.
The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and the word
‗operant‘ refers to the way in which behaviour ‗operates on the environment‘.
Briefly, a behaviour may result either in reinforcement, which increases the
likelihood of the behaviour recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood
of the behaviour recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not
considered to be applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the behaviour, and
so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of actions.
Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable
changes in behaviour.
The behaviourists approach has been shown to work for relatively simple skills, but
it is not effective when more complex tasks need to be learned. This approach is
particularly ineffective when there is a strong cognitive component involved (such
as decision making), or when temporal pairing is not feasible. According to temporal
pairing, it is important that the time lag between the operant response and the
feedback be relatively short, so that the individual will correctly pair the behaviour
with the feedback.
1.5.2
Cognitivist Approach
The earliest challenge to the behaviourists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a
gestalt psychologist. He criticized behaviourists for being too dependent on overt
behaviour to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns
rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into
what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this
cognitive approach: (1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of
information and (2) that the prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.
Cognitive theories look beyond behaviour to explain brain based learning. They are
concerned with the changes in an individual‘s knowledge that result from experience
with a stimulus environment. The cognitive approach is based upon the concept of
schemata, or mental models, by which individuals organize their perceived
environment. During learning, these schematic structures change by the processes of
specialization and generalization. Specialization involves the integration of new
information and experiences into existing schemata. Generalization is the process of
modifying existing schemata or of creating new ones. For these processes to work in
a training environment, it is necessary to provide multiple opportunities for the
individual to make changes and additions to existing models based on experience
with the environment.
Mental models exist in long- term memory. Therefore, to make training effective,
learning must transfer from short-term memory to long-term memory. Different
theories have arisen as to the means by which this transfer occurs. What is important
to realize is that an effective learning environment must facilitate this transfer. An
individual‘s mere recollection of a training event, even in minute detail, does not by
itself assure that learning has taken place, because this recollection may involve only
short-term memory. A training program must incorporate multiple exposures and the
right kinds of exposures to the environment and provide feedback from it, in order
for this transfer to take place.
According to the cognitive approach, in order to ensure that changes in knowledge
occur, the learning must be ―meaningful‖. That is, there must be perceived
consequences for integrating new knowledge or for failing to do so. Cognitivists
consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the
physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into shortterm memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the
cognitive theory.
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shriffin memory model and Baddeley‘s
working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive
psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the
1970s, 80s and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive
load and information processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in
influencing instructional design. Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning
how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning and memory as related to
age.
Educators employing a cognitivists approach to learning would view learning as
internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory,
perception) where in order to develop learner capacity and skills to improve
learning, the educator structures content of learning activities to focus on building
intelligence and cognitive and meta cognitive skills.
1.5.3
Constructivists Approach
The learning theories of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky and John Dewey
serve as the foundation of constructivist learning theory. Constructivism views
learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or
concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. Thus constructivism
is based on the belief that learning is a self-assembly process. In other words,
―learning involves constructing one‘s own knowledge from one‘s own experience.‖
Constructivists suggest that individuals ―construct‖ their understanding of a topic
area through two processes: conflict resolution and reflection. Constructivist
learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts,
rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real world
context. Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning,
discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety,
constructivism promotes a student‘s free exploration within a given framework or
structure. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover
principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic
problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning,
transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition and reflective
practice and religious practice.
The characteristics of constructivism are as follows:

Students construct their own knowledge of the world.

Learning is a search for meaning, looking for wholes as well as parts.

To teach well we have to understand what students are thinking

Standardised curricula are antithetical to constructivism

Learning is self-directed and active.

Learning derives from experiences.

Knowledge is constructed internally by the learner rather than transmitted
from an external source.

Learning takes time.

Learning involves language

Learning involves higher order thinking.

Learners continuously organize, reorganize, structure and restructure new
experiences to fit them to existing schemata, knowledge and conceptual
structures through an adaptation process of assimilation and accommodation
to accord with new views of reality, in striving for homeostasis (equilibrium)
– the balance between assimilation and accommodation.

Knowledge is uncertain, evolutionary, pragmatic and tentative.

Knowledge and understanding are constructed by the learner rather than
imparted by the teacher.

Knowledge is socially and culturally mediated and located.

Learning is an individual and a social activity.

Learning is self-regulated.

Intelligent thought involves metacognition.

Learning is, in part, an organizational process to make sense of the world.

What someone knows is not passively received but actively assembled by the
learner.

Knowledge is accommodated to learners‘ personal existing understanding,
changing their frames of reference through adaptation.

Learning is marked by the learners‘ capacities to explore and experiment.

Knowledge is revisionary and multisensory.

People generate their own mental models to make sense of their experience.

Motivation is critical to effective learning.

Knowledge is creative, individual and personal.

Learning is marked by the learner‘s capacities to explore and experiment.
In the above section, different theories of learning such as behaviourism,
cognitivism and constructivism are discussed. As it could be seen, one could see
how the concept of learning has undergone substantial change. In the first half of the
20th century when the behaviourist thoughts were dominant, learning was considered
to be a response strengthening process. However, during the next two decades the
cognitivist school of thought prevailed. The cognitivists considered learning as
acquisition of knowledge and skills. Thereafter, the constructivist school of thought
came to be favoured. The constructivist believed that knowledge is not passively
caught but rather, it is actively constructed. Thus it is seen that over the last century,
the concept of learning has been undergoing substantial changes. At present, it is
generally believed that learning is self-directed and active. It derives from
experience. Knowledge is constructed internally by the learners rather than
transmitted from an external source. As learners construct, they continually
organize, reorganize, structure, and restructure to fit them into existing schema.
While preparing the strategy the investigator has taken into consideration several
aspects of cognitivists theory of learning and constructivism. Among them
information processing theory which belongs to the cognitivist theory of learning is
important and thus has been discussed in detail in a later section of the chapter.
Further the strategy is an attempt to enable the learners to construct knowledge on
their own. Thus the present trend of pedagogy as proposed by NCERT, which lays
emphasis on the theory of constructivism is also reflected through the strategy.
Further, if learning is to be effective, learners ought to know the various components
that lead to effective learning.
1.6
COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING
In the previous sections, discussion has already been made about the historical
perspective of learning, the different types of learning, and the theories of learning.
In what follows attempt is made to explain the different components of effective
learning. If the learners are to learn effectively, they have to fulfill certain
prerequisites. They need to develop sufficient level of world knowledge, knowledge
of cognitive strategies and knowledge of metacognitive strategies. Only when all
these prerequisites are met at sufficient level, individuals can turn out to be effective
learners. According to Garry D. Borich (1996), effective learning has three major
components namely (i) world knowledge (ii) knowledge of cognitive strategies, and
(iii) knowledge of meta-cognitive strategies. As these components play crucial role
in effective learning, they need to be discussed at length.
1.6.1
World Knowledge
Infants at the time of birth, as Piaget (1972) notes, are born with a few practical
instincts such as sucking, looking, grasping, reaching etc which Piaget called as
schemas – a unit of cognitive structure in the shape of a general ability. These
schemas with their content form the basic structure of the human mind (Myers,
1986). As infants grow, they begin to interact with their immediate social and
physical environment. In the process, their cognitive structure begins to develop
through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. If the action they are
presently involved are similar to their earlier actions, they get assimilated into their
cognitive structure. However, if the action involves something novel, they
accommodate it into their cognitive structure. Thus as infants grow into childhood
and adolescence, they increase their knowledge and skills. The total of all that is
stored in their long term storage form the basis for their view of the world around
them. It helps them to make sense out of the various events, to understand the laws
of nature, to recognize cause and effect and to form decisions about goodness, truth,
and beauty. This total construct of how they see the world as Sousa (2006) observed
is called the cognitive belief system.
Deep within the cognitive system of the people lies their self-concept. Their
cognitive belief system portrays the way they see the world. Their self-concept be it
positive or negative, describes the way they see themselves. Their self-concept is
shaped by their past experiences. Some of their experiences like passing a difficult
test, or getting recognition for doing a job well can raise their self-concept while
experiences like receiving reprimand or failure to accomplish a task would lower
their self-concept. The additions of new positive or negative experiences moderate
their self-concept and alter the way they see the world around them. It is their
experience that determines their confidence level, and willingness to take risks, etc.
In short, as Antony Robbins (1991) observes, it is experiences that provide the
building blocks for the people‘s beliefs, rules and values. Experiences are all what
people have recorded within their nervous system. Everything that they have seen,
heard, touched, tasted, etc are stored in their long term memory sites. People‘s past
experiences have a lot to offer in their attempt at learning. If they believe that they
are good at learning, they should have sufficient number of instances to support that
belief. Limited experiences create limited life. If people want to expand their lives,
they need to extend their knowledge and skills by pursuing ideas and experiences.
Learning is ‗marked by the learners‘ capacity to explore and experiment. The more
their experiences, the greater is the possibility for the expansion of their knowledge
and skills. The deeper their knowledge, the greater is their possibility of their being
intuitive and wise. Intuition as Robbins (2003) notes is an unconscious process
created out of distilled experiences. It is again experiences that equip people with
wisdom and common sense. It is their wisdom, observes Covey (1992), that make
people avoid past mistakes, increase their self-worth, boost their self-confidences
and help them make decisions and solve problems.
As already noted, wisdom, intuition and common sense, etc are all creations out of
distilled experiences. People who are wise can see through things easily, make
decisions and solve problems as compared with people who are ignorant. It is now
generally believed that knowledge and skills are constructed internally by the
learners rather than transmitted from an external source. Learning is marked by the
learner‘s capacity to explore and experiment. They continually organize, reorganize,
structure and restructure new concepts and skills. Construction of new concepts and
skills involves integration of already stored information in the long term memory
sites and incoming new information. In the absence of prior knowledge, construction
of new knowledge and skills become difficult. A child, for example, who is not
having sufficient world knowledge, may not be able to differentiate between a ‗boat‖
and a ‗ship‘, nor can he see a ‗hill‘ different from a ‗mountain‘.
In short, as it is understood, the presence or absence of knowledge of the world
makes a lot of difference in learning. So individuals who aspire to be efficient
learners need to build up a sound knowledge base pertaining to the world in general.
1.6.2
Knowledge of Cognitive Strategies
Having a sound knowledge base of the world alone may not make people effective
learners. Apart from that, they should have sound knowledge about cognitive
strategies. Cognitive strategies, as Woolfolk (2006) defines, are ideas for
accomplishing learning goals-a kind of overall plan of attack. They are general
methods of thinking that improve learning across a variety of situations. Years of
research indicates that using good learning strategies help learners‘ in their learning.
A strategy is an art of handling any task to the best advantage. It refers to a series of
well planned actions for achieving an aim. Important, although they are, they are
seldom taught directly at schools. Self -managed learners need to know about them
if they are to learn effectively.
Sousa (2006), West et al. (1991) and quite a number of other scholars have
identified and highlighted a number of cognitive strategies. These strategies play
crucial role in self-managed learning. Some of the most important among them are
chunking, bridging, rehearsal, practice, organization, reading comprehension and
mnemonics strategies.
(i)
Chunking Strategies : These are certain limits to people‘s working memory
to handle things at one time. If related items are presented as a few larger
blocks of information rather than many small fragments so that the working
memory would perceive it as a single item. For example, the sentence
―Mohan went home with his friends in the evening‖, can be read in three
blocks in three fixations of the eyes by increasing the eye span even through
peripheral vision. This way of reading in blocks (phrasal reading) not only
saves time but also increases comprehension.
(ii)
Bridging : This is a strategy in which the learners take up one situation with
which they are familiar and use an analogy to examine the similarities and
differences between one system and the other. A learner in his /her attempt at
learning the functioning of the human ear may take up the analogy of the
telephone. They may apply their knowledge of the functioning of the human
ear by transferring it in the case of the telephone. They will then examine the
similarities and differences between the two systems by way of transfer.
Another typical example can be ―Camel is the ship of the desert‖. Here the
comparison and contrast are between the ship that traverses the vast ocean
and the camel. This strategy generally makes use of situation involving
analogy and metaphor.
(iii)
Rehearsal Strategies : Rehearsal refers to the learners‘ reprocessing of new
information with a view to getting the sense and meaning. Depending upon
the objective, rehearsal can be role (shallow) or elaborate. Rote rehearsal is
resorted to when the purpose of rehearsal is remembering things as exactly
presented. Examples of role rehearsal are repetition of spelling of words,
lines of a poem, multiplication tables, etc. On the other hand, if the purpose
of rehearsal is to find deeper understanding, one has to apply elaborate
rehearsal of information through paraphrasing, questioning, summarizing etc.
The use of elaborate rehearsal strategies would lead to greater retention of
information in the memory sites of the long term memory.
(iv)
Practice Strategies : Practice makes things permanent. It involves the use of
newly learned skills in novel situation with sufficient accuracy so as to
remember it correctly. What is learned should be practiced frequently at first
to gain initial competence. This type of practice is called massed practice.
Once the initial competence is achieved, they continue to practice at longer
periods of intervals. This type of practice is known as distributed practice.
(v)
Mnemonics : Mnemonics are strategies that learners use to remember
unrelated information, patterns, or rules. They are systematic procedures for
improving memory. Examples of mnemonics are acronyms, rhyme
mnemonics, abbreviations, etc.
(vi)
Organization Strategies : These strategies involve schematic systems to
establish relationship among the various parts or elements. Examples of these
are graphic organization such as webs, mind maps, concept maps, analogy
maps, etc.
(vii)
Reading Comprehension Strategies : The main purpose of reading is to get
the message out of the text. There are a host of strategies that learners can
use to derive meaning from what is being read. Specific examples for these
are SQ3R, SQ4R, KWL, etc.
The strategies mentioned above are some of the specific strategies that help learners
to be cognitively engaged in the learning task. They help the learners to focus their
attention on relevant aspects of the material being learned, to invest their effort, to
make connections, elaborate, translate, organize and reorganize, to think and process
information deeply. The more the learners are conversant with these learning
strategies, the more effective and efficient would be their effort at learning.
1.6.3
Knowledge of Meta-cognitive Strategies
Learners should have not only world knowledge and knowledge about various
cognitive strategies but also knowledge about meta cognitive strategies if they are to
learn effectively. Meta cognition involves knowledge and beliefs about the learners
own cognitive processes. Meta-cognition, as Santrock (2006) defines, is cognition
about cognition or knowing about knowing. According to Ashman and Conway
(1989) meta-cognition is an individual‘s capacity to monitor and regulate their own
mental processes while approaching a new learning task or solving a problem. In
other words meta-cognition refers to awareness about the learning content, the
ongoing performance of the learning process and the cognitive control measures to
monitor, regulate and evaluate one‘s own cognitive processes. Meta-cognition
includes self-interrogation, self-checking, self-monitoring, self-analysis and using
memory aids.
Meta-cognition involves a number of strategies and tactics. These strategies and
techniques are generally used when cognition fails. They help the learners in
accomplishing the objectives of learning. Some of the skills that meta-cognition
offers the learners are as under:
(i)
Planning the way to approach a learning task.
(ii)
Evaluating the progress towards the completion of a task.
(iii)
Maintaining motivation to see the task to completion.
(iv)
Ability to become aware of distracting stimuli both internal and external and
sustain effort over time.
(v)
Monitoring progress of learning.
(vi)
Correcting errors.
(vii)
Analyzing effectiveness of learning.
(viii) Changing learning behaviour when necessary.
Apart from these skills, meta-cognition has in its repertoire, a number of strategies to
help the learners in case their attempt at learning fails. Some of these strategies are
as given below:
(i)
Self questioning: This strategy enables the learner to pose certain questions
such as what do I know about the topic? How have I solved problems like
this earlier.
(ii)
Reflecting over experience once it is over.
(iii)
Making graphic maps or representations concept maps, flow charts, mind
maps, semantic webs.
(iv)
Connecting new knowledge to former knowledge.
(v)
Selecting thinking strategies deliberately.
(vi)
Planning, monitoring and evaluating thinking processes.
(vii)
Consciously identifying what they already know.
(viii) Estimating time required to complete a task.
(ix)
Planning study time into their schedule and setting priorities.
(x)
Organizing material.
(xi)
Taking necessary steps to learn by using strategies like outlining, mnemonics
and diagram.
As learners examine the various skills and strategies that fall under both cognition
and meta-cognition, they may find some of them overlapping. However, one need
not be confused about them. If it is concerned with accomplishment of the learning
goal, it belongs to the cognitive strategy. Conversely if it is concerned with
overcoming a cognitive flow, it is meta-cognitive.
As self-managed learners, people need to examine and find whether they lack in any
of these components. In case they find missing proficiency in any of these areas,
they have to make concerted effort to build up competence in all these components.
Only when they have adequate level of proficiency in all these areas, they can be
effective learners.
1.7
THE PROCESS OF LEARNING
The next question that comes to mind is how learning takes place i.e. How does
knowledge, cognitive strategies and meta cognitive strategies get into our head in the
first place, and once this content gets there, what happens to it? How does it get
organized and sorted? Where exactly is the information stored? How is it retrieved?
All these questions have to do with how the mind works or how the brain deals with
information. The answers to these questions would greatly help us in our efforts to
teach learners to learn better.
The primary source of information concerning human learning comes from research
related to information processing and cognitive controls according to which learning
is a monitored, controlled, and directed cognitive activity, utilizing the information
processing system of the brain for the purpose of modifying cognitive structures.
Thus learning is not automatic rather it requires a sustained and conscious effort on
the part of the individual. In order for this effort to occur the individual must
understand the learning processes and how to control and direct it.
In the following sections, information regarding what cognitive psychologists know
about how the mind takes in information and what it does with that information once
it gets there, have been explained with the help of information processing model.
1.7.1
The Information Processing Theory
The primary source of information concerning human learning comes from research
related to information processing and cognitive controls according to which learning
is a monitored, controlled, and directed cognitive activity, utilizing the information
processing system of the brain for the purpose of modifying cognitive structures.
Thus, learning is not automatic. Rather it requires a sustained and conscious effort
on the part of the individual. In order for this effort to occur the individual must
understand the learning process and how to control and direct it.
The rapid proliferation of computers has encouraged the use of the computer model
to explain brain functions and learning. Several models exist to explain learning and
brain behaviour. Research in cognitive psychology has shown how the brain
processes and learns information. As a result of these studies scholars have come out
with a model of learning known as the information processing model. The
precursors of this model were Atkinson and Shriffin (1968), Stahl (1985). The
model discussed here (Fig. 1.1) has been updated and it incorporates much of the
recent findings of complex research of neuroscientists. This model which has been
put forward by David. A. Sousa (2006) uses common objects to represent various
stages in the learning process. The model limits its scope to the major cerebral
operations that deal with the collecting, evaluating, storing and retrieving of
information. The model starts with information from our environment and shows
how the senses reject or accept it for further processing. It then explains the two
temporary memories, how they operate, and the factors that determine if a learning
is likely to be stored. The model is simple, but the processes are extra ordinarily
complex.
Figure 1.1 : The Information Processing Model
Source: How the brain learns – D.A. Sousa
The Senses
The information which comes from the environment is detected by our five senses
viz. sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. All sensory stimuli enter the brain as a
stream of electrical impulses that result from neurons firing in sequence along the
specific sensory pathways. The senses do not all contribute equally to our learning.
Over the course of our lives, sight, hearing, and touch (including kinesthetic
experiences) contribute the most. Our senses constantly collect tens of thousands of
bits of information from the environment every second, even while we sleep (Sousa,
2006).
Sensory Register
All incoming sensory information (except smell) is sent first to the thalamus, which
briefly monitors the strength and nature of the sensory impulses for survival content
and in just milli seconds, uses the individuals past experiences to determine the
data‘s degree of importance. Most of the data signals are unimportant, so the sensory
register allows them to drop out of the processing system. The sensory register does
hold sensory information for a very brief period of time (seconds). This is referred to
as sensory memory.
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory is used by cognitive neuroscientists to include all of the early
steps of temporary memory that will lead to stable long-term memory. Short- term
memory primarily includes immediate memory and working memory. (Gazzaniga,
et al., 2002; Squire and Kandel, 1999)
Immediate Memory
Immediate memory has been represented as a clipboard, in the model, a place where
we put information briefly until we make a decision on how to dispose of it.
Immediate memory operates subconsciously or consciously and holds data for up to
about 30 seconds. The individuals experience determines its importance. If the item
is of little or no importance within the time frame, it drops out of the system.
Working Memory
Working memory is also a temporary memory and the place where conscious, rather
than subconscious, processing occurs. The information processing model represents
working memory as a work table of limited capacity where we can build, take apart,
or rework ideas for eventual storage somewhere else. When something is in working
memory, it generally captures our focus and demands our attention. Information in
working memory can come from the sensory/immediate memories or be retrieved
from long-term memory. Miller (1956) discovered years ago that working memory
can handle only a few items at once. This functional capacity changes with age.
Nonetheless, most of the research evidence to date supports the notion that working
memory has a functional limit, and the number seven continues to be accepted as a
workable guideline for adolescents and adults. Working memory is temporary and
can deal with items for only a limited time. According to Peter Russell (1979), it is 5
to 10 minutes for pre adolescents and for adolescents and adults it is 10 to 20
minutes. This means an adolescent (or adult) normally can process an item in
working memory intently for 10 to 20 minutes before mental fatigue or boredom
with that item occurs and the individual‘s focus drifts. For focus to continue there
must be some change in the way the individual is dealing with the item. If something
else is not done with the item, it is likely to fade from working memory. Information
in working memory is quickly forgotten unless the learner attempts to prolong its
stay. This can be done by using memory strategies. Several theories try to explain
why working memory is of such limited duration and capacity. Decay theory holds
that information simply dissipates with the passage of time unless we rehearse the
new information. While decay theory presents some vivid metaphors, it is not as
convincing as displacement theory. Displacement theory (Miller, 1956) suggests that
there are only so many ―slots‖ in working memory that can be filled. Once new
information comes into working memory, the existing information is pushed out and
replaced by the incoming data. Displacement theory is closely related to interference
theory (Ausubel, 1968), which posits that subsequent learning competes with prior
learning and somehow interferes with what is contained in working memory.
Information in working memory is like the information in working memory of the
computer. To save it, it must be transferred to a long-term storage device. Working
memory helps process information into a form that is acceptable for more permanent
storage in long-term memory – like saving a document on the hard drive in a
computer.
Long-Term Memory
The long-term storage areas are represented in the model (fig.) as file cabinets –
places where information is kept in some type of order. Although there are three file
cabinets in the diagram for simplicity, we do not know how many long-term storage
sites actually are present in the brain. Memories are not stored as a whole in one
place. Different parts of a memory are stored in various sites which reassemble
when the memory is recalled. Long-term memory is a dynamic, interactive system
that activates storage areas distributed across the brain to retrieve and reconstruct
memories. Information from working memory may be stored in long-term memory.
Storage is a term or metaphor that describes a series of processes whereby new
information is integrated with information that is already known or residing in long
term memory. The principal storage processes, as already discussed, involves
rehearsal, elaboration and organization.
There is considerable discussion among cognitive psychologists about what exactly
is stored in long-term memory. At one level, we know that declarative and
procedural knowledge are stored there. But what form does this information take in
long-term memory? Cognitive psychologists propose a number of theories about
how knowledge is represented in Long term memory: dual coding theory,
propositional networks, and schemas. In thinking about how we think, we all depend
on images to help us. We also depend on words, particularly when we can‘t
construct an image. Paivio (1971, 1986) has developed a dual-coding theory of long
term storage. He believes that information in long term memory is composed of
complex networks of verbal representations and images. In addition to verbal
images, however, we also think in terms of connected ideas. Anderson (1983)
proposes that much declarative knowledge is stored in long term memory in the
form of extensive networks of interconnected ideas called positional networks.
Cognitive psychologists propose that if we could see into a learner‘s brain and
examine those neurons that contain information about a particular concept, it would
look something like a web of ideas, concepts and facts.
A third hypothesis about the form of information in long term memory is called
schema theory (Anderson & Pearson, 1984). Cognitive schemata are integrated units
of knowledge. They are cognitive structures that organize large amounts of
information about objects, events or text readings. These schemata influence how
learners perceive and make sense of what they hear and read.
Capacity of Long-term Memory
Most cognitive psychologists stipulate that information in Long-term memory lasts a
lifetime. (Gagne, Yekorich & Yekorich, 1993). Cognitive psychologists believe that
our experience of forgetting things we once knew is due more to our failure to find a
good way to retrieve the information than to any permanent loss of data.
Retrieval Processes
When we actively search our memories for information to use in a thinking task ( to
get it into working memory) we are engaged in retrieval processes. Cognitive
psychologists use the term activation to refer to cognitive processes involved in
becoming aware of what we have learned and in establishing connections between
this prior learning and the task in which we are currently involved. This connection
building is facilitated by the use of retrieval cues. Retrieval cues are hints or things
we say to ourselves to help us remember what we have already learned and stored in
Long term memory. Retrieval cues are particularly effective when the cue you are
using to recall information matches information that you stored at the time of
original learning. Tulving (1989) believes that good recall of memorized information
is largely cue-dependent. We forget the meaning of a word that we once knew,
because we don‘t have a cue that emphasized remembering it. Depending on the
type of recall we want, there are many cues (meaning, spelling, date, name, address,
phone numbers, etc.) to match it.
1.7.2
Implications for Learning
The information processing model of how the mind works is a metaphor. This model
helps us in thinking about how the minds of a learner works, thus enabling us to
present content in such a form to help learners understand better and retain whatever
they learn. The information processing model helps us understand how information
gets into the mind, how it is stored, and how it is retrieved for use in thinking.
Following are some implications of the information processing model of learning.
(i)
One cannot recall information that one‘s brain does not retain.
(ii)
How a person ―feels‖ about a learning situation determines the amount of
attention devoted to it.
(iii)
The working memory can handle only a few items at once. This functional
capacity changes with age. Pre-school infants can deal with about two items
of information at once. Pre-adolescents can handle 3 to 7 items, with an
average of five. Adolescents and adults can handle five to nine items of
information, with an average of seven. Thus keeping the number of items in
a learning block within the appropriate capacity limit increases the likelihood
that more learning will be retained.
(iv)
It is possible to increase the number of functional capacity of working
memory through a process called chunking.
(v)
Since the working memory is temporary and can deal with items for only a
limited time (15-20 minutes) it is important to package a study block into 15
to 20 minute session which is likely to result in maintaining greater learner
interest than one 40 minute study block.
(vi)
Information is most likely to get stored if it makes sense and has meaning.
Past experience always influence new learning. Therefore, we need to be
certain that whatever we learn contains connections to our past experience.
1.8
THE SELF-MANAGED LEARNING STRATEGY
A strategy may be defined as a planned approach to any task. In other words, a
strategy is an art of handling any task to the best advantage. It refers to a series of
well planned actions for achieving an aim. The self-managed learning strategy is an
attempt by the investigator in developing learning-to-learn skills among learners in
general and student-teachers in particular. Learning to learn skills or the selfmanaged learning skills are skills that a learner might find quite useful while going
about a learning task. It will not only enhance his learning but will make the learning
process an enjoyable one.
1.8.1
Assumptions of the Present Study
From the study of literature related to learning and from the researcher‘s own
experience there are three basic assumptions based on which the present strategy has
been developed. The three assumptions on which the self-managed learning strategy
is based are as follows:
(i)
Self-managed learning skills exist to some extent among all learners.
(ii)
The Self-managed learning skills are not sufficient or have not been properly
developed among learners to overcome the challenges they face.
(iii)
Self-managed learning skills can be enhanced so that the process of learning
becomes more efficient and enjoyable.
1.8.2
The Modules
The self-managed learning strategy has been prepared by the investigator by taking
into consideration the different theories of learning, the components of effective
learning and the theory of how people learn or the information processing theory.
The investigator prepared the strategy in the form of self-instructional modules.
Modules or self- instructional materials are based on the principles of learning in
general and self-learning in particular. Textual material in the modular form is selfcontained, sequentially arranged and consists of activity packages. The text is
presented in a simple language with cues to facilitate self-learning. It also includes
in text exercises to promote motivation to learn, which is also helpful in making
learning interactive. A module provides opportunities for self-assessment and
continuous feedback. Modules or self-instructional materials have been defined in
many ways. They enable learners to learn independently, unaided and at their own
pace. It has its own structure. It is theme based and self-contained. It includes
objectives, learning exercises, in text assessment for offering continuous feedback.
There is a built-in flexibility in the text which promotes interaction. Therefore, selfinstructional material or modules consists of self-contained learning activity
packages which promote self-learning, self-evaluation and self-enhancement
through continuous feedback. It thus effectively helps in achieving the
predetermined objectives. In the present study, the investigator prepared the selfmanaged learning strategy in the form of six modules in order to achieve the aim of
developing learning to learn skills or self-managed learning skills among studentteachers. The six modules of the strategy pertain to the six different skills which has
been identified and included in the present study by the investigator. The selfmanaged learning skills which have been included in the present study are as
follows:
(1) Goal setting skill
(2) Information location skill
(3) Information processing skill
(4) Information storing skill
(5) Information retention skill
(6) Information retrieval skill
1.8.2.1 Goal setting skill
The first skill which has been taken up in the self-managed learning strategy is goal
setting skill. Goal setting is a powerful process to know precisely what one wants to
achieve and where exactly to concentrate one‘s efforts. It is a natural function of the
brain. By setting a goal we make a decision which in turn triggers a subconscious
process in our mind that transforms the decision into a deed. For successfully
managing ones own learning it is essential to identify academic goals. Researches
have shown that students who set effective goals achieve at higher levels than other
students (Bandura, 1986; Locke & Lantham, 1990). Therefore, learning the most
effective way to set goals is the number one prerequisite for success in any endeavor
for any individual, team or organization. Properly set goals can be incredibly
motivating, and as one gets in the habit of setting and achieving goals, ones selfconfidence builds (Manktelow, 2007). Learning to set and achieve goals is the
master skill of life as it is the skill that enables the achievement and learning of all
other skills and objectives.
1.8.2.2 Information location skill
The second skill which has been taken up in the strategy is the information location
skill. Being able to search for useful information that is relevant to one‘s studies is
one of the key skills that will improve performance, as well as the overall quality of
the study experience. The information and skills one requires to achieve the set goals
may be found scattered in various sources. They may be found in internet, library,
and periodicals and even in knowledgeable people. Learners need to locate the
sources of information and skills they need with respect to their goals and
objectives. In order to gather information from these sources they need to develop
skills of (a) reading – for locating information from written text material, (b)
browsing – to locate information from the internet (c) interviewing – to get
information from knowledgeable people, etc. Further, since this is the information
age, a large amount of information is available through various sources including the
internet. Therefore, it is important to learn to evaluate these resources and learn
about copyright laws and how to avoid intellectual dishonesty.
1.8.2.3 Information processing skill
The third skill of the strategy pertains to information processing. Simply absorbing
the knowledge by seeing and hearing it and recording it will only enable us to retain
it and play it back like a tape recorder. If one behaves like a tape recorder, the new
information will not get integrated with ones prior knowledge and understanding,
and thus cannot be used effectively in new tasks and be transferred readily to new
situations. Moreover, the information given in original sources may be much more
elaborate than what we require. It may be presented in a jumbled manner. Also the
information given in the author‘s language has to be converted into our own
language. Thus it is essential to develop expertise in processing information. There
are three main processes involved in data processing. The first process involves
focusing attention in the short-term memory on relevant pieces of information
received and sifting out relevant from irrelevant information. This involves selecting
information from the sensory input (e.g. reading, hearing) and adding that
information to the short-term memory (Meyer, 1984; Sternberg, 1985). The second
process involves organizing, or building connections among, the selected pieces of
information into a coherent whole within the short-term memory (Meyer, 1984;
Sternberg, 1985). The third process involves integrating, or building external
connections between, the organised new knowledge and organised existing
knowledge in the long-term memory (Meyer, 1984; Sternberg, 1985).
1.8.2.4 Information storing skill
The fourth skill which has been taken up in the strategy is information storing skill.
Once the information is gathered and organized, it has to be stored by keeping
futuristic needs in mind. Information storing mainly involves two skills viz. notes
taking and notes making. Note taking implies taking notes during a lecture
sometimes copying down what is written on the blackboard or dictated. One may
also take notes from books, copying chunks of important matter or summarizing.
These notes are usually unorganized.
Note making implies organizing rough notes, by combining notes taken during
lectures with those taken during study from various reference books. All related
ideas are put together in a particular order, and in an easy to read format.
Information storing may also be carried out in terms of pictographic techniques such
as mind mapping, flow charts, graphs, etc. This type of storing of information has
several advantages over verbal storing of information. It helps the learner to have a
holistic view of the entire topic at a single glance.
1.8.2.5 Information retention skill
The fifth skill which has been included in the strategy is information retention skill.
Learning and retention are different. Learning involves the brain, the nervous
system, and the environment, and the process by which their interplay acquires
information and skills. Sometimes, we need information for just a short period of
time, like the telephone number for a pizza delivery, and then the information decays
in just a few seconds. Thus, learning does not always involve long-term retention.
Retention refers to the process whereby long-term memory preserves a learning in
such a way that it can be located, identified, and retrieved accurately for future use.
In other words, retention or memory as Sousa, 2006 notes, is the process by which
we retain the knowledge and skills for the future. It is the process of holding
information in the memory. Retaining knowledge over the long term requires that
we process it in such a way that we move ideas from short-term memory to long
term memory and fit these new ideas in with what we already know.
1.8.2.6 Information retrieval skill
The sixth and the last skill taken up in the strategy is information retrieval skill.
Simply retaining information is not enough. We need to retrieve it when required.
Retrieval skills come into picture when we need to give exams, give talks,
participate in seminars or debate, solve problems, etc. Without gaining retrieval
skills, what ever has been learnt has no value. The brain uses two methods to
retrieve information from the long-term storage sites; recognition and recall (Sousa,
2006). Recognition matches an outside stimulus with stored information. Recall is
quite different and more difficult. It describes the process whereby cues and hints
are sent to long-term memory, which must search and retrieve information from the
long-term storage sites, then consolidate and decode it back into working memory.
1.8.3
The Hypothesis of the Study
It was hoped, when a strategy framed out of the components mentioned in the above
paragraphs is administered on a group of student-teachers, it would be quite
effective. Therefore, a directional hypothesis stating that there would be an
improvement in the self- managed learning skills of student-teachers was proposed
for the present study. This was because the components of the strategy were
identified and selected in accordance with the characteristics of the pupils,
objectives to be achieved, and is completely based on the scientific researches based
on learning. Moreover, the various components, of the self-instructional strategy,
were incorporated and integrated in such a way as to contribute to each other. For
example, the components of each module first impart an overall view regarding the
objectives to be covered in that particular module followed by introduction to the
various concepts covered in the module. This is followed by stepwise explanation of
each concept covered in that particular module. After each concept, enough
activities and exercises are provided in order to provide opportunity for putting those
concepts into application. The summing up at the end of each module helped them
revise the concepts already learnt. Further the section on reflections provided at the
end of each module helped the student-teachers to integrate the concepts learned,
while the key to the activities and ‗Test yourself‘ helped them to compare their
answer with those given and arrive at the correct answer. Thus the various
components of the strategy assist one another in achieving the instructional
objectives. It was therefore hoped that the strategy would be an effective one to
bring out the expected learning behaviour in the student-teachers.
1.9
RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
Education has always been important, but perhaps never more so in man‘s history
than today. Life long learning and development has become an indispensable part of
today‘s living. This change is a result of explosion of knowledge which has brought
about drastic changes in all spheres of human life. The people of today have to
process more information, cope with social developments and critical situations and
make more decisions. Thus, twenty-first century requires the development of highly
sophisticated skills so that people are able to follow the social & economic changes
and influence them.
Moreover, in the present world scenario where it is predicted that knowledge is
getting doubled at a very fast rate, it is important that students develop the ability to
handle the vast amount of information coming from various sources. It is not
possible for any individual to pick up all these knowledge, nor is it humanly possible
to do so. In that case, one has to be selective and be able to process the information
which he/she requires. Unfortunately, the education process carried out in our
schools and colleges invariably lag behind the advances in information and
communication technology. Due to this, the vast majority of products, come out of
these institutions, perhaps with a little more of book learning and of course a degree,
but with very little capacity for self-study. As a result, after coming out of these
institutions, the students find themselves handicapped because the knowledge that
they gained in these institutions become outdated by the time they enter a job and
start living an active social life. Thus, it is increasingly being recognized that
children need to ―learn how to learn‖, so that they can continue learning throughout
their life. This view has been highlighted by UNESCO in its report on education
according to which education should help students acquire the instruments of
knowledge: the essential learning tools of communication and oral expression,
literacy, numeracy and problem-solving; to gain both a broad general knowledge
and an in-depth knowledge of a few areas: to understand rights and responsibilities;
and most importantly, to learn how to learn.‖ Since education is a man-made
process, designed to serve our changing needs, it is in need of creative invention to
make it work better. More than ever before it has become important to equip the
students of present system with the skill of learning to learn. Although the students
of today have vast amount of readily available information, they have not enough
knowledge about how to process this information and retain and retrieve it as and
when required. In an age where everything is constantly changing, constantly
evolving, the one technology, the one ability that would never turn obsolete is to
learn how to learn. This one ability will make a person able enough to cope with the
changing demands of the society and thus contribute effectively towards its
development. Thus, it is very important that every single individual, young or old,
take responsibility of his/her own learning.
Although everyone manages their own learning to some extent, it is clear that just
telling people to take charge of their own learning can be very inefficient. This
means that a well structured and well-planned strategy needs to be developed so that
individuals are well equipped with a number of learning skills so that they can
manage their own learning throughout life. Self-Managed Learning (SML) is a
strategy which is made up of a number of skills. The students will be equipped with
a number of skills so that they can decide the goals and objective of what they are
learning, gather information, process & store it and finally retain and retrieve the
information as and when required. A number of techniques will be used in order to
achieve these skills. As a result of which not only will the students learning be
enhanced, but also the creative ability of the students will be developed. Moreover,
the students will develop confidence to cope with the changing demands in their area
of work and life at large. By taking responsibility of their own learning they will be
able to keep themselves abreast of time. However, since our education system has
hardly made any attempt in this direction and further since there is no scientific
process to develop the skill to manage one‘s own learning, the researcher felt an
urgent need to make attempts to bridge this gap.
Further, there is no doubt that the quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its
citizens and the quality of its citizens depends more than on any other single factor,
on the quality of their teacher. The teacher is the living ideal, the fountain head of
knowledge & the potential guide to provide directive growth & development of the
students of today as worthy citizens of tomorrow. However, in the course of time,
need & importance of education has also changed & as a result the role and function
of the teacher is also changing. Today teachers are considered as facilitators of
knowledge and not dispensers of knowledge and skills. This implies that teachers are
supposed to help learners to learn on their own, so that they can become independent
learners and thus take responsibility of their own learning. Moreover, the curriculum
in each discipline is vast and teachers may not be able to cover the entire content in a
short period of time. The solution to this problem lies in equipping the students with
self-managed learning skills, so that they do not have to entirely depend on their
teachers to cover the syllabus. If the teachers can help students acquire self-managed
learning skills the students will turn out to be good learners not only in schools and
colleges but also throughout their life. It will enable them to become life long
learners. However, SML skills are not formally taught in the classrooms of today.
This may be because the teachers themselves are not aware of such skills. Moreover,
this aspect of self-learning is not given due importance in the teacher training
program.
Teacher education program is quite different from the other academic program as
the students enrolled in these courses not only have to make efforts to gain specific
knowledge and skills but also have to ready themselves for shouldering a
responsibility which matters to the society. To become effective teachers they need
to gain a lot of understanding about the scope and dimensions of their profession,
about the different roles they have to play in their professional and social life and
competencies, attitudes and skills they need to develop. However the relatively
shorter duration of the course has become a major factor for not being able to
produce effective teachers. One way to overcome this drawback of the teacher
education program is to supplement the formal study with a lot of self-study. Many
efforts have been made by various institutions to initiate the students in this
direction. One such program viz. Zero Lecture Program (ZLP) was conducted at
IASE, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore in which the students themselves had
to decide and evolve the way in which the expectations of the prescribed syllabus
could be fulfilled. A similar program viz. ‗Anweshana‘ was carried out at the
Faculty of Education, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan.(2001). It was found that the
most challenging task for the teacher educators in this program was to motivate the
learners and keep them going on their own, since the student-teachers were products
of an educational system which is teacher dominated. Due to the common tendency
of students to be spoon fed they do not make any efforts in the direction of self managed learning. These studies show that there is an urgent need to equip learners
with self-managed learning skills so that they do not become handicapped in the
absence of teachers. This will not only enable the student teachers to manage their
own learning during their training period but will also help them to become life-long
learners. Moreover, they will be better equipped to transmit the same knowledge and
skills to their students and thus turn out to be producers of life-long learners. Hence,
it is felt that it is necessary to train instructors & trainees to become capable &
efficient designers of SML strategy so that they can in turn produce individuals who
can manage their own learning. Moreover, if such a strategy is made available it can
serve as a ready to use reference material for the teacher education program so that
the future teachers can be equipped with such skills.
From the review of related literature it was found that no such study has been
conducted in India for the development of self-managed learning skills among
student- teachers or at any other level. Although the researcher did find some studies
related to development of remedial instructional strategies aimed at improving
certain language skills in students. The researcher spotted a few studies conducted
abroad related to self-managed learning and learning to learn skills. However,
researches done in the area of self-managed learning abroad have tried to find out
the perception of students regarding self- managed learning and the difficulties they
face in the process of self- learning. The studies were mostly conducted on selfmanaged learning groups that were already present in different institutions. Hardly
any study has been found in which efforts have been made to develop a strategy to
enhance self-learning skills. The investigator therefore feels challenged to explore
the possibilities of such a study.
1.10 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
From the various issues discussed so far in connection with learning to learn skills or
self-managed learning skills several questions emerge. Some of the most pertinent of
these are as follows:
1.
What skills are required to manage one‘s own learning?
2.
Which are the different techniques required to master the skills of selfmanaged learning (SML)?
3.
Can a well structured and well planned strategy be prepared to equip an
individual with self-managed learning skills?
How far will such a strategy help an individual to manage one‘s own
4.
learning?
5.
What will be the opinion or reaction of the learners towards the strategy?
1.11 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
“Evolving a Strategy for Developing Self-Managed Learning Skills (SML)
Among Student-Teachers”
1.12 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study has been designed to attain the following objectives:
(i)
To identify various skills, sub-skills and techniques required for managing
one‘s own learning.
(ii)
To develop a strategy for enhancing self-managed learning skills among
student-teachers.
(iii)
To evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy in terms of
(a)
Student-teachers‘ performance in the achievement test.
(b)
Student-teachers‘ reaction towards the SML strategy.
(c)
Expert‘s opinion towards the strategy.
1.13 HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
The prepared strategy will enhance the self-managed learning skills of the studentteachers.
1.14 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE KEY TERMS
Self- Managed Learning (SML) Skills
Self-managed learning skills are a set of six skills viz. Goal Setting Skill,
Information Location Skill, Information Processing Skill, Information Storing Skill,
Information Retention Skill and Information Retrieval Skills. These skills are
elaborated further as follows:
Goal Setting Skill
Goal setting skill is a set of skills which include being able to identify one‘s short
term goals and long term goals, carry out SWOT Analysis, set S.M.A.R.T goals,
prepare goal maps, set personal goals, identifying one‘s learning goals, find out how
one really spends ones time, use strategies on using time and use some effective aids
for goal setting.
Information Location Skill
Information location skill is a set of skills which include being able to analyze the
topic of study, being able to identify various search tools and collections for
searching information, being able to locate and obtain information using the library
and web resources, exploring copyright laws related to computer and software use,
reading and evaluating the various resources of information and keeping records of
them.
Information Processing Skill
Information processing skill includes a set of skills which include strategies for
improving reading skill, KWL strategy, SQ3R strategy, speed reading, finger
technique and identifying one‘s learning style.
Information Storing Skill
Information storing skill includes a set of skills for improving one‘s note-taking and
note-making skill which include using common abbreviations, forming
abbreviations, using symbols, suggestions for better listening, the Cornell system of
note-taking and mind mapping.
Information Retention Skill
Information retention skill includes a set of skills to improve memory which include
being able to identify the structure of human brain, being able to understand the
relation between nutrition and memory improvement and exercise and memory
improvement, being able to use techniques to improve information retention skill
while learning, using systematic revision to improve memory after learning and
using chunking to enhance retention.
Information Retrieval Skill
Information retrieval skill includes a set of skills to enable a learner to retrieve
information from the long term memory for immediate use, which includes being
able to form and use acronyms, abbreviations, acronymic sentence, keywords and
peg words.
The enhancement in the self-managed learning skills of the student-teachers will be
measured by taking into consideration the difference in scores obtained in pre-test
and post-test which are based on the above six skills.
1.15 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The present study was an attempt towards evolving a strategy for helping studentteachers to pick up learning to learn skills. However, since learning is a life long
process, every individual has to continue learning throughout his life span. Everyone
irrespective of age, sex, nationality and occupation need to continue learning. So the
study has a widespread relevance for all those who need to manage their own
learning.
1.16 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Though every effort has been taken to make the study as generalisable as possible, it
has few limitations.
1.
The study was limited to the B.Ed students of Kerala state.
2.
The study was delimited to the six skills for self-managed learning, identified
by the researcher viz. Goal setting skill, information location skill,
information processing skill, information storing skill, information retention
skill and information retrieval skill.
1.17 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT
The study has been presented in two parts: Volume-I and Volume-II
VOLUME - I
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter gives a comprehensive overview of the conceptual framework of the
present study.
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature
This chapter gives an idea about the earlier studies in the area of self- managed
learning and learning to learn skills and tries to find out its implications for the
present study.
Chapter 3: Plan and Procedure of the Study
This chapter gives a detailed idea about the procedure followed by the investigator
for conducting the present study. The chapter has been divided into two parts. The
first part deals with the methodology of developing the strategy while the second
part deals with the methodology of validation of the strategy.
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Interpretation
The chapter deals with the data collected for development of the SML strategy and
finding out its effectiveness. The details regarding the data analysis and the findings
of the study has been presented in this chapter.
Chapter 5: Summary
The fifth and final chapter of the first volume of the thesis is a summary of the entire
study with a discussion of the major findings of the study followed by suggestions
for future research.
VOLUME - II
The Self- Managed Learning strategy
The Self-Managed Learning Strategy is made up of six modules. Each module of the
SML strategy deals with a different aspect of self-managed learning skill, viz. Goal
Setting Skill, Information Location Skill, Information Processing Skill, Information
Storing Skill, Information Retention Skill and Information Retrieval Skill. A getting
started kit is also included in order to guide the student-teachers while learning
through the modules.
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1
INTRODUCTION
The present chapter deals with the review of the related studies. The various studies
reviewed involving strategies belonged either to the category of cognitive or metacognitive strategies. A cognitive strategy, as Weinstein and Meyer (1991) define, is
a plan for orchestrating cognitive resources such as attention and long- term memory
to help reach a learning goal. Cognitive strategies, thus, focus on attainment of
instructional goals. On the other hand, meta-cognitive strategies are strategies that
focus on the learners‘ capacity to monitor and regulate their own ways of learning.
They generally refer to the on-going performance of the learning process and the
cognitive control measures taken to monitor, regulate and evaluate one‘s own
cognitive processes. The meta-cognitive strategies that are widely used are taskorientation, task-planning, self-monitoring, self-regulation and self-evaluation. The
use of strategies such as these make the learners move from dependence to
independence. Apart from cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, a few studies that
are reviewed belonged to the category of study skills. Also, since the present study
involved development of modules, studies related to development of selfinstructional materials have been reviewed. In short, the studies reviewed in
connection with the present study have been classified into the following four
categories:
(i)
Studies related to the development of self-instructional materials
(ii)
Studies related to cognitive strategies,
(iii)
Studies related to meta-cognitive strategies, and
(iv)
Studies related to study skills/self-managed learning.
2.2
STUDIES RELATED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELFINSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
Kapfer, P.G. (1968) conducted a study for finding out the requirements for
developing an instructional management strategy for individualized learning.
The main objective of the study was to find out the requirements for developing
learning packages which would help teachers structure a program that would allow
pupil to learn at the pace and depth best suited to their ability. From the study it was
found that the assumptions on which learning packages should be prepared are as
follows: (1)The pupils‘ responsibility is to learn and the teachers‘ responsibility is to
make available to the pupil that which is to be learned. (2) The subject matter of a
course must be appropriate to a learner. (3) The size of a group, the composition of a
group, and the time allotted to a group should be appropriate to the purposes of the
group. (4) Before truly individualized instruction can become a reality, learning
packages are needed which will provide for self-paced rather than group paced
instruction. It was concluded that learning packages meant for individualized
instruction should include the following eight ingredients: (1) Concepts, (2)
Instructional objectives, (3) Multidimensional learning materials, (4) Diversified
learning activities, (5) Pre-evaluation, (6) Self-evaluation, (7) Post-evaluation and
(8) Quest
Joseph, K.S. (1983) evolved a strategy for teaching English grammar at high school
level.
The major objectives of the study were (i) To evolve a validated multimedia strategy
for teaching English grammar at high school level; (ii) To find out the comparative
effectiveness of the three forms of PLM; (iii) To find out the relationship between
the pupils attitude towards multimedia strategy and their achievement in
comprehensive test; (iv) To find out the relationship between students‘ intelligence
and their performance in comprehensive test. The study has employed post-test only
experimental group design. The experiment was carried out over a period of two
academic years. All the twenty-eight students of Std. IX were taken as the sample
for the study. The data were collected in terms of achievement of the students
through the strategy, a reaction scale developed by the investigator and a
questionnaire to find out experts‘ opinion. Data analysis of the achievement tests
were carried out by finding out the mean, S.D., and percentiles of the scores of both
the comprehensive as well as the unit tests. The reaction scale was analysed by
calculating the percentage responses for each alternative in every item while experts‘
opinion were analysed qualitatively. The major findings suggested that about ninety
per cent of the students scored sixty per cent or more marks in five out of nine units.
In the rest of the units thirty to eighty per cent students scored sixty per cent or more
marks. Both the students and experts had expressed a highly positive reaction
towards the instructional strategy. The branching PLM was found to be most
effective in terms of achievement and ranking by the students. It was also found that
there is no significant relationship between students‘ attitude and achievement but
there was a significant positive relationship between intelligence and achievement of
the students.
Bedient, D. et al. (1984) conducted a study entitled ― Self-Instructional Materials
for Underprepared Science Students.‖
The main purpose of the study was to design self-instructional modules for
improving the knowledge base of students enrolled in the zoology course of
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. A number of goals were established for
the modules which are as follows: (i) To eliminate confusion in the learners by
making them know what they are to do and when, (ii) To maintain the involvement
of the students during the learning process, (iii) To match the treatment of content
with the attention span of the students, (iv) To prepare a slide-tape with handouts
format that allows for self-instruction, repetition and interaction with printed
material. The modules were prepared in such a way that all concerned can use them.
They were prepared by keeping in mind the mastery learning approach to promote
higher student performance. The materials were more precisely packed and
presented and permitted repetition with opportunities for self-assessment. The
modules were prepared by following the procedures explained below: Procedure 1:
Attempts were made to motivate the learners by posing questions and examples
relevant to their experiences. Objectives were provided as another method of
preparing students for what was to be studied. The objectives were measurable, with
many at the knowledge level. Procedure 2: The students were given a copy of the
objectives prior to studying a module. In each case, the objectives were arranged in
the same order as the content. The content was also evident in the student handouts.
Vocabulary lists were prepared since many students are unfamiliar with the
terminology. Procedure 3: Arrows and lines were used in the visuals so that students
would know exactly where to look. Graphic materials were included which had
―exploded‖ illustrations. Highlighting helped direct student attention to other
pertinent points. Procedure 4: Handouts were another mechanism which provided
for learner activity. It contained several grids which listed important concepts.
Students completed these grids while working through the modules. Procedure 5:
Feedbacks were accommodated as the students completed each item. Procedure 6:
Provisions were provided for numerous questions that required thinking. Some
tactics like relating the unknown to the known, etc. were also used to enhance the
learning process. Procedure 7: The modules were produced as self-instructional
slide-tapes so that students could control the pace of the presentation, repeat
segments, stop and resume, etc.
For evaluating the modules, after initial writing, all scripts were shared with several
colleagues so they could review them and suggest improvement. The students also
evaluated the materials. The test performance of students was analyzed to determine
where modifications might be needed. The mean student score has been above 72%
since the introduction of the modules. This performance was deemed acceptable.
The experts who evaluated the modules were also positive about the materials and
its design.
Khirwadkar, A.R. (1998) carried out a study entitled ―Development of computer
software for learning Chemistry at Std. XI.‖
The main objectives of the study were: (1) To develop CAI packages in subject of
Chemistry for Std. XI science students, studying GSTB syllabus. (2) To study the
effectiveness of the software packages in terms of instruction time and achievement
of students. (3) To study the effect of the software package on students‘ achievement
in relation to students‘ (a) intelligence level, (b) motivational level and (c) attitude
towards the package. (4) To study the attitude of the students and teachers regarding
the effectiveness of the CAI packages. The study being developmental cum
experimental in nature was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 included development
of the software package and Phase 2 included implementation of the package to find
its effectiveness. The tools used for the study included achievement tests (pre-test
and post-test), unstructured interview schedule, structured interview schedule,
Attitude scale, JIM scale, Madhookar Patel‘s intelligence test (MPIT). The sample
of the study consisted of one English medium school in Baroda, following GSTB
syllabus. All the students of Std. XI of the school were administered the motivation
scale and IQ test and based on their scores, two groups were made i.e. EG and CG.
The students of EG were taught three units of Chemistry using software packages
while students of CG were taught through regular school teacher. After completion
of 3 units post-test was administered. Data were analysed using analysis of variance
and analysis of co-variance and qualitative analysis. The major findings of the study
were as follows: (1) The software packages were effective in terms of students‘
achievement. (2) CAI was found to be time effective. (3) Academic achievement of
students of the EG was found to be affected by the variables like IQ, academic
motivation and attitude. (4) The EG had positive attitude about various aspects of
CAI package.
Gogoi, B. (2007) conducted a study entitled ―Development of self-learning material
and its effectiveness for teaching general science to class IX students of Assam state.
The objectives of the study were (1) To develop self-learning material in general
science for class IX students (2) To study the effectiveness of self-learning material
in terms of performance in criterion test and reaction towards self-learning material.
Sample of the study consisted of fifty-eight students of class IX of a school in
Assam. The study employed non-equivalent control group design. Each of the
control group and experimental group constituted of twenty-nine students. The
students of the experimental group learned through the self-learning material.
Criterion test, reaction scale, Scientific reasoning test (Mahapatra, 1993), Scientific
attitude scale (Srivastava, 1997), and Intelligence Test (Asthana and Verma, 1989)
were used for the study. Treatment consisted of thirty-four periods each of forty
minutes. Data were analysed using t-test, Chi-square and ANCOVA. The major
finding of the study was that the self-learning material was found to be effective in
terms of performance of the students on the criterion tests and their reaction towards
the self-learning material.
Sharma, D. (2008) conducted a study entitled ―Development, Empirical validation
and effectiveness of modules on Genetics for 11th Grade students.
The objectives of the study were: (1) To develop modules on genetics for 11th Grade
students. (2) To empirically validate the modules. (3) to find out he difference
between the mean scores of students taught through conventional method and
modular approach. (4) To find out the difference between the mean scores of male
and female students taught through modular approach. The study had employed
experimental group-control group-post-test design. The sample of 2, 6, and 72
(36+36) students for individual try-out, small group try-out and field try-out,
respectively, were drawn through compatible sampling techniques. Seven modules
were systematically developed on various units of genetics. These were used as
learning tools. The measuring tools, namely, Criterion Reference Test and Attitude
Scale were used for the study. The time period of 3 months for the field study at the
rate one hour daily. The data were analysed by computing error rate, mean, S.D.,
and t-value. The major finding of the study was that modular approach was found to
be effective than conventional method for teaching genetics.
From the review of studies related to development of self-instructional materials, the
researcher gained insight into the process of development of strategies/modules.
Some of the implications that could be drawn from the review, regarding the
preparation of self-instructional materials are as follows: (1) The self-instructional
materials should make the learners know what they are to do and when; (2) They
should maintain the involvement of the learners during the learning process; (3)
Graphic materials and highlighting should be used to help direct learner attention;
(4) Feedbacks should be accommodated as the learners complete each item in the
module; (5) Learning packages should provide for self-paced rather than group
paced instruction; (6) Learning packages should include the following components:
(a) instructional objectives, (b) concepts, (c) multidimensional learning materials,
(d) diversified learning materials, (e) self-evaluation, (f) quest.
The review of literature related to development of self-instructional materials also
reveals the following trends from the point of view of methodology adopted by the
researchers. (1) In almost all the cases the self-instructional materials were prepared
for teaching of a particular subject like General Science (Bedient, et al. 1984; Gogoi,
2007), Chemistry (Khirwadkar, 1998), Biology (Sharma, 2008), English grammar
(Joseph, 1983). (2) Only one study tried to find out the requirements for developing
self-instructional materials for individualized learning. (Kapfer, 1968). (3) No study
was found, which tried to develop learning to learn skills in general, that could be
used for learning all the subjects. (4) Most of the studies aimed at improving
learning of students at the school level (Gogoi, 2007; Joseph, 1983; Khirwadkar,
1998; Sharma, 2008). (5) In all the studies there was a positive change in the
students‘ performance since the introduction of self-instructional materials. (6) Most
of the studies used pre-test-post-test-control group design (Gogoi, 2007;
Khirwadkar, 1998; Sharma, 2008). (7) In most of the studies evaluation of the
strategies was based on performance in achievement tests, and attitude of experts‘
and learners towards the strategy. (8) Data were analysed using data analysis
techniques like mean, S.D., t-test, ANOVA (9) In all the cases, self-learning method
using modules was found to be more effective than the traditional lecture method.
(10) Again in all the cases, the learners found the self-instructional materials very
useful for learning.
2.3
STUDIES RELATED TO COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
As explained above, cognitive strategies are strategies that focus directly on
attainment of instructional goals. The investigator reviewed few such studies that
were found to have bearing on the present study and their abstracts are given below:
Dixit, S. (1988) carried out a study entitled ―Information processing: An analysis of
the acquisition of learning.‖
The study is an attempt to find out different structures and components of the
strategies for acquiring and processing information, and the variance in strategies
due to certain demographic factors. The objective of the study was to find out the
various information-acquisition strategies, and to find out the relationship between
information-acquisition strategies and certain demographic factors. The sample
comprised four hundred and forty eight students of Grades X, XI and XII drawn
from four English-medium schools of Baroda, using a cluster random sampling
procedure. The tools used were: Information Acquisition Inventory, a Schedule of
Demographic Information, and Raven‘s Standard Progressive Matrices. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlation, multiple regression analysis, analysis of
variance, and ‗t‘ test. The major findings of the study are: (1) Eleven factors
extracted from thirty-five strategies were found to represent the principal strategies
of learning. These were: deep processing, elaborative processing, fact retention,
information dependence, success dependence, prediction-orientation, organizationorientation, precision-orientation, knowledge of results, methodical study, and
inferential measurement. (2) Performance in mathematics was found to be
significantly related to deep-processing, while IQ was significantly related to
success-dependence and prediction-orientation factors. (3) Sex, birth-order and
number of siblings were not associated with the selection of any particular learning
strategy, whereas type of family, parents‘ education and income were found to affect
the selection of learning strategies. (4) Selection of strategies was independent of
students‘ IQ and achievement in mathematics, language or science subjects.
Gaya, Tushar Kanta (1988) carried out a study entitled ―Listening: Its nature, skill
and training.‖
The study attempts to address the problem of listening as a subject of research
investigation. Investigation in the area of relationship between listening and other
abilities, material effects on listening, listening skills, training to listen have also
been described. The objective of the study was to describe the nature, skill and
training issues related to listening, which is one of the important objectives of
language teaching. The methodology followed is chiefly a descriptive one, coupled
with review of empirical results. The major findings of the study are : (1) Listening
ability is used to a greater extent than any other communication ability such as
reading, writing and speaking. (2) There are four levels of listening. The first is
mood listening. The purpose of second level is relaxation, escape, getting one‘s
mind off something. The third level seeks answers as a key to action. This form of
listening does not require sustained concentration. The fourth level of listening is the
stage of analytical and critical listening. (3) The correlation between listening and IQ
varies from investigation to investigation. (4) The human mind is capable of
processing information at a faster rate than the human speech organs are capable of
producing speech. (5) Listening skill is a fundamental language skill as well as a
receptive communication skill. (6) Training to listen is possible. Training increases
the ability to listen.
Vyas, J.G. (1992) carried out a study entitled ―An experimental comparison of the
effectiveness of exemplar and attributal strategies in concept learning with reference
to students‘ cognitive style.‖
The study attempts to compare the effectiveness of exemplar and attributal strategies
to concept learning and to relate this to the learners‘ cognitive style. The objectives
of the study were: (1) To study the effectiveness of exemplar, attributal and both
exemplar and attributal strategy on concept learning. (2) To study the effect of
students‘ cognitive style on their concept learning and (3) To study the interactive
effect of learning strategies and cognitive style on concept learning. The sample
consisted of three hundred girl students of standard VIII drawn from a girls‘ high
school of Bhavnagar. The sample was purposive in nature. A3 (Learning strategy) x
2 ( cognitive style) design was employed. The tools used included four concept
learning tests developed to measure students‘ concept learning achievement, and a
Gujarati adaptation of the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT). The hypothesis
were tested by the use of two-way ANOVA, and ‗t‘ test. The major findings of the
study are: (1) The combined exemplar and attributal strategy was found to be the
most effective strategy of concept learning at all stages. (2) Field-independent
cognitive style appeared to be more effective than field-dependent style for concept
learning at all stages. (3) The interactive effects of concept learning strategies and
cognitive styles were significant only for the ―on-task‖ and ―retention‖ test
conditions. The interactive effect was not significant for the post-test condition.
Prakash, P. (1998) carried out a study entitled ―Development of reading
proficiency: Relationship with meta-linguistic awareness and cognitive processing
skills.‖
The study focuses on the problem of the development of reading proficiency as
related to meta-lingual awareness and cognitive processing skill. The objective of
the study was to study reading acquisition process as related to the development and
simultaneous/successive processing skills in the Indian orthographic context. A good
Oriya medium school was selected. Later from within the grades, subjects were
selected randomly. Tools used include Ravens Coloured Progressive Matrices, Oriya
Graded Oral Reading Test and Reading Comprehension Test of Mohanty, Tests of
Meta-linguistic awareness, Tests of Simultaneous-Successive Processing Skills and
Reading Awareness Test. The collected data were treated using descriptive statistics,
correlation, principal component analysis and step-wise multiple regression analysis.
The major findings of the study are: (1) As the children moved from Grade I to
Grade V, the relative importance of linguistic awareness at lexical and syntactic
levels increased. (2) Successive processing skill was important for reading
proficiency in earlier grades, whereas simultaneous processing skill was found to be
more salient at the later grades. (3) Reading comprehension was found to be a
complex process involving several component skills at phonological, lexical,
syntactic and pragmatic levels. Taken individually, each of the skills was necessary
but not sufficient for good comprehension.
Chiou, Chei-Chang (2008) conducted a study on the effect of concept mapping on
students‘ learning achievements and interests.
The study tried to examine whether concept mapping can be used to help students to
improve their learning achievement and interests. The participants were one hundred
and twenty-four students from two classes enrolled in an advanced accounting
course at the School of Management of a university in Taiwan. The experimental
data revealed two important results. First, adopting a concept mapping strategy can
significantly improve students‘ learning achievement compared to using a traditional
expository teaching method. Second, most of the students were satisfied with using
concept mapping in an advanced accounting course. They indicated that concept
mapping can help them to understand, integrate and clarify accounting concepts and
also enhance their interests in learning accounting.
Aydin, S. et al. (2009) conducted a study on the contribution of constructivist
instruction accompanied by concept mapping in enhancing pre-service chemistry
teachers‘ conceptual understanding of chemistry in the laboratory course.
The present study aimed to evaluate whether a chemistry laboratory course called
―Laboratory Experiments in Science Education‖ based on constructivist instruction
accompanied with concept mapping enhanced pre-service chemistry teachers‘
conceptual understanding. The purpose of the study was three-fold : (1) To detect
the conceptions of pre-service chemistry teachers regarding different chemistry
concepts at the beginning of the semester. (2) To evaluate the course design
considering constructivist instruction accompanied by concept mapping whether it
contributes conceptual understanding of chemistry to the participants. (3) To get
participants‘ ideas related to the course. The sample of the study consisted of five
pre-service chemistry teachers who enrolled in the course in the Dept. of the
Secondary Science and Mathematics Education. Data were collected form the
sample by means of a concept test and semi-structured interviews. The course
designed mainly based on discussions and concept mapping as a teaching strategy
tested for twelve weeks. The major findings of the study were (1) Pre-service
teachers had some alternative conceptions about chemistry topics. (2) It was found
that by using constructivist instruction accompanied with concept maps as an
instructional tool was effective to promote conceptual understanding. The
participants found concept maps very useful in recognizing the relation between
different chemistry concepts.
Joshua, A. (2010) carried out a study entitled ―Applied cognition in reading: An
analysis of reading comprehension in secondary school students.‖
This research sought to add to a body of knowledge that is severely under
represented in the scientific literature, reading comprehension in secondary students.
Chapter one examines the current state of literacy in the nations‘ public schools and
the consequences that arise if students leave high school with inadequate reading
skills. It discusses the neurological processes involved with reading and posits that
independent silent reading (ISR) combined with scaffolding techniques may prove
to be an effective method for addressing reading comprehension. The review also
analyzes the components believed to be essential to reading, including vocabulary
development, prior knowledge and background information, inference and
prediction, and cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. It argues that technological
tools may have the potential to address these components within the framework of
ISR. Chapter two details the experiment that tested these hypotheses. The study
implemented an ISR program across a five month semester in a public high school
and included 145 participants from nine tenth grade literature classes. The control
group took part in no ISR, one treatment group participated in weekly ISR read from
a textbook, and another treatment group participated in weekly ISR read from a
computer module designed to address the components of reading comprehension.
Students were measured on multiple achievement and motivational assessments.
Results indicated that students from the ISR groups made greater gains than the
control group in total reading ability, reading comprehension, end-of-course reading
scores, and success/ability attribution, but no difference emerged on the vocabulary
assessment. The computer module ISR group performed similarly in most respects
to the textbook ISR group, but students in the computer module ISR group increased
in their reading motivation and scored better on the individual reading assignments,
suggesting the cognitive tools assisted them in understanding specific material at
hand.
Leonard, M. (2010) conducted a study entitled ―The relationship between reading
fluency, writing fluency, and reading comprehension in suburban third grade
students.‖
The purpose of the study was to examine the relationships between reading fluency,
writing fluency, and reading comprehension. First, using the principles of assessing
reading fluency, a writing assessment was designed and the writing fluency of fiftyfour third graders were measured. Quasi-experimental research design was
employed. The control group (n=36) were taught the board adopted language arts
curriculum, while the experimental group (n=18) had systematic direct instruction in
reading and writing fluency in addition to the regular language arts curriculum. The
research questions were: What is the relationship between students reading
comprehension and reading fluency among a group of third graders? What is the
relationship between their reading comprehension and writing fluency? Will the
experimental group of students with direct instruction in reading and writing fluency
outperform the control group in reading comprehension? What other factors are
involved in increasing reading comprehension? Statistical analysis like Pearsons‘
correlation, paired t-tests, independent samples t-tests and multiple linear regression
analysis were used to analyse data. All statistical analysis was performed using
PASW (formerly SPSS) of Windows. Consistent with reading research, the result
showed there was a strongly positive correlation between reading comprehension
and reading fluency. This study also found a correlation between reading
comprehension and writing as well as a correlation between reading comprehension
and writing fluency. However, the link between reading comprehension and writing
fluency was not found in pre-test measurement or the post-test/pre-test
measurement. The ANOVA showed that reading and writing fluency explained a
statistical significant 50% of the total variance in reading comprehension scores.
This study also showed a strong positive correlation between reading fluency and
writing fluency in the post-test measurements. In the quasi-experimental study, the
experimental group did not outperform the control group: both made significant
progress.
From the review of literature related to cognitive strategies, the researcher could
draw the following implications for the present study: (1) The cognitive strategies
used for enhancing learning included concept mapping (Aydin, et al. 2009; Chiou,
Chei-Chang, 2008); strategies for acquiring and processing information (Dixit 1988;
Prakash 1998), listening skills (Kanta, 1988) and reading skills (Prakash, 1998;
Joshua, 2010). (2) It was found that concept mapping strategies can significantly
improve students‘ learning achievement and also enhance their interest in learning.
(Aydin, et al., 2009; Chiou, Chei-Chang, 2008). (3) According to Dixit (1998), the
factors which represent the principal strategies of learning are deep processing,
elaborative processing, fact retention, information dependence and success
dependence. (4) According to Kanta (1988), listening ability is used to a greater
extent than any other communication ability such as reading, writing and speaking.
(5) Training to listen is possible. Training increases the ability to listen. (Kanta,
1988). (6) According to Joshua (2010), components essential to reading include
vocabulary development, prior knowledge and background information, inference
and prediction, and cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies.
2.4
STUDIES RELATED TO META-COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
Apart from studies based on cognitive strategies, the investigator reviewed a few
studies that focused on meta-cognitive skills. These studies generally focused on the
learners‘ capacity to monitor and regulate their own ways of learning. The
summaries of those studies that are reviewed are given below.
Lee, LaVonne (1990) conducted a study to investigate whether first grade students
could be taught meta-cognitive strategies to solve analogies.
The sample consisted of thirty-four first grade students. The sample was randomly
assigned to two groups: experimental and control group with adjustments made to
make the groups equal in gender, ability, and urban or rural geographic location. A
pre-test was also taken to check their ability to solve analogies. The experimental
group spent thirty minutes per day for ten days in direct instruction in analogysolving strategies. The major findings of the study indicated that the performance of
students in experimental group were significantly better than the control group.
Kaur, P. (2002) conducted a research study entitled ―The effect of training on meta
cognition and self-concept through English language during adolescence.‖
The main objectives of the study were: (1) To find out the effect of learning on
meta- cognitive skills. (2) To find out difference in the performance during each
treatment of experimental group class-wise, sex-wise and grade-wise. (3) To find out
correlation between meta-cognition skills and age, intelligence, SES, self-concept of
experimental group boys and girls of IX and XI class in Pre-test score as well as
Post-test score. The sample consisted of 160 students between 14 to 16 and 16 to 17
years old. The sample was drawn from four higher Secondary Schools of
Hanumangarh city, Rajasthan. There were two groups one control and other
experimental matched on sex, age and grade. The study took into consideration
decision making, predicting, logical reasoning, reflective thinking, creative thinking,
awareness and planning components of meta-cognitive skills. In language, reading
comprehension, direction writing, poster writing, poetry, letter writing, report
writing, speech writing and script writing were considered for the study.
Experimental method with pre-test – post-test time series control experimental group
design was used in the present study. The following standardized tools were used for
the study: (i) General mental ability standardized test, (ii) Socio-Economic Status
level standardized test, (iii) Meta-cognitive Inventory, (iv) The test of self-concept.
Self constructed tools used in the study included (i) A Questionnaire to know
teachers‘ and students‘ interest (ii) Meta-cognitive Questionnaire (a) Pre-test (b)
Post-test. The major findings of the study were: (1)‗t‘ value was significant at 0.01
level between experimental group and control group in post-test. This is due to the
direct effect of training imparted to the group. (2) Value of ‗t‘ was found significant
at 0.01 level in all the eight items. It means there is significant difference.
Desoete, Annemie (2007) conducted a study on the effect of meta-cognition for
teaching-learning process in mathematics.
The purpose of this study was to help clarify some of the paradigms on the
evaluation of meta-cognition. In addition the study aimed to find out through paper
reviews the effect of meta-cognition on the learning process. A longitudinal study
was conducted on thirty-two children to investigate the mathematical learning and
meta-cognitive skills in grade three and grade four. Meta-cognitive skills were
evaluated through teacher-ratings, think aloud protocols, prospective and
retrospective child ratings. The data showed that meta- cognitive skillfulness
assessed by teacher ratings accounted for 22.2% of the mathematics performances.
In addition, a literature review showed that meta-cognition can be trained and has
some value added in the intervention of young children solving mathematical
problems.
Haider, Abdullateef (2008) conducted a study about the influence of metacognition on Emiratii High School students‘ understandings of sociometry.
The aim of this study is to investigate Emiratii High School students‘ understandings
of sociometry, their use of meta-cognitive strategies, and the influence of students‘
use of meta-cognitive strategies on understandings of sociometry. Two instruments
were used in this study, the first to measure students‘ understandings of sociometry
and the second to measure students‘ use of meta-cognitive strategies. One-hundred
and sixty-two eleventh grade students‘ participated in this study, out of which eighty
were boys and eighty-two girls. The results showed that students‘ understanding of
sociometry was low and students used five meta-cognitive strategies: awareness of
cognition, planning, monitoring and self-checking, self-appraisal and engagement in
task.
Morisano, D. (2008) conducted a study entitled ―Personal Goal Setting in
University Students: Effects on Academic Achievement, Executive Functioning,
Personality and Mood.‖
Recent studies have demonstrated that goal setting leads to heightened well-being.
Neuroscience research has also closely linked working memory (WM) and goal
setting, because WM is related to the use of attention to activate information, for
example, goal states or action plans. The present study investigated whether an
intensive goal-setting program for struggling students who have experienced a
substantial drop in performance would have positive effects not only on academic
achievement, but also on well-being, personality, and cognitive functioning
(specifically WM). Students (N= 101) experiencing subjectively perceived academic
difficulty and a cumulative GPA of less than 3.0 were recruited from Mc Gill
University. Participants completed baseline measures of mood, personality, and
cognition, and were randomly assigned to one or two intervention groups. Half
completed an intensive goal-setting program and half a control task with
intervention quality face validity. Every month for four months, students were
retested on mood measures. After four months, students retested on all measures.
Official transcripts were gathered at the end of the semester. Subsequent to the
intervention, in order to compare grades pre and post intervention as well as
retention rates, a mix of parametric (i.e., MANOVAs, t-tests, ANOVA) and nonparametric statistics (i.e., Chi squares) was used to compare group performance on
dependent measures. With regard to academic achievement, the goal group
performed significantly better, but all participants appeared to improve over time in
mood and cognitive functioning. Applications of this research can be extended to
students in university, as well as in earlier stages of education, when
underperforming and dropping out have severe repercussions.
Topcu, Abdullah (2008) conducted a study on the effect of meta-cognitive
knowledge on the pre-service teachers‘ participation in the asynchronous on-line
forum.
Meta-cognitive knowledge increases learners‘ ability to be independent learners,
which is an indispensable characteristic of distant learners. The study was carried
out with thirty-two third grade pre-service teachers. Each message in the forum
discussions was analyzed in terms of interaction types identified by Mc Kinnon
(2000) and also scored using a grading rubric developed by the researchers. The
meta-cognitive knowledge of the pre-service teachers was measured by the
component of the general meta-cognition questionnaire. Sixty-seven percent of the
pre-service teachers were at the high or medium-to-high meta-cognitive knowledge
level and mostly sent messages having ―example to idea‖ type interactions. Preservice teachers who exhibited low meta-cognitive knowledge, however, mostly
forwarded messages having ―acknowledgments‖, ―unsubstantial judgment‖, or
―thoughtful query‖ type interactions. The findings of the study indicated that the
meta-cognitive knowledge of the pre-service teachers uniquely explained 21.4% of
the variance in the online participation score and concluded by outlining some
implications. Meta-cognitive knowledge has on forum discussions in relation to the
constructivist approach.
Stephen, J. (2010) carried out a study entitled ―Effectiveness of meta-cognitive
strategies for improving reading comprehension in secondary students.‖
Meta-cognitive, or thinking strategies enable people to think critically, predict
outcomes, implement strategies, and thus solve problems. A total of 312 students in
tenth grade regular, pre-AP, and EL English classes responded to questions taken
from the California STAR test and reported the meta-cognitive strategies they used
in responding to the questions. The students‘ teachers were interviewed about the
meta-cognitive strategies for reading comprehension they taught. The students who
used meta-cognitive strategies scored higher in reading comprehension although the
number of strategies used was not significantly related to scores. Teachers reported
noticing that their AUID students, who were not identified as a special population
but used meta-cognitive strategies independently more often, appeared to use more
meta-cognitive strategies in the study.
King, Shannon, R. (2011) carried out a study entitled ―Examining the role of goalsetting and self-monitoring on sixth grade students‘ motivational beliefs and
performance.‖
The purpose of this mixed-method study was to examine the effects goal-setting and
self -monitoring on 70 sixth graders‘ motivation and performance solving puzzles.
Students were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions or the
control group and completed scales measuring self-efficacy, self-reactions, task
interest, attributions, and goal-orientation. Follow-up interviews explored students‘
use of self-regulation strategies. It was hypothesized that experimental group would
outperform the control group on all measures. Results showed significant changes in
puzzle performance, self-reactions and self-efficacy. Qualitative analysis found
trends related to the self-regulation process. Educational implications of the findings
and avenues for future research are considered.
The following implications could be drawn from the review of literature related to
meta-cognitive strategies: (1) Meta-cognition can be trained and had some value
added in the interventions. (Annemie, (2007); Kaur, (2002); Shannon, (2011); Lee,
La Vonne (1990)). (2) According to study conducted by Abdullateef (2008),
students mainly use five meta-cognitive strategies: awareness of cognition, planning,
monitoring and self-checking, self-appraisal and engagement in risk. (3) The metacognitive skills considered in Kaurs‘ (2002) study included decision making,
predicting, logical reasoning, reflective thinking, creative thinking, awareness and
planning. (4) Goal-Setting as a meta-cognitive skill played an important role in
students‘ motivational beliefs and performance. (Shannon, 2011; Morisano, 2008).
(5) According to Stephen (2010), students who used meta-cognitive strategies scored
higher in reading comprehension. (6) According to Abdullah (2008), meta-cognitive
knowledge increases learners‘ ability to be independent learners.
2.5
STUDIES RELATED TO STUDY-SKILLS / SELF-MANAGED
LEARNING
Apart from a few cognitive strategies and meta-cognitive strategies, the investigator
reviewed a few studies related to study skills. Although these studies have not dealt
with the whole range of study skills as the present study did, they have investigated
on one or other study skills. As those studies were found to be of help to the
investigator, they were reviewed and their abstracts are presented in what follows.
Siddheshwar, S.S. (1989) carried out a study entitled ―Study of the effectiveness of
the self-learning method adopted for learning prose in Marathi textbook to standard
VII students.‖
The study is an attempt to find out the present instructional method employed to
teach various language skills by guiding students to learn on their own in order to
eliminate the deficiencies. The objectives of the study were as follows: (1) To decide
the components to be included in the self-learning method, (2) To analyze the prose
chapters to be given for self-learning, (3) To test the effectiveness of the selflearning method, and (4) To encourage students in the experimental group for selfevaluation. The sample consisted of forty students of standard VII in Shri
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vidyaniketan, Pune. Achievement tests were used as
tools. The collected data were treated using mean, S.D., ‗t‘ test and Chi square test.
The major findings of the study were: (1) Students in the experimental group
obtained a higher mean in the final test than the control group. (2) Almost all the
students in the experimental group secured higher marks in the final test.
Lizzio, A. and Wilson, K. (2005) carried out a study ―Self-Managed Learning
Groups in Higher Education: Student‘s Perception of Process and Outcomes.‖
This study aimed at identifying the domain of process issues that students perceive
as relevant to their participation in self-managed learning groups, and how these
processes are perceived to influence group outcomes. The sample participants were
undergraduate psychology students who were members of self-managed learning
groups. The study used a questionnaire based on the domains identified in the study
to evaluate the processes and outcomes of their learning groups. Analysis of
qualitative data identified seven process domains: task focus, staff support, process
learning, environmental fit, managing differences equity and responsibility, and
collaboration and cooperation. Most of these factors were found to have influence on
performance.
Janfeshan, K. and Rakpa, S. (2006) conducted a research study entitled ―The
Effect of the Study Skills on Reading Comprehension.‖
The main objective of the study was to determine the effect of the knowledge of
reading skills on reading comprehension. Subjects were 76 freshmen randomly
selected from the whole freshmen population at Kermanshah Islamic Azad
University. They were male and female freshmen majoring in accounting and
management. Apart from taking the two sessions of pre-test and post-test, the
control group received no special treatment. The experimental group was provided
not only with the textbooks but also with practical application of specific reading
skills and sub-skills at each session. These skills were as follows: scanning,
skimming through comprehension, critical reading, summarizing, understanding
paragraph organization, note-taking and prediction. A t-test analysis was applied for
finding any differences between groups. The findings indicated that the knowledge
of reading skills had a positive impact on reading comprehension.
Powell, S. Tindal, I and Millwood, R. (2008) conducted a study entitled,
―Personalized Learning and the Ultraversity Experience.‖
The project was set up by Ultralab at Anglia Ruskin University to develop a fully
online, three year duration, undergraduate degree program with an emphasis on
action inquiry in the workplace. The course design aimed to provide a highly
personalized word-integrated learning that is collaborative in nature, uses emerging
internet technologies and accessed fully online. The focus of the study was on three
aspects of personalization, namely (i) students‘ use of technological infrastructure to
develop online communities, (ii) integration of study in the workplace, and (iii) the
work-study-life balance. The students were surveyed and interviewed after the
completion through questionnaire, telephone and face-to-face meetings. Transcripts
were analyzed using interpretive phenomenological analysis. Overall the evidence
presented showed that a course design that emphasized a high degree of trust in
students‘ ability to self-manage learning can lead to a challenging personalized and
rewarding online student experience. The study showed students demonstrating high
levels of competence in managing work, study and life.
Joshi, D. (2010) conducted a research study entitled ―The Efficacy of Content Based
Instruction (CBI) in Learning Grammar and Developing Study Skills in English at
the Secondary Stage.‖
The main objectives of the study were: (1) To find out secondary school students‘
learning needs with reference to grammar and study skills in English as a second
language. (2) To find out the efficacy of CBI (Content Based Instruction) in learning
grammar and developing study skills in English as a second language. (3) To find
out the pedagogical and linguistic implications of CBI (Content Based Instruction)
in learning grammar and developing study skills in English as a second language.
Sample consisted of sixty secondary school students who were selected randomly by
method of ―Table of Random Number.‖ Two groups were formed namely
Experimental Group (EG) and Control Group (CG), by way of Table of Random
numbers. The research methods used included Normative Survey Method and
Experimental Method. Self-made tools were used in the study which included
Students‘ needs identification questionnaire (For students), Students‘ needs
identification questionnaire (For teachers), Pre-test (Grammar and Study Skills), and
Post-test (Grammar and Study Skills). For the research work, the Experimental
Group was taught through the CBI (Content Based Instruction) for three weeks (21
days). The experimental treatment to the Experimental Group was given through the
package prepared methodically. The following statistical techniques were employed
for analysis and interpretation of data collected: (i) Percentage, (ii) t-test (for
correlated means), (iii) Mean, (iv) Standard deviation and (v) Correlation. The major
finding of the study was that content based instruction was effective method for
learning grammar and developing study skills in students at secondary level.
Wang, C. (2010) carried out a study entitled ―Students‘ characteristics, SelfRegulated Learning, Technology self-efficacy, and course outcomes in web-based
courses.‖
The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship among students‘
characteristics, self-regulated learning, technology self-efficacy and course
outcomes in online learning settings. 256 students participated in this study. All
participants completed an online survey hosted via SurveyMonkey.com. The survey
consisted of a total of 130 items with a demographic questionnaire, the Modified
Motivation Strategies Learning Questionnaire, the open-ended learning strategies
questionnaire, the online technology self-efficacy scale, the course satisfaction
questionnaire, and the final grudges. Structural equation modeling was served as the
major data analysis method. The results indicated that students with previous online
learning experiences tended to have more effective learning strategies when taking
online courses, and hence, had higher levels of motivation in their online courses.
When students had higher levels of motivation in their online courses, their levels of
technology self-efficacy increased, and their levels of course satisfaction also
increased. As their levels of technology self-efficacy and course satisfaction
increased, their final grade tended to be better than the students who did not have
experiences in taking online courses. In order to understand the specific learning
strategies students used in taking online courses, four open-ended questions which
were modified from self-regulated learning interview schedule (Zimmerman and
Martinez, 1986) were used. The results indicated that the students used
planners/calendars, and reviewing Black board and syllabus in order to keep up with
the assignments. Most of the students took notes in terms of remembering the
learning materials and some reviewed the stream videos. In addition, in order to
review the learning materials, students downloaded the files posted on the
blackboard and made hard copies to have everything handed while taking online
courses. Students used search engines, blackboard, and online library a lot in order
to obtain more information. They also reported that the e-mails and discussion
boards were very useful in terms of interacting with the instructors and their
classmates.
Mullin, A. (2011) conducted a research study entitled ―Teacher knowledge of
cognition, self-regulated learning behaviours, instructional efficacy, and selfregulated learning instructional practices in high, moderate, and low ELA achieving
and moderate need elementary schools.‖
Schools are facing an unprecedented call to action to equip students with the
knowledge and skills required to succeed in the twenty first century. To succeed as
effective citizens, workers and leaders in a global economy, educators must teach
students to be strategic, adaptable and self-regulated. The purpose of this study was
to investigate the relationship between teachers‘ knowledge of cognition, selfregulated learning behaviours, instructional efficacy, and the instructional practices
employed by teachers to promote self-regulated learning in students. Further, this
study examined the influence of teacher self-regulated learning in students on
academic achievement in moderate need elementary schools. A survey focused on
self-regulation and teacher efficacy for instruction was developed from two
published surveys. The survey was administered to 218 teachers from 18 elementary
schools representing schools with moderate needs located in Long Island, New
York. Academic achievement was measured by the percent of students that scored at
the mastery level on the Grade 3 English Language Arts Assessment for the year
2007, 2008 and 2008 combined. A paired sample t-test found that there was
significant differences between teacher beliefs and instructional practices for the
variables; Monitoring Strategy Use and Conditional knowledge. A one-way between
groups ANOVA indicated that there were significant differences for the instructional
practice variable Self-Evaluation, Declarative knowledge, Monitoring Strategy Use,
and Conditional knowledge, when schools were divided into high achieving,
moderate achieving, and low achieving. A correlation analysis indicated Conditional
knowledge, Instructional Practices, Self Evaluation Instructional Practices,
Declarative knowledge instructional practices and monitoring strategy use
instructional practice were positively related to academic achievement. Results of
the step wise discriminant analysis indicated that conditional knowledge
instructional practices was the variable that predicted teacher positions in the
achievement rankings of these schools. The findings in this study indicate that
teacher self-regulated learning behaviours and the instructional practices they use to
promote self-regulated learning in students influence academic achievement in
English language groups.
The review of literature related to study skills/self-managed learning reveals the
following trends from the point of view of methodology adopted by the researchers:
(1) The study skills/reading skills used by Janfeshna and Rapka, (2006) in their
study included scanning; skimming through comprehension, critical reading,
summarizing, understanding paragraph organization, note-taking and prediction. (2)
Study skills used by on-line learners included planners/calendars, reviewing blackboard and syllabus, taking notes, downloading files posted on the black-board, using
search engines and online libraries and discussions with instructors and classmates
using e-mail and discussion boards. (Wang, 2010) (3) Self-learning method is more
effective than traditional method. (Siddheshwar, 1989) (4) Pre-test-post-test-control
group design was used in most of the studies. (Janfeshan and Rapka, 2006; Joshi,
2010) (5) Statistical methods of mean, S.D., percentage, t-test were applied for
finding difference between group. (Janfeshan and Rapka, 2006; Siddheshwar, 1989;
Mullin, 2011) (6) The studies related to developing study skills conducted in India
were mostly remedial instructional strategies which tried to improve certain
language skills in students. (Siddheswar, 1989; Joshi, 2010) (7) Some studies
conducted abroad were spotted which were related to self-managed learning.
However, these studies were mainly survey type which tried to find out the
perception of students regarding self-managed learning and the difficulties they
faced in the process of self-learning.
2.6
IMPLICATIONS OF THE REVIEW ON THE PRESENT
STUDY
The present study, as it has already been stated, is a modular multimedia strategy
prepared with a view to helping pre-service B.Ed. teacher trainees to enhance their
self-managed learning skills so that they, in turn, will transfer these skills to the
students who would be entrusted with them when they become teachers. While
attempting to locate studies that have bearing on the present study for review, the
investigator did not come across any study that has dealt with the problem in its
totality. However, the investigator came across a few studies that shared, if not all,
but some of the attributes of the present study. Most of the studies reviewed, like the
present study, were modular strategies carried out to enhance the learner knowledge
or skills. These studies either focused on attainment of course objectives (cognitive
strategies) or focused on the learning process with a view to enhancing learning
(meta-cognitive strategies).
Reviewing of these modular strategies, be they cognitive or meta-cognitive, was of
tremendous utility to the investigator. Some of the major implications that could be
drawn from the review of literature for the present study are as follows: (1) Learning
packages should include the following components: (a) instructional objectives, (b)
concepts, (c) multidimensional learning materials, (d) diversified learning materials,
(e) self-evaluation, (f) feedbacks, (g) self-paced instruction, (h) quest (Bedient, et al.
1984; Kapfer, 1968). (2) The cognitive skills that were included in the strategies
were concept mapping (Aydin, et al. 2009; Chiou, Chei-Chang, 2008); strategies for
acquiring and processing information (Dixit 1988; Prakash 1998), listening skills
(Kanta, 1988) and reading skills (Prakash, 1998; Joshua, 2010). (3) The meta-
cognitive skills considered in the reviewed studies were awareness of cognition,
planning, monitoring and self-checking, self-appraisal, engagement in risk, decision
making, predicting, logical reasoning, reflective thinking, creative thinking,
awareness and planning. (5) The skills needed for learning identified in the literature
related to study skills were deep processing of information, elaborative processing of
information, fact retention, information dependence and success dependence,
scanning, skimming through comprehension, critical reading, summarizing,
understanding paragraph organization, note-taking and prediction (Janfeshna and
Rapka, 2006; Joshua, 2010; Dixit,1998). (7) Study skills used by on-line learners
included planners/calenders, reviewing black-board and syllabus, taking notes,
downloading files posted on the black-board, using search engines and online
libraries and discussions with instructors and classmates using e-mail and discussion
boards (Wang, 2010). (8) It was found that concept mapping strategies can
significantly improve students‘ learning achievement and also enhance their interest
in learning (Aydin, et al., 2009; Chiou, Chei-Chang, 2008). (9) Training to listen is
possible. Training increases the ability to listen (Kanta, 1988). (10) Meta-cognition
can be trained and had some value added in the interventions (Annemie, (2007);
Kaur, (2002); Shannon, (2011); Lee, La Vonne (1990)). (11) Goal-Setting as a metacognitive skill played an important role in students‘ motivational beliefs and
performance (Shannon, 2011; Morisano, 2008). (12) According to Abdullah (2008),
meta-cognitive knowledge increases learners‘ ability to be independent learners.
(13) Self-learning method is more effective than traditional method (Siddheshwar,
1989).
The review of literature not only provided the investigator with the required
technological know-how as to how to develop strategies but also provided
information regarding how they can be validated systematically. From the review of
related studies the following trends were revealed from the point of view of
methodology adopted by the researchers. (1) The studies conducted in the area of
developing cognitive or meta-cognitive skills were mostly experimental in nature.
(2) Pre-test-post-test-control group design was used in most of the studies
(Janfeshan and Rapka, 2006; Joshi, 2010; Gogoi, 2007; Khirwadkar, 1998; Sharma,
2008 ). (3) Data were analysed using data analysis techniques like mean, S.D., t-test,
ANOVA, percentage, etc. (Janfeshan and Rapka, 2006; Siddheshwar, 1989; Mullin,
2011; Joshi, 2010; Gogoi, 2007; Khirwadkar, 1998; Sharma, 2008 ). (4) In most of
the studies related to development of strategies the evaluation of the strategies was
based on performance in achievement tests, and attitude of experts‘ and learners
towards the strategy. (5) In all the studies related to development of selfinstructional materials there was a positive change in the students‘ performance
since the introduction of self-instructional materials. (6) Again in all the cases, the
learners found the self-instructional materials very useful for learning. (7) The
studies related to developing study skills conducted in India were mostly remedial
instructional strategies which tried to improve certain language skills in students
(Siddheswar, 1989; Joshi, 2010). (8) In almost all the cases the self-instructional
materials or strategies were prepared for teaching of a particular subject like General
Science (Bedient, et al. 1984; Gogoi, 2007), Chemistry (Khirwadkar, 1998), Biology
(Sharma, 2008), English grammar (Joseph, 1983; Joshi, 2010). (9) No study was
found, which tried to develop learning to learn skills in general, that could be used
for learning all the subjects. (10) Some studies conducted abroad were spotted which
were related to self-manage learning. However, these studies were mainly survey
type which tried to find out the perception of students regarding self-managed
learning and the difficulties they faced in the process of self-learning. The studies
were mostly conducted on self- managed learning groups that were already present
in different institutions. (11) Hardly any study was found in which efforts have been
made to develop a strategy to enhance self-managed learning skills among learners.
Thus from the review of literature it is clear that there is a lack of studies in the area
of developing self-instructional materials for enhancing learning to learn skills
among students, especially in India. The investigator therefore felt challenged to
explore the possibilities of such a study.
The next chapter deals with the details regarding both the development of the
modular strategy as well as its validation.
CHAPTER 3
PLAN AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Research methodology is a scientific and systematic way to solve research problems.
Methodology directs the whole endeavor – where critical decisions are made and
where organization, planning, and directing the whole project takes place. The entire
process is a unified effort as well as an appreciation of its component parts. Since
the nature of the present study is developmental cum experimental, the methodology
of the study has been divided into two parts namely:
PART I
:
PART II :
Methodology of Developing the Strategy
Effectiveness of the Strategy
The main objective of the present study was to develop a strategy for enhancing selfmanaged learning skills among student-teachers by identifying various skills, subskills and techniques required for managing one‘s own learning. Therefore, the first
part of the chapter discusses in detail the procedure which was adopted for
developing the strategy. After developing the strategy, the next step was to find out
its effectiveness. Therefore, the second part of the chapter deals with the procedure
adopted for evaluation of the prepared strategy. It deals with the design of the study,
variables selected, population, sample selected, tools used, procedures adopted in
conducting the experiment and statistical techniques used for analysis of data.
3.2
PART I : DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRATEGY
A strategy is an organized, sequenced, pre-planned and logically prepared package
of instructions, techniques, methods and activities to bring about specific changes in
the behaviour of the subjects for whom they are intended. A strategy needs to be
evolved before it is tried out and actually implemented. This means identification,
selection and sequencing of different components that constituted the strategy and
their development and revision. The process, as it involved different phases, was to
be carried out step wise.
3.2.1
Steps for Development of the Strategy
The steps followed by the investigator in preparation of the strategy have been
presented in what follows:
3.2.1.1 STEP 1. Conceptualization: In the first phase of the research, the
investigator read critically all the available literature regarding learning
theories and pedagogy. Further, the various aspects related to effective
learning viz. world knowledge, knowledge of cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies were studied. In order to understand the working of the
brain, various models of how information gets into the mind, how it is stored
and how it is retrieved as and when required were studied deeply. The
information processing theory was chief among them. Further the researcher
investigated the various skills, techniques, methods, etc. for developing selfmanaged learning skills. Based on the above study, the investigator made the
following assumptions:
(i)
Self-managed learning skills exist to some extent among all learners.
(ii)
The Self-managed learning skills are not sufficient or have not been
properly developed among learners to overcome the challenges they
face.
(iii)
Self-managed learning skills can be enhanced so that the process of
learning becomes more efficient and enjoyable.
The above stated assumptions were the guidelines based on which the entire
strategy was developed.
3.2.1.2 STEP 2. Determination of Requirements: The present study had a target
population of 21-25 age group of college going students, a group marked by
the characteristics of independence and self-reliance. Naturally, such a group
would take pride in doing things independently. Even learning is no
exception to this. Moreover, the aim of the present study was to develop selfmanaged learning skills among student-teachers. Thus looking into the
nature of the group of learners and their psychology the following points
were kept in mind as requirement of the study:
Requirement of the study
(i)
The techniques involving self-learning were deemed to be more
suitable than those that needed constant guidance and persuasion.
(ii)
Exercises and activities, which involved moderate challenge taking,
would provide the pupils with ample scope for putting into practice
the concepts and structures already learnt.
(iii)
Also since the objective of the study was to develop self-learning
skills, it was necessary to include a lot of activities or skill based
exercises in the strategy.
(iv)
The concept and structures already learnt by the pupils or the entry
level behaviour of the learners was kept in mind.
(v)
Apart from the considerations discussed above, the feasibility of
adopting the evolved strategy also was taken care of.
(vi)
The availability of the material needed for preparation of the strategy,
and availability of time were also taken into consideration.
(vii)
Added to these were considerations on administrative support,
academic freedom, heterogeneity of pupils, instructional obligations,
etc. also helped in their own way to decide the feasibility aspect of
the techniques to be selected.
From the conceptualization phase, the researcher also identified the
principles based on which the strategy should be evolved. Since the strategy
was prepared in modular form the following principles were kept in mind
while preparing the strategy:
Principles based on which the study was developed
(a)
Self-contained: Modules are self-contained which present sufficient
content to represent a unit. The writer includes adequate, relevant and
rich content so that the students can learn without any additional
support. These are self-contained learning activity packages.
(b)
Interactive in nature: Modules present learning activities to ensure
participation of the learner in the learning process. Therefore, the
content is presented in a simple language, learning activities are
properly planned and self-evaluation exercises are given.
(c)
It is structured in nature: The content of the modules is structured in
a systematic, sequential order to achieve the pre-determined
objectives. The emphasis is on self-instruction and the material
favours active involvement of the learner.
(d)
Self-assessment: Modules provide learning activities which are
appropriate to the learners‘ level of development and achievement,
where learning is done by the learner on his own and he gets many
opportunities for self-assessment through ―check your progress
questions‖. Thus he gets immediate reinforcement which further
facilitates learning.
3.2.1.3 STEP 3. Identification of the skills and sub-skills and techniques
required for SML : From the conceptualization phase, the researcher
became clear about how learning takes place and what the components of
effective learning are. Further, based on the information about how the brain
processes information and the researcher‘s own experience and experience of
teaching in a teacher-training institution, the gross skills and sub-skills and
techniques required for SML were identified. These were finalized with the
help of the Guide and three experts in the field of teacher-education.
The gross skills which were identified for managing ones‘ own learning are
as follows:
(i)
Goal Setting Skill
(ii)
Information Location Skill
(iii)
Information Processing Skill
(iv)
Information Storing Skill
(v)
Information Retention Skill
(vi)
Information Retrieval Skill
After identifying the gross skills, the next step was to identify the sub-skills
and techniques that are required to develop these gross skills. Various
components necessary for the development of self-managed learning skills
among student-teachers were identified and selected on the basis of
researcher‘s own experience and study of literature related to learning and
help from experts in the field of education. The sub-skills and techniques
identified during the study of literature were then categorized into the major
or gross skills under which they fall. The details of the sub-skills and
techniques required for SML are presented in detail in chapter 4 (Part – I).
3.2.1.4 STEP 4. Content Analysis : The above mentioned skills by way of units,
viz. Goal Setting Skill, Information Location Skill, Information Processing
Skill, Information Storing Skill, Information Retention Skill and Information
Retrieval Skill, in turn, were broken down into major concepts and subconcepts or skills and sub-skills and elaborated into activity based modules.
The specific sequential outline of the content matter within each unit/module
is presented in detail in Chapter 4 (Part-II).
3.2.1.5 STEP 5. Determination of terminal behaviour : Before developing a
strategy it is important to have a total picture of the general objectives for
which the strategy has to be developed. Therefore, the general objectives
based on which the strategy should be developed were determined first. The
general objectives of the self-managed learning strategy were as follows:
(i)
To develop goal setting skill among student-teachers
(ii)
To develop information location skill among student-teachers
(iii)
To develop information processing skill among student-teachers
(iv)
To develop information storing skill among student-teachers
(v)
To develop information retention skill among student-teachers
(vi)
To develop information retrieval skill among student-teachers
Unit-wise expected terminal behaviour : After determination of general
objectives, in accordance with the detailed analysis of the content given in
the flow charts, terminal behaviours were specified in behavioural terms for
the complete strategy and laid down unit wise in what follows:
Unit 1: Goal Setting Skill
(i)
Student-teachers will be able to differentiate long term goals from
short term goals.
(ii)
Student-teachers will be able to identify their strengths and
weaknesses using SWOT analysis.
(iii)
Student-teachers will be able to learn the steps in SMART goal
setting.
(iv)
Student-teachers will be able to identify their lifetime goals.
(v)
Student-teachers will be able to identify their learning goals.
(vi)
Student-teachers will be able to use the technique of goal mapping.
(vii) Student-teachers will be able to find out how they really spend their
time.
(viii) Student-teachers will be able to plan and manage their study time
with the help of a Semester Calendar, Weekly Schedule, and Daily
To Do List.
Unit 2: Information Location Skill
(i)
Student-teachers will be able to use the different types of tools and
resources available for locating information.
(ii)
Student-teachers will be able to identify the range of institutions and
collections open to them for locating information.
(iii)
Student-teachers will be able to analyse their topic of study and break
them down into searchable keywords.
(iv)
Student-teachers will be able to refine the keywords in order to obtain
right results.
(v)
Student-teachers will be able to search for resources using the library
catalogue.
(vi)
Student-teachers will be able to use the various web resources.
(vii) Student-teachers will be able to state copyright laws related to the use
of web resources.
(viii) Student-teachers will be able to evaluate the various resources used
for the purpose of learning.
(ix)
Student-teachers will be able to keep appropriate records of the
resources used for learning.
Unit 3: Information Processing Skill
(i)
Student-teachers will be able to explain how the brain processes
information.
(ii)
Student-teachers will be able to use different strategies to process
information while they read.
(iii)
Student-teachers will be able to use the KWL strategy to improve
their reading comprehension.
(iv)
Student-teachers will be able to use the SQ3R technique.
(v)
Student-teachers will be able to speed read a text.
(vi)
Student-teachers will be able to learn in a way that suits them by
knowing the various learning styles.
Unit 4: Information Storing Skill
(i)
Student-teachers will be able to identify ways of improving their note
taking skills while listening to lectures.
(ii)
Student-teachers will be able to identify a number of common
abbreviations/symbols that they may use while taking down notes.
(iii)
Student-teachers will be able to use new abbreviations while taking
notes.
(iv)
Student-teachers will be able to form new abbreviations while taking
notes.
(v)
Student-teachers will be able to improve their listening skill.
(vi)
Student-teachers will be able to use the Cornell system of notes
taking.
(vii)
Student-teachers will be able to use the mind-mapping technique for
notes taking and notes making.
Unit 5: Information Retention Skill
(i)
Student-teachers will be able to explain the structure of the human
brain.
(ii)
Student-teachers will be able to state the specializations of the left
brain and the right brain.
(iii)
Student-teachers will be able to name certain nutrients which nurture
and stimulate brain function.
(iv)
Student-teachers will be able to state the importance of exercise for
improving the efficiency of the brain.
(v)
Student-teachers will be able to use the techniques for improving
their memory.
(vi)
Student-teachers will be able to use the technique of systematic
revision for learning.
(vii)
Student-teachers will be able to use the principle of chunking to
enhance their information retention skill.
Unit 6: Information Retrieval Skill
(i)
Student-teachers will be able to form acronyms to improve their
information retrieval skill.
(ii)
Student-teachers will be able to form abbreviations to improve their
information retrieval skill.
(iii)
Student-teachers will be able to form acronymic sentences to improve
their information retrieval skill.
(iv)
Student-teachers will be able to form peg words to improve their
information retrieval skill.
(v)
Student-teachers will be able to form keywords to improve their
information retrieval skill.
Finally, the learning material was selected and prepared looking into the
suitability of the objectives and components.
3.2.1.6 STEP 6. Development of Strategy: Keeping in view the various
requirements stated in the preceding paragraphs and the terminal behaviour
to be achieved, a strategy was evolved by the investigator. It was decided
that the strategy would consist of six units, each representing a major step in
the process of SML. The units of the strategy are presented below:
UNIT 1: Goal Setting Skill
UNIT 2: Information Location Skill
UNIT 3: Information Processing Skill
UNIT 4: Information Storing Skill
UNIT 5: Information Retention Skill
UNIT 6: Information Retrieval Skill
In the present study, self-instructional materials in the form of modules have
been used for developing self-managed learning skills among studentteachers. Self-instructional materials are based on the principles of learning
in general and self-learning in particular. Self-instructional material enables
learners to learn independently, unaided and at their own pace. It has its own
structure. It is theme based and self-contained. It includes objectives,
learning exercises and in text assessment for offering continuous feedback.
There is a built-in flexibility in the text which promotes interaction. Thus,
self-instructional materials or modules consist of self-contained learning
activity packages which promote self-learning, self-evaluation and selfenhancement through continuous feedback. It thus effectively helps in
achieving the predetermined objectives. Envisaging all the aspects so far
discussed, when the instructional components are selected and evolved, they
would have the following attributes: (1) self-learning, (ii) activities, and (iii)
moderate challenge taking. It is these attributes that stood as a beacon to
guide the selection of the various instructional components that constituted
the strategy. Accordingly each module/unit of the strategy is made of the
following components:
(i)
Learning objectives: This section gives an idea about the objectives
that need to be achieved by the learner at the completion of the
module. It tells about the skills and techniques to be learnt in that
particular module.
(ii)
Introduction : This section gives an overall idea about what has
been presented in the module so that the learner gets a bird‘s eye
view of what he/she is about to learn in that module.
(iii)
Content with activities and exercises: In this part of the module, the
actual content in the form of the various concepts related to that
particular skill along with examples, activities and exercises have
been presented. Exercises for practice have been presented after each
concept. At the end of each content in every module, some activities
have been presented. If the activity has a specific answer, an answer
key has been provided at the end of the activity. The activities which
ask about the learner‘s opinions or situation, do not have answer
keys.
(iv)
Test Yourself: Throughout the modules, questions to check the
understanding of the contents just learnt have been presented in the
form of Test Yourself sections. The answers to these questions have
been provided at the end of the module.
(v)
Summing up: In this section the summary of the entire content
presented in that particular module has been presented. This gives an
opportunity to the learner to revise the content just learnt.
(vi)
Reflections: At the end of each module, there is a section on
reflection. A number of questions related to that module are presented
here. In this section, the learner writes whatever comes to their mind
regarding the question at hand. These questions have no specific
answers and are left to the learner‘s imagination.
(vii)
References: Readymade references in the form of books or websites
have been provided at the end of each module so that the learner may
enrich oneself with extra knowledge regarding a particular skill or
concept.
3.2.1.7 STEP 7. Expert‟s opinion and views: The prepared material was reviewed
(in the light of the objectives of the study) by experts in the field of education
who were requested to provide their views with respect to the logical
organization of the material, its coherence and comprehensibility. On the
basis of the experts‘ suggestions and opinions, certain changes were made in
the material by adding some new items and rejecting unnecessary items.
Thus, the whole package was modified, revised and organized properly.
3.2.1.8 STEP 8. Try out: Having improved the first draft of the self-managed
learning strategy, it was tested on five student-teachers (different from the
sample). This was done to identify and remove the difficulties that would
possibly be faced by the sample while studying through the modules. The
student-teachers were observed and asked about the problems they faced
while going through the modules and while carrying out the various
activities and exercises provided therein. In the light of the problems
experienced by the student- teachers, necessary corrections were made in the
strategy.
3.2.1.9 STEP 9. Preparation of the final draft: The modules were edited and
organized keeping in view all the observations made by the experts and the
student-teachers and the insight obtained by conducting the pilot study.
3.3
PART – II EFFECTIVENESS OF THE STRATEGY
3.3.1
Research Design
The present study was developmental cum experimental in nature. The investigator
developed the SML strategy and adopted the pre-test-post-test equivalent group
design to find the effectiveness of the strategy. The design of the experiment was as
follows:
Table 3.1 : Design of the Experiment
Group
Pre-Test
Experimental Treatment
Post-Test
Experimental Group
√
√
√
Control Group
√
Х
√
Note: “√‖ indicates the presence and “X” indicates absence of a particular treatment.
Both the groups; Experimental group (EG) and Control group (CG) were first given
pre-test and then the experiment was conducted with the EG. The CG was not given
any experimental treatment. The difference was observed at the end of the treatment
period in the particular factor under study. The difference between the performance
of EG and CG is expected to be due to exposure to the experimental treatment. At
the expiry of the experimental treatment period, both the groups were given posttest. Finally, suitable statistical techniques were used to compare the gains of
difference of EG and CG and findings and conclusions were drawn and reported.
3.3.2
Variables of the Study
A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable.
Variables are the condition or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates,
controls or observes.
Independent Variable
In the present study the independent variable is the experimental treatment i.e. the
Self-Managed Learning strategy which was developed by the investigator.
Dependent Variable
In the present study, the dependent variable is the achievement of the studentteachers in the SML skills which is measured with the help of an achievement test.
The influencing variables during the experimental treatment were controlled in the
following manner:
Intervening Variable
The intervening variables in the present study include the following:
(i)
Anxiety: The factor of anxiety in the student subjects was controlled by
telling them that even if their performance was poor during the said
experiment, it would not in any way negatively affect their final examination
result. They were also told that their responses would be recorded and used
only for research purpose.
(ii)
Fatigue: The factor of fatigue was controlled by giving the experimental
treatment to the students in the morning hours before their regular classes
began. Since the treatment consisted of studying from self instructional
modules the students were free to study from them as and when the time was
available to them. The pre and post-tests were also administered before the
commencement of the regular classes.
(iii)
Motivation: The students were told that they would be learning some
interesting and useful things that would help them improve their learning in
all the subject areas. They were told that they would be acquiring skills
which would not only help them in their learning but also would help them in
teaching as these skills could be in turn transferred to their students during
classroom teaching.
Extraneous Variables
The extraneous variables in the present study include the following:
(i)
Teacher Competence and Enthusiasm: The researcher herself who has an
M.Sc. (Chemistry), B.Ed., M.Ed. and has experience of teaching in B.Ed.
college had evolved the strategy and then used it with the Experimental
Group learners for the study.
(ii)
Age: The student-teachers selected for the study were almost of the same age
( 23-25 years old)
(iii)
Academic Ability: The sample was selected by way of the ‗Table of Random
Numbers‘. Thus, there was no discrimination on the basis of their academic
rank and division.
(iv)
Observer Distraction: There was no observer during the conduct of the
experimental treatment in order to avoid observer distraction.
(v)
Systematic Bias/Sampling Error: A sample of forty students was selected by
way of the ‗Table of Random Numbers‘. Through Lottery Method, two
groups EG and CG were formed.
Although it is practically impossible to eliminate all extraneous and intervening
variables, particularly in the classroom based research, an honest attempt was made
by the researcher to cognize the extraneous and intervening variables and taking care
while interpreting results.
3.3.3
Population
The population of the present study comprised of all the student-teachers of the one
hundred and sixty three regular teacher-training colleges of Kerala. (www.ncte.org)
3.3.4
Sample Selected for the Study
Out of the hundred and sixty three B.Ed colleges of Kerala, one co-educational
government aided B.Ed college from Tiruvalla district in Kerala viz. Titus II
Teachers College was selected for the study. The college was selected on the basis
of convenience of the investigator. Out of the hundred and fifty student-teachers of
the college, forty were selected by using the ‗Table of Random Numbers‘. For this
purpose, the list of student-teachers was collected from the college office and every
third student in the list was selected for the study. The sample thus selected was
further divided in to two groups: Experimental Group (EG) and Control Group
(CG). For this purpose, the sample selected from the group were asked to pick up a
chit of paper which either contained the alphabet ‗A‘ or ‗B‖. Those student-teachers
who picked up chit consisting of alphabet ‗A‘ were assigned to EG and those who
picked up the chit consisting of alphabet ‗B‘ were assigned to CG. Each group thus
consisted of twenty student-teachers. Their division into two groups is presented as
follows:
Table 3.2 : Details of Group
Sr. No.
Groups
No. of Students
1.
Experimental Group (EG)
20
2.
Control Group (CG)
20
Total
40
The sample thus selected consisted of thirty-six girls and four boys of the age group
21 to 25 years. Out of the forty student-teachers, twenty-eight were post-graduates
while twelve were graduates. The sample consisted of student-teachers belonging to
both arts and science stream.
3.3.5
Materials and Tools Used for the Study
For the purpose of the present study the investigator used the following materials
and tools:
1.
The Self-managed learning strategy, in the form of six self-instructional
modules, each covering a different aspect of learning (Volume II).
2.
Pre-test based on the self-managed learning strategy (Appendix - I)
3.
Post-test based on the self-managed learning strategy (Appendix - II)
4.
An opinionnaire for each module (Appendix – VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI)
5.
An opinionnaire for the entire strategy (Appendix - XII)
3.3.6
Preparation of Tools for the Study
The details regarding the preparation of the SML strategy is presented in the first
part of this chapter. In the following sections, details regarding the preparation of the
achievement test which consisted of a pre-test and post-test and the opinionnaire are
presented.
3.3.6.1 Preparation of achievement tests
The achievement test consisted of a pre-test and a post-test. The pre-test and the
post-test were equivalent in nature but not the same. Both the tests were prepared by
following the Blue-print presented in appendix XIII. Thus, the tests were equivalent
with respect to content, objectives, marks assigned and difficulty level.
The pre-test and the post-test used for the present study were constructed by the
investigator by following the phases mentioned below:
Phase One: Design of the Test
Preparation of the table of specification is the most important task in the preparation
of the achievement test. The objectives, content, form of questions and difficulty
levels of items are the most important factors to be considered in the design. The
details regarding design of the test are given below:

Weightage to objectives

Weightage to content

Weightage to form of questions

Weightage to difficulty level
Weightage to Objectives
Since the aim of the strategy was to develop SML skills among student-teachers, the
skill based objectives were given more importance. The weightage given to the
different objectives is shown in the table given below:
Table 3.3 : Weightage to Objectives
Sr. No
Objectives
Number of questions
Total Marks
Percentage (%)
1.
Knowledge
21
10.5
10.5
2.
Understanding
12
06.0
6.0
3.
Application
07
21.5
21.5
4.
Skill
10
62.0
62.0
TOTAL
50
100
100
Weightage to Content
The SML strategy consisted of six units in the form of six modules. Equal weightage
was given to each unit. The detailed description of weightage given to content is
given in the table that follows:
Table 3.4 : Weightage to Content
Sr.No
Content
Number of
Total Marks
Percentage
questions
1.
Goal Setting Skill
8
20.5
20.5
2.
Information Location Skill
8
12.5
12.5
3.
Information Processing Skill
9
13.5
13.5
4.
Information Storing Skill
9
20
20
5.
Information Retention Skill
9
15.5
15.5
6.
Information Retrieval Skill
7
18
18
TOTAL
50
100
100
Weightage to form of questions
Mainly three different forms of questions were used in the preparation of the
achievement test. They were objective type, short answer type and descriptive type
of questions. The weightage given to each form of question is shown in the table
below:
Table 3.5 : Weightage to form of Questions
Sr. no
Form of question
Number of
Total Marks
Percentage
questions
1.
Objective type
35
18
18
2.
Short answer type
11
47
47
3.
Descriptive type
04
35
35
TOTAL
50
100
100
Weightage to Difficulty Level
Other than the factors mentioned in the blue-print, the questions were further divided
into three groups according to their difficulty level viz. easy, average and difficult.
The difficulty level of the items of the test are shown in the table given below:
Table 3.6 : Weightage to Difficulty Level
Sr. no
Level of difficulty
Number of
Total Marks
Percentage
questions
1.
Easy
23
15.5
15.5
2.
Average
20
53.5
53.5
3.
Difficult
07
31
31
50
100
100
TOTAL
Phase Two: Writing of Items
Various topics from the prepared strategy were selected by the investigator to
prepare the achievement test. Since the strategy consisted of six units in the form of
six modules, appropriate weightage was given to each unit. Since the main objective
of the experiment was to develop SML skills among student-teachers, skill
objectives were given more prominence. The initial test items consisted of 75
questions which included mainly objective type questions.
Phase Three: Preparation of Initial Draft
The initial draft consisted of 75 questions for pre-test and 75 questions for post test.
Mostly objective type questions were only included in the initial draft.
Phase Four: Evaluation of the Initial Draft
The initial draft of the achievement test was submitted to the supervisor of the
investigator for evaluation. The supervisor suggested the following modifications:

To avoid repetition of the items

To include items from each content area of the strategy

To reconstruct certain items which were vague
Phase Five: Preparation of the Second Draft
Based on the suggestions given by the supervisor, the second draft of the tool was
prepared. Items from each content area were selected and items which were repeated
were deleted.
Phase Six: Validation of the Tool
The tools along with the answer key were submitted to a panel of experts. The panel
consisted of five experts, four belonging to the field of teacher education and one an
expert in English language. The experts thus selected were those who had more than
ten years experience in the field of education and had expertise in developing
research tools. The panel of experts was requested to go through the tools and give
suggestions for the improvement of the same keeping in view the nature and
objectives of the study. After going through the tools the panel of experts gave the
following suggestions for the improvement of the research tools:

Addition of more application level questions

To reduce the number of objective type questions

To include activity based questions to check the level of skill development

To reduce the number of questions
Further based on the pilot study the following changes were made in the
achievement test:

Language used in preparation of certain questions were simplified

Time required for the completion of the test was finalized

Space given for answering the questions were adjusted
Phase Seven: Revised Third Draft
The third draft of the achievement test was prepared based on the corrections and
suggestions made by the panel of experts. Further improvement was made in the
achievement test from the insight obtained by carrying out the pilot study. The third
revised draft of the achievement test consisted of 50 items. Objective and subjective
type questions were included. Stress was given on including more skill based
questions.
Phase Eight: Preparation of Final Draft
The third revised draft was again submitted to the panel of experts and after their
approval the achievement test was finalized. The final draft of the achievement test
is attached in appendix - I and II
3.3.6.1.1 Scoring and Interpretation
Both the pre-test and post-test consisted of 50 questions each, which included both
objective and subjective type questions. More weightage was given to skill based
questions as the strategy was prepared for developing skills among the learners.
Scoring key was prepared according to the difficulty level and time taken to
complete each question. The distribution of marks for both the tests was shown to
the experts. Their suggestions were incorporated and the distribution of marks was
improved upon and given a final shape. The scoring scheme of both the tests has
been given in the appendix- III and IV. The maximum marks awarded for the test
was 100. For interpreting the scores, the investigator calculated mean, S.D. and ―t‖
test.
3.3.6.2 Preparation of Opinionnaire
In order to find out the opinion of the student-teachers towards the SML strategy,
seven different opinionnaires were prepared by the investigator. There was one
opinionnaire for each module of the strategy and one opinionnaire was prepared to
find out the opinion regarding the entire strategy. The six opinionnaires prepared for
each module separately contained items which sought the opinion of the studentteachers towards the various components of that particular module. The items were
based on the objectives the components were intended to attain in the strategy. The
validation of the opinionnaire was done by the same experts who had validated the
achievement test. Later a sample study was carried out and based on the suggestions
of the experts and the feedback received from the sample, modifications were made
in the opinionnaire. Copies of the opinionnaires are given in appendix - VI, VII,
VIII, IX, X, XI, XII.
The Likert Method of Summated Ratings was used to elicit the opinion of the
student-teachers towards the strategy. The student-teachers were supposed to give
their opinion on a five-point scale: strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and
strongly disagree. They were supposed to give their opinion regarding each
statement in anyone category by choosing from the five point scale.
3.3.7
Procedure of Experiment
The procedure of the experiment included the following steps:
3.3.7.1 Preparation of the Group of Learners for the Experiment:
As discussed earlier the sample for the study consisted of forty student-teachers of a
co-educational government aided B. Ed college from Tiruvalla district in Kerala.
Out of the hundred and fifty student-teachers of the college, forty were selected by
using the ‗Table of Random Numbers‘. For this purpose, the list of student-teachers
was collected from the college office and every third student in the list was selected
for the study. The sample thus selected was further divided in to two groups:
Experimental Group (EG) and Control Group (CG). For this purpose, the sample
selected from the group were asked to pick up a chit of paper which either contained
the alphabet ‗A‘ or ‗B‖. Those student-teachers who picked up chit consisting of
alphabet ‗A‘ were assigned to EG and those who picked up the chit consisting of
alphabet ‗B‘ were assigned to CG. Thus each group consisted of twenty studentteachers.
3.3.7.2 Administration of Pre-test
The investigator conducted a pre-test to measure the entry level behaviour of the
sample with respect to the prepared strategy. The test was based on the six modules
prepared by the investigator to develop SML skills among student-teachers. The test
consisted of both objective and subjective type questions.
After giving a brief idea regarding the experiment and the role of the studentteachers therein, the pre-test was administered. The time allotted for completion of
the test was one hour and total marks of the test was 100. The student-teachers were
requested not to hesitate in responding to the test as the test was not going to affect
their examination results in any way. After the completion of the test the studentteachers of EG were asked to come for the experimental treatment whereas the
students of CG were asked to reappear for the post-test on the scheduled time and
day. This was done in order to find out whether they could do something to improve
their test scores as well as weakness on their own.
3.3.7.3 Establishing Equivalence of EG and CG
In order to equate the experimental and control group with respect to their
performance in self-managed learning skills before the intervention of the developed
strategy, the mean and standard deviations of the pre-test scores of both the groups
were determined and were subjected to a test of significance between means using
two tailed test. The level of significance was fixed at 0.01 level. The details of the
analysis are summarized in the following table.
Table 3.7 : Test of Significance of Difference Between Means of Pre-Test Scores
of Experimental Group and Control Group
Groups
Number of
Mean
S.D.
t-value
students
Experimental
20
16.75
7.86
Control
20
15.75
8.44
0.3876
df = 38, t- value = 2.704 ( at 0.01 level of significance)
The table above reveals that the experimental group and control group do not differ
in terms of their self-managed learning skills at the pre-test level as the calculated
―t‖ value is less than the table value 2.704 to be significant at 0.01 level of
significance for 38 degrees of freedom. This proves that both the groups were
equivalent at the pre-test level.
3.3.7.4 Administration of the Experimental Treatment
Since the nature of the study was to develop self-managed learning skills among
student-teachers, every student-teacher of the EG received a copy of the modules
and a manual. The self-managed learning strategy consisted of six modules and one
manual which gave a short but clear explanation about how to use the modules. The
most important purpose of the strategy was to encourage student-teachers to develop
skills to learn on their own and to make them aware of different techniques and
method to develop their learning; therefore the process adopted in the experiment
was that of self-study. After the administration of the pre-test, each student-teacher
of the experimental group was given a copy of the first module. A brief explanation
regarding the contents of the module was given by the investigator. The studentteachers were asked to go through the modules and ask any question that arouse in
their minds. Then they were given four days to study and use the modules. After
four days, a one hour study session was organized in which the student-teachers
clarified doubts if any. Then an opinionnaire related to that particular module was
handed over to each of the participant. After completing the opinionnaire, a short
test was taken in order to test their understanding. In this way, the six modules were
administered along with the opinionnaire. After completion of each module there
was a study session of one hour and distribution of modules and collection of data
regarding the reaction of the student-teachers towards the modules. After completion
of six modules, the student-teachers were given six days to go through the entire
strategy. Then their opinion regarding the entire strategy was collected with the help
of the opinionnaire and finally the post- test was administered.
3.3.7.5 Administration of Post-test
The post-test was administered to both the groups i.e. EG and CG after the
completion of the experiment in order to find out whether the SML strategy was
effective in developing learning to learn skills among student-teachers. Like the pretest the post-test also consisted of both objective and subjective type questions. The
maximum marks allotted for the post-test was 100.
3.3.8
Data Analysis
The data of the present study consisted of the pre-test/post-test scores, the opinion of
the student-teachers towards the strategy and the opinion of the experts towards the
strategy. The opinions of the student-teachers towards the strategy were analyzed by
finding out the percentage responses towards each individual statement of the
opinionnaires while the opinion of the experts towards the strategy was analyzed by
content analysis method. To study the effectiveness of the evolved Self-managed
learning strategy, the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control
groups were subjected to the following statistical techniques:
(i)
Mean
Mean = ∑ f x / N
∑ = sum of
f = frequency of the class
x = mid-value of the class
N = sum of the frequencies
(ii)
Standard Deviation (S.D.) for small sample
σ = i √ ∑ f x’2 / N – (∑ f x’ / N) 2
i = class interval
f = frequency of the class
x‘ = deviation of the mid-points of the different steps measured from the
assumed mean in units of class interval.
N = sum of the frequencies
(iii)
„t „ test
t = X1 – X2 / √ (N1- 1) S12 + (N2 – 1) S22/N1 + N2 – 2 . (1/N1 + 1/N2)
X1, X2 = Mean of the experimental and control group
S1, S2 = Standard deviation of the experimental and control group
N1, N2 = Total number of students in the experimental and control group
3.4
CONCLUSION
To sum up, this chapter has discussed the procedures adopted for the preparation of
the instructional material and the methods used for validation of the self-managed
learning strategy. An attempt has been made in this chapter to discuss in detail the
sample selection, variables in the study, research methodology, preparation of
instructional materials, procedure of experiment and the statistical techniques used
for the analysis and interpretation of data. This chapter also dealt with the steps
taken for constructing the research tools, namely, the opinionnaire, the pre and posttests. The scoring scheme and the administration of the tools have also been
discussed in this chapter.
The following chapter discusses the analysis and interpretation of the data.
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
4.1
INTRODUCTION
The chapter deals with the analysis and interpretation of data related to the present
study. The first objective of the study was to identify various skills, sub-skills and
techniques for developing SML skills among student-teachers. The second and
major objective of the study was to develop a strategy for enhancing Self-Managed
Learning skills (SML) among student-teachers with the help of the skills, sub-skills
and techniques identified by the researcher. Finally, the last objective of the study
was to find out the effectiveness of the SML strategy. Therefore the chapter has been
presented in three parts:

Identification of the skills, sub-skills and techniques for SML

Development of the SML strategy

Effectiveness of the SML strategy
4.2
IDENTIFICATION OF THE SKILLS, SUB-SKILLS AND
TECHNIQUES FOR SML
The first objective of the study was to identify the various skills, sub-skills and
techniques required for managing ones‘ own learning. To identify them the
investigator studied the literature related to the various aspects of learning which
included the learning theories and pedagogy, the various aspects related to effective
learning and understandings into the working of the brain. The skills, sub-skills and
techniques identified by the researcher were mainly based on the studies conducted
by Alexander and Halverson (1963), Dave (1973), Corpley and Dave (1978); the
review of related literature and the investigators‘ own insight and experience in the
field of learning and teacher education. According to Alexander and Halverson
(1963), the skills of seeking information from people, reading for information,
locating information in the library, making notes and records for further reference,
summarizing information, organizing data in terms of a particular problem, etc. are
some of the major skills needed for efficient learning. According to Dave (1973),
learning to learn involves possession of appropriate learning skills such as the ability
to set oneself learning task, to make use of the facilities available for carrying them
out and to judge whether or not results meet the needs of the situation. According to
Cropley and Dave (1978), self-learning involves learning to learn, learning to share
knowledge, learning to evaluate oneself and learning to improve. From the above
studies, the review of literature (studies related to cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies and study-skills/SML) and the investigators‘ own experience,
the gross skills and the sub-skills and techniques required for SML were identified
by the researcher. After identifying the skills, sub-skills and techniques required for
SML, they were finalized with the help of the researcher‘s Guide and three experts
in the field of teacher-education.
The gross skills which were identified for managing ones‘ own learning are as
follows:
(1)
Goal Setting Skill
(2)
Information Location Skill
(3)
Information Processing Skill
(4)
Information Storing Skill
(5)
Information Retention Skill
(6)
Information Retrieval Skill
After identifying the gross skills, the next step was to identify the sub-skills and
techniques that are required to develop these gross skills. The sub-skills and
techniques identified during the study of literature were thus categorized into the
major or gross skills under which they fall. The sub-skills and techniques which fall
under each of the gross skills are presented below:
The sub-skills and techniques that fall under the gross skill of Goal Setting are as
follows:
(1)
The skill of differentiating long-term goal from short-term goal.
(2)
The skill of identifying ones strength, weakness, opportunities and threats
using SWOT analysis.
(3)
The skill of setting effective goals using the acronym SMART.
(4)
The skill of identifying ones‘ life time goals.
(5)
The skill of identifying ones‘ learning goals.
(6)
The skill of preparing goal maps.
(7)
The skills for effective time-management.
(8)
The skill of preparing a term calendar.
(9)
The skill of preparing a weekly schedule.
(10)
The skill of preparing a daily to-do-list.
(11)
The skill of preparing and using activity logs.
The sub-skills and techniques that fall under the gross skill of Information Location
are as follows:
(1)
The skill of using the various tools and resources available for information
location.
(2)
The skill of identifying the range of institutions where the relevant
information could be found.
(3)
The skill of analyzing the topic to be learned.
(4)
The skill of breaking the topic of study into searchable key-words.
(5)
The skill of refining the key-words in order to obtain relevant results.
(6)
The skill of using the library catalogue.
(7)
The skill of using the web-resources.
(8)
The skill of evaluating resources used for information location.
(9)
The skill of keeping appropriate records of resources used for learning.
The sub-skills and techniques that fall under the gross skill of Information
Processing are as follows:
(1)
The skill of explaining how the brain processes the information it gets from
its surroundings.
(2)
The skill of using different strategies for reading.
(3)
The skill of using KWL strategy.
(4)
The skill of using SQ3R technique.
(5)
The skill of speed reading a text.
(6)
The skill of identifying ones‘ learning style.
The sub-skills and techniques that fall under the gross skill of Information Storing
are as follows:
(1)
The skill of identifying common abbreviations and symbols used while
taking notes.
(2)
The skill of forming new abbreviations while taking and making notes.
(3)
The skill of forming new symbols while taking and making notes.
(4)
The skill of listening while taking notes.
(5)
The skill of using the Cornell system for note-taking.
(6)
The skill of preparing mind maps.
The sub-skills and techniques that fall under the gross skill of Information Retention
are as follows:
(1)
The skill of identifying the nutrients which nurture brain function.
(2)
The skill of using techniques for improving memory.
(3)
The skill of carrying out systematic revision of the content learnt.
(4)
The skill of using the principle of chunking.
The sub-skills and techniques that fall under the gross skill of Information Retrieval
are as follows:
(1)
The skill of forming new acronyms for retrieving information.
(2)
The skill of forming new abbreviations for retrieving information.
(3)
The skill of forming new acronymic sentences for retrieving information.
(4)
The skill of using peg-words to retrieve information.
(5)
The skill of using key-words to retrieve information.
4.3
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SML STRATEGY
The second objective of the study was to develop a strategy for enhancing SML
skills among student-teachers. After selecting the various SML skills, the sub-skills
and techniques required for developing each of the gross skills were identified,
details of which has been presented in the section above. In the next step, each of the
sub-skill and techniques were in turn, broken down into its components and
presented in a logical order in the form of flow charts. It was decided that the
strategy would consist of six units, each pertaining to the development of a SML
skill. The flow charts pertaining to each skill is presented in detail in what follows.
These content matters occur in the modules in the same sequence in which they are
presented here.
UNIT 1 : GOAL SETTING SKILL
Short term goals and long term goal
SWOT Analysis
S.M.A.R.T goal setting
Goal mapping
Starting to set personal goals
Trying to know your learning goals
Finding out how you really spend your time
Strategies on using time
Effective aids for goal setting
UNIT 2: INFORMATION LOCATION SKILL
Analyzing the topic for study
Identifying search tools and collections to use
(a) Resources for locating Information
(b) Tools for locating Information
(c) Institutions and collections for locating Information
Locating and obtaining resources
(a) Using Library Catalogues
(b) Using Web resources
Exploring copyright Laws related to Computer and Software Use
Reading and Evaluating
Keeping Records
UNIT 3: INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILL
The information processing model
Transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory
Reading Inventory
Strategies for improving your reading skill
KWL strategy
SQ3R strategy
Speed Reading
The Finger Technique
Learning style
UNIT 4: INFORMATION STORING SKILL
Lectures and Note-taking
Improving your notes-taking skill for lectures
(a) Some commonly used abbreviations
(b) Forming abbreviations
(c) Using symbols
(d) Suggestions for better listening
The Cornell system of note taking
Mind mapping
UNIT 5: INFORMATION RETENTION SKILL
The structure of the human brain
The left brain and the right brain
Nutrition and Memory Improvement
Exercise and Memory Improvement
Techniques to improve your information retention skill while learning
Systematic revision to improve memory after learning
Using chunking to enhance retention
UNIT 6: INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SKILL
Acronym
Abbreviation
Acronymic sentence
Keywords
Peg words
Once the components were identified and presented in logical order in the form of
flow charts, the next step was to write down the instructional objectives in
behavioural terms. The unit-wise terminal behaviours for the complete strategy was
thus specified and has been presented in detail in Chapter 3 (Part I).
From the study of literature based on learning and pedagogy and the investigators‘
own experience in the field of teacher-education, the assumptions on which the
strategy should be based, the requirements of the strategy and the principles
following which the modules should be prepared were also identified. After
identifying the principles, the requirements and assumptions on which the strategy
should be based, they were finalized after consulting with the research Guide and
three experts in the field of teacher-education. Details of the assumptions of the
strategy, requirements of the strategy and the principles of preparing the modules are
presented in Chapter 3 (Part-I).
After having identified the principles, the requirements and the assumptions on
which the strategy should be based a rough draft of each module was prepared. The
details regarding the development of the first draft of the strategy is presented in
what follows.
4.3.1
Preparation of the First Draft of the Strategy
In the present study, self-instructional materials in the form of modules have been
used to develop SML skills among student-teachers. Therefore, it was important that
the learning material be presented in such manner that the learners may learn from it
independently, unaided and at their own pace. There should also be an in-built
flexibility in the text in order to promote interaction. It was also important to provide
opportunities for self- assessment so that the learner gets immediate reinforcement
which would further facilitate learning. In the section that follows the various steps
followed, for the development of the first draft of the strategy has been presented:
Steps followed to develop the modules:
(i)
The content of the modules was developed by using appropriate reference
materials and structured in a systematic, sequential order to achieve the predetermined objectives. The content was presented from simple to complex,
from known to unknown and from concrete to abstract. Further, the content
was presented in the same sequential order as shown in the flow charts.
(ii)
Adequate, relevant and rich content was included for each theme so that the
learners could learn without any additional support.
(iii)
Attempt was made to present the content in as simple a language as possible,
so as to ensure complete participation of the learners in the learning process.
Since the emphasis was on self-instruction.
(iv)
Prior to studying the content presented in the modules, introduction to each
unit was provided so that the learners get a birds‘ eye view of what they are
about to learn in that particular module.
(v)
Since the aim of the study was to enhance SML skills among the learners, the
investigator tried to make the modules as activity based as possible. This was
also important so that the learners are kept active throughout the learning
process and get enough practice in order to develop a particular skill. Enough
space was provided to practice the skills in the module itself.
(vi)
Step-wise procedure of executing a particular skill was provided in the
module. This is followed by space for executing the skill by the learner.
(vii)
Illustrations and examples were provided for making the concepts more
clear.
(viii) Diagrams, pictures and graphs were included wherever required.
(ix)
Immediate feedback was accommodated by including answer-keys at the end
of activities which had specific answers.
(x)
At the end of each module, a section for reflecting on the contents learnt in
the module is provided by posing several questions related to the content
presented in the modules.
Some of the other points which were taken into consideration while preparing the
modules are as follows:
(i)
Incorporation of learning objectives at the beginning of each module.
(ii)
Incorporation of summary at the end of each module.
(iii)
Inclusion of tests for self-evaluation after each concept in the modules.
(iv)
Simplification of language in certain sections of some modules.
(v)
Presenting the list of contents at the beginning of each module.
(vi)
Inclusion of references for enrichment at the end of each module.
(vii)
Including pictures to make certain concepts clear.
After developing the first draft of the strategy, it was intensely reviewed by the
Guide, who then provided suggestions for improvement of the same. The first draft
of the strategy was then intensely reviewed by experts. Later a pilot study was
conducted, results of which were analyzed to determine where modifications might
be needed.
4.3.2
Preparation of the Second Draft of the Strategy
The first draft of the SML strategy was further modified in accordance to the
expert‘s opinion as well the insight gained from the conduct of the pilot study. The
details of which have been presented below.
4.3.2.1 Modifications made in strategy after finding out experts‟ opinion
A copy each of the modified strategy was given to a panel of experts for going
through it and giving further suggestions for improvement. The panel consisted of
five experts three of whom belonged to the field of teacher education and two were
experts in English language. All the experts selected had ten or more years of
experience in their respective fields and also had experience in dealing with
preparing strategies. The prepared material was reviewed (in the light of the
objectives of the study) by experts, who were requested to provide their views with
respect to the logical organization of the material, its coherence and
comprehensibility. On the basis of the experts‘ suggestions and opinions, following
changes were made in the strategy:
(i)
The experts found that the modules were too concept based and required the
addition of more activities since the aim of the study was to develop selfmanaged learning skills. Therefore the investigator added more activities and
exercises and made the modules more activity based. Less emphasis was
given to theory related to a particular concept.
(ii)
Again space required for practice of the particular skill was provided in the
module itself.
(iii)
The experts found the second module related to the development of
information location skill, too lengthy. The module was modified by
removing unnecessary concepts and activities.
(iv)
Inclusion of an example of a goal map, example of identifying a key-word
from topic of study, example of a mind map, etc. was suggested to bring
more clarity to the concept.
4.3.2.2 Modifications made in strategy after conducting the pilot study
Once the strategy was modified in the light of the suggestions given by both the
research Guide and the panel of experts, it was tried on a sample of five studentteachers (different from the sample) as a pilot study. This was done with a view to
finding out the possible difficulties that are likely to be encountered by the sample
while studying through the modules. The investigator sat along with these five
student-teachers as they learned through the modules and discussed and noted the
problems as they encountered. In the light of the problems experienced by the
student- teachers, the following corrections were made in the strategy:
Points that emerged from pilot study
(i)
The learners needed more assistance to carry out personal SWOT analysis, in
the module on developing Goal Setting Skill. In order to overcome this
difficulty the investigator included some questions in the form of prompts to
help the learners in determining their strength, weakness, opportunities and
threats.
(ii)
An example was included for explaining how to set a goal using the acronym
SMART.
(iii)
The concept of goal map was not clear to the learners, therefore the
explanation was made more precise and the language used was further
simplified.
(iv)
Concept of using Boolean logic was made clear by addition of more
examples.
(v)
The concept of mind maps was made clearer with the addition of one more
example, so that the learners get more ideas regarding construction of mind
maps.
(vi)
The language used in explaining the concept of chunking was simplified
further. More examples were also added.
(vii)
The learners asked for adding more activity to learn the skill of preparing a
mind map.
(viii) More space was provided in the modules so that the learners could practice
the skill of preparing goal maps and mind maps.
(ix)
In order to make the concept of left and right brain, clear picture was
included in the module.
(x)
Picture was also included to make the concept of peg-word clear.
Further the analysis of the pre-test and post-test scores of the sample showed that
there was a positive improvement in the self-managed learning skills of the studentteachers after the administration of the SML strategy. Again, all of them had a
positive opinion about the prepared strategy. The investigator observed that the
sample had an intrinsic motivation to learn the modules and from their interview
found that they liked the strategy and found the modules very useful. The interview
also reveled that the sample were keen to keep the modules with them for future
reference.
4.3.3
Preparation of the Final Draft of the Strategy
The investigator once again went through the entire SML strategy and made the
necessary changes not only in the language of the strategy but also in the
organization of the content. Further additions and deletions were made in the
strategy so as to make it more fluent and effective for learning. Thus the final draft
of the strategy was made ready for intervention. A copy of the final draft of the SML
strategy can be seen in the second volume of this report. The common framework
that was followed to prepare the strategy has been presented in what follows:
A common framework of the modules
(i)
Learning objectives: This section gives an idea about the objectives that
need to be achieved by the learner at the completion of the module. It tells
about the skills and techniques to be learnt in that particular module.
(ii)
Introduction : This section gives an overall idea about what has been
presented in the module so that the learner gets a bird‘s eye view of what
he/she is about to learn in that module.
(iii)
Content with activities and exercises: In this part of the module, the actual
content in the form of the various concepts related to that particular skill
along with examples, activities and exercises have been presented. Exercises
for practice have been presented after each concept. At the end of content in
all modules, some activities have been presented. If the activity has a specific
answer, an answer key has been provided at the end of the activity. The
activities which ask about the learner‘s opinions or situations do not have
answer keys.
(iv)
Test yourself: Throughout the modules, questions to check the understanding
of the contents just learnt have been presented in the form of Test Yourself
sections. The answers to these questions have been provided at the end of the
module.
(v)
Summing up: In this section the summary of the entire content presented in
that particular module has been presented. This gives an opportunity to the
learner to revise the content just learnt.
(vi)
Reflections: At the end of each module, there is a section on reflection. A
number of questions related to that module are presented here. In this
section, the learner writes whatever comes to their mind regarding the
question at hand. These questions have no specific answers and are left to the
learner‘s imagination.
(vii)
References: Readymade references in the form of books or websites have
been provided at the end of each module so that the learner may enrich
oneself with extra knowledge regarding a particular skill or concept.
On the basis of the suggestions and the common framework to develop the modules,
all the six modules were developed and finalized after the pilot study. A copy of the
same has been presented in Volume II of the report.
4.4
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE SML STRATEGY
After the final draft was prepared, the modules were put to experimentation to find
their effectiveness. The data thus collected during and after the experiment were
subjected to statistical analysis. The details of conducting the experiment have been
presented in Chapter-III. Here below, the analysis and interpretation of data has been
made under the following sections:
(i)
Performance of the student-teachers in pre- test and post- test.
(ii)
Opinion of the student- teachers towards the various modules of the strategy
and the SML strategy as a whole.
(iii)
Opinion of the experts towards the SML strategy.
4.4.1
Performance of Student-Teachers in Pre-Test and Post-Test
In the present study, the sample consisted of forty student-teachers who were
randomly selected on the basis of the ‗Table of Random Numbers‘. The samples
were systematically divided into two groups: Experimental Group (EG) and Control
Group (CG). Each group consisted of twenty students. Since the third objective of
the study was to find out the effectiveness of the developed strategy in terms of the
student-teachers performance in the pre-test and post–test, an achievement test was
prepared. The achievement test i.e. both the pre-test and post- test were prepared for
the purpose of the study. Both the tests were identical but not similar. The tests were
divided into six sections, each dealing with a separate aspect of the self-managed
learning strategy.
The pre-test was administered to the student-teachers of both the group before the
implementation of the developed strategy, in order to find out where both the group
stood with respect to self-managed learning skills. After completion of the
intervention course, the post-test was administered to both the experimental and
control group to know the effect of the developed strategy on the experimental group
student-teachers‘ performance.
4.4.1.1 Comparison of Control Group and Experimental Group with regard to
Pre-Test scores.
In order to find out the entry level behaviour of the Experimental Group and Control
Group and to equate the Experimental Group and Control Group with respect to
their performance in self-managed learning skills before the intervention of the
developed strategy, the Mean and Standard Deviations of the pre-test scores of both
the groups were determined and were subjected to a test of significance between
Means using two tailed test. The level of significance was fixed at 0.01 levels. The
details of the analysis are summarized in the following table.
Table 4.1 : Test of Significance of Difference Between Means of Pre-Test Scores
of EG And CG
Groups
Number of
Mean
S.D.
t-value
0.3876*
students
Experimental
20
16.75
7.86
Control
20
15.75
8.44
df = 38, t- value = 2.704 ( at 0.01 level of significance)
Note:* „t‟ value is not significant at 0.01 level.
The table above reveals that the Experimental Group and Control Group do not
differ in terms of their Self-Managed Learning Skills at the pre-test level as the
calculated ―t‖ value is less than the table value of 2.704 to be significant at 0.01
level of significance with 38 degrees of freedom. Thus it can be seen that there is no
significant difference between the performances of the student-teachers at pre-test
level with respect to Self-Managed Learning Skills. The pre-test scores of the
Experimental Group and Control Group are presented below in the form of bar
diagram for better clarity.
Figure 4.1 : Mean of Pre-test scores of Control Group and Experimental Group
From the Figure 4.1 it can be clearly seen that both the Experimental Group and
Control Group do not differ significantly with respect to their Pre-test scores. Thus it
may be concluded that both the groups were equivalent at the pre-test level.
4.4.1.2 Comparison of the Control Group and Experimental Group with
Regard to Post-Test Scores
In order to find out the effectiveness of the Self-Managed Learning skills strategy,
the Experimental and Control Group were subjected to a post-test after the
completion of the experimental session. The SML strategy consisted of six modules
related to six different skills for enhancing self-managed learning of studentteachers. The six skills were Goal Setting Skill, Information Location Skill,
Information Processing Skill, Information Storing Skill, Information Retention Skill
and Information Retrieval Skill. The mean and standard deviations of the post-test
scores of both the groups in each skill of the strategy as well as the whole strategy
were calculated and were subjected to a test of significance between Means (t test)
using one tailed test. The level of significance was fixed at 0.01 level. The details of
the analysis are summarized in the following table.
Table 4.2 : Test of Significance of Difference Between Means of Post-Test
Scores of Experimental Group and Control Group
S. No. Self-Managed Learning Skill
Means of
Experimental
Group
Means of
S.D. of
Control Experimental
Group
Group.
S.D of
Control
Group
‘t’ value
1.
Goal Setting Skill
15.5
2.15
2.96
1.24
18.06**
2.
Information Location Skill
8.5
3.65
3.5
3.04
4.68**
3.
Information Processing Skill
11.2
2.2
1.7
1.12
19.78**
4.
Information Storing Skill
16.8
4.65
2.7
3.77
11.72**
5.
Information Retention Skill
13.08
3
1.33
3.025
13.62**
6.
Information Retrieval Skill
14.5
2
3.9
2.75
11.68**
81.25
17.25
11.97
5.54
21.70**
7.
TOTAL
df = 38, t- value = 2.42 ( at 0.01 level of significance)
Note: ** „t‟ value is significant at 0.01 level.
The table above reveals that the Experimental Group and Control Group differ to a
great extent in terms of their performance in self-managed learning skills at the posttest level as the calculated ―t‖ value 21.70 is greater than the table value of 2.42 at
0.01 levels of significance with 38 degrees of freedom. Further it is also observed
that both the EG and CG group differ to a great extent in their performance in all the
skills of the SML strategy. It can be clearly seen from the Means of scores of the EG
and CG that the EG has performed significantly better than the CG in all the skills of
the SML strategy. The Mean of the post-test scores of the Control Group and
Experimental Group in all the six skills of the strategy has been presented below in
the form of bar-diagram for further clarity.
18
16
16.8
15.5
14.5
14
13.08
11.2
Mean
12
10
8.5
8
6
4.65
3.6
4
3.025
2.2
2.15
2.75
2
0
GS
IL
IP
Exp. group
IS
IRe
IRt
Control group
Figure 4.2 : Mean scores of E.G. and C.G. in various skills of the SML strategy.
The details of the abbreviations used in the diagram are presented below:
GS = Goal Setting Skill
IL = Information Location Skill
IP = Information Processing Skill
IS = Information Storing Skill
IRe= Information Retention Skill
IRt= Information Retrieval Skill
It can be clearly seen from the above diagram that there is a drastic difference
between the performance of the EG and CG. Further it can be observed that the
Experimental Group has performed extremely well in all the skills taken up in the
SML strategy. The diagram also shows that the EG has performed best in the
Information Storing Skill. The overall performance of the CG and EG in the posttest is depicted with the help of bar-diagram below.
90
81.25
80
70
Mean
60
50
40
30
20
17.25
10
0
CG
EG
Figure 4.3 Mean of Post-Test scores of Control Group and Experimental Group
Again Figure 4.3 clearly shows that there is a large difference in performance of the
CG and EG in the post-test. It can therefore be concluded that the treatment made a
great impact on the EG with respect to development of self-managed learning skills.
Thus the research hypothesis that there will be a significant difference between the
performances of the student-teachers of the Experimental Group and Control group
at post-test level after the administration of the strategy is accepted.
4.4.1.3 Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test scores of Experimental Group
In order to find out the effectiveness of the SML strategy, the prepared achievement
tests in the form of pre-test and post-test were administered to the Experimental
Group before and after the completion of the experimental session. The Mean and
Standard Deviations of the pre-test and post-test scores were calculated and were
subjected to a test of significance between Means using one tailed t-test. The level of
significance was fixed at 0.01 level. The details of the analysis are summarized in
the following table.
Table 4.3 : Test of Significance of Difference Between Means of Pre-Test and
Post-Test Scores of Experimental Group
Test
Number of
Mean
S.D.
t-value
20.144*
students
Pre-Test
20
16.75
7.86
Post Test
20
81.25
11.97
df = 38, t- value = 2.42 ( at 0.01 level of significance)
Note: ** significant at 0.01 levels of significance
The table above reveals that the pre-test and post-test scores of the Experimental
Group differ to a great extent, as the calculated ―t‖ value 20.144 is greater than the
table value of 2.42 at 0.01 level of significance with 38 degrees of freedom. Thus the
research hypothesis that there will be a significant difference between the
performances of the student-teachers of the experimental group at post-test level
after the administration of the strategy is accepted. This is further made clearer with
the help of a bar-diagram which has been presented below:
Figure 4.4 Mean of Pre-test and Post-test scores of Experimental Group
It can be seen from the above diagram that the performance of the EG in the posttest is significantly better than its performance in the pre-test. Thus, it can be said
that the treatment made a great impact on the experimental group with respect to
development of self-managed learning skills.
4.4.1.4 Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test scores of Control Group
In order to prove that the SML strategy is effectiveness, the prepared achievement
tests in the form of pre-test and post-test were administered to the Control Group
before and after the completion of the experimental session. The Means and
Standard Deviations of the pre-test and post-test scores were calculated and were
subjected to a test of significance between Means. The level of significance was
fixed at 0.01 level. The details of the analysis are summarized in the following table.
Table 4.4 : Test of Significance of the Difference Between Means of Pre-Test
and Post-Test Scores of Control Group
Test
Number of
Mean
S.D.
t-value
0.664*
students
Pre-Test
20
15.75
8.44
Post-Test
20
17.25
5.54
df = 38, t- value = 2.71 ( at 0.01 level of significance)
Note:** „t‟ value is not significant at 0.01 level.
The table above reveals that the pre-test and post-test scores of the Control Group do
not differ to a great extent, as the calculated ―t‖ value 0.664 is less than the table
value of 2.71 at 0.01 level of significance with 38 degrees of freedom. Thus it can be
concluded that no difference was found in the performance of the control group in
the self-managed learning skills. The difference in the performance of the CG in the
pre-test and post-test can be clearly seen with the help of the bar-diagram presented
below.
Figure 4.5 :Mean of Pre-test and Post-test scores of Control Group
From the above diagram it can be clearly noticed that there is no significant
difference between the performance of the CG in the pre-test and post-test.
Conclusion
In the light of the above analysis of pre-test and post-test data of experimental group
and control group, it can concluded that the performance of the Experimental Group
is significantly better than that of the Control Group in all the skills taken up in the
SML strategy and SML strategy as a whole. Thus the SML strategy was successful
in enhancing the self-managed learning skills of the student-teachers of the
Experimental Group.
4.4.1.5 Comparative performance of student-teachers of Experimental Group
in various skills of the strategy
The SML strategy consisted of six skills viz. Goal Setting Skill, Information
Location Skill, Information Processing Skill, Information Storing Skill, Information
Retention Skill and Information Retrieval Skill. Accordingly the achievement test
which was conducted at the beginning and at the end of the experimental treatment
was divided into six sections. In order to find out the comparative performance of
the student-teachers of the experimental group in the various skills of the SML
strategy, the percentage of marks obtained in each of the six sections of the post-test
were calculated separately. Then the Mean of the scores obtained in each skill was
calculated. The details of the comparative performance of the student-teachers in the
various skills of the strategy have been presented in what follows.
Table 4.5 : Mean of Percentage of Marks Obtained by Student-Teachers of
Experimental Group in Various Skills of the Strategy
Sr. No.
Name of skill
Mean of percentage of marks obtained
1.
Goal Setting Skill
77.32
2.
Information Location Skill
70.00
3.
Information Processing Skill
85.09
4.
Information Storing Skill
84.25
5.
Information Retention Skill
87.74
6.
Information Retrieval Skill
82.50
From the above analysis it is clear that the student-teachers of the Experimental
Group performed well in almost all the skills of the strategy i.e. 70% and above. It
can also be observed that the student-teachers performed the best in Information
Retention Skill i.e. 87.74% and second best in Information Processing Skill i.e.
85.09% while the performance of the student-teachers was least in Information
Location skill with Mean score of 70% followed by Goal Setting Skill in which they
scored a mean of 77.3%. Overall it can be concluded that the student-teachers of the
Experimental Group performed well in all the skills taken up in the SML strategy.
4.4.1.6 Student-teachers of Experimental Group performing at mastery level
After the completion of the experimental treatment, the EG and CG were subjected
to a post-test. The maximum mark of post-test was 100. The marks obtained by all
the 20 student-teachers of the Experimental Group in the post-test have been
presented below.
Table 4.6 : Performance of EG and CG in Post-Test
Sr. No. Marks obtained by EG in Post- test out Marks obtained by CG in Post- test out
of 100
of 100
1.
82*
23.5
2.
79*
16.5
3.
88*
12
4.
92*
17
5.
69
21.5
6.
89*
20
7.
87*
12.5
8.
97*
26.5
9.
92*
10
10.
79*
12
11.
88*
23.5
12.
94*
08
13.
94*
4.5
14.
80*
12.5
15.
85*
16
16.
90*
21.5
17.
64.5
22.5
18.
56.5
09
19.
55
17.5
20.
70
27.5
Note: (*) represents scores 79 and above
As the EG was exposed to the SML strategy, there was a drastic improvement in the
performance of the student-teachers of the Experimental Group in the post-test. As
can be observed from the table above, none of the student-teachers scored below 50.
The highest score obtained by EG in the post-test was 97 and the lowest score 55 out
of 100.
Table 4.7 : Student-Teachers of EG and CG Performing at Mastery Level
Group
Pre-Test (in %)
Post-Test (in %)
Experimental (N=20)
0
75 (n = 15)
Control (N=20)
0
0 (n = 0)
From the above table it is clear that none of the student-teachers of both the Control
Group and Experimental Group performed at mastery level in the pre-test. The
number of student-teachers of EG who performed at mastery level in the post- test
was fifteen out of total twenty student-teachers. This shows that 75% of the studentteachers of EG performed at mastery level after the administration of the SML
strategy. While none of the student-teachers of the Control Group performed at
mastery level in the post-test.
4.4.2
Opinion of the Student-Teachers Towards the Various Components of
the SML Strategy
The third objective of the study was also to find out the effectiveness of the SML
strategy in terms of the student-teachers‘ reaction towards the strategy. For this
purpose, seven different opinionnaires using the Likert method were prepared. A
five point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree was used in the
opinionnaires. Six of the opinionnaires were related to the six modules constituting
the strategy while one opinionnaire was prepared to know the opinion of the studentteachers towards the strategy as a whole. The opinionnaires were analysed by
finding out the percentage of responses for each individual statement.
4.4.2.1 Opinion of the Experimental Group About the First Module of the
Strategy (Goal Setting Skill)
To find out the opinion of the student -teachers towards the various aspects of first
module of the strategy viz. Goal Setting Skill, an opinionnaire consisting of eleven
statements related to the various components of the module was prepared. The data
collected from the twenty student-teachers of the Experimental Group with the help
of the opinionnnaire was analysed by finding out the percentage of responses of the
student-teachers in each category. The opinions in the form of percentage of
responses have been presented in the table below item wise.
Table 4.8 : Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 1)
No.
Statements
Strongly
Agree
agree
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
The module on developing goal setting
skill provided me with interesting new
techniques for setting effective goals.
50%
50%
(10)
(10)
The module was easy to read.
40%
60%
(8)
(12)
The activities given in the module were
appropriate.
10%
80%
10%
(2)
(16)
(2)
The module has helped me identify my
short term and long term goal.
25%
65%
10%
(5)
(13)
(2)
The module has helped me identify my
personal goals covering almost all
important areas in my life.
5%
65%
30%
(1)
(13)
(6)
The module has helped me understand
my strengths and weaknesses which I
am well placed to take advantage of
while achieving my goals.
20%
60%
20%
(4)
(12)
(4)
The module has helped me understand
the points to be kept in mind for setting
an effective goal.
40%
55%
5%
(8)
(11)
(1)
The goal mapping technique helped me
practice goal setting skill in the most
powerful and effective way used in the
present times.
25%
55%
20%
(5)
(11)
(4)
The module has helped me to become
clear about my reasons for learning.
10%
65%
25%
(2)
(13)
(5)
The module has introduced me to a
number of tools to ensure that I get the
greatest benefit of the limited amount
of time available to me.
30%
60%
10%
(6)
(12)
(2)
The module has helped me to practice
time management techniques for
successful studying.
20%
60%
20%
(4)
(12)
(4)
From the above analysis it is clear that the student-teachers not only found the
module easy to read and understand but also found that it contained many new
methods and techniques to enhance their Goal Setting Skill. It can be clearly seen
that most of the student-teachers had a favourable opinion towards the module.
However, thirty percent of the student-teachers were uncertain about whether the
module had helped them identify their personal goals covering almost all important
areas of their life. Again, twenty percent of the student-teachers were uncertain
whether the module had helped them understand their strength and weaknesses.
Further, twenty-five percent of the student-teachers were uncertain whether the
module had helped them become clear about the reasons for learning while twenty
percent was uncertain whether the module had helped them practice time
management techniques. This might be because the concept taken had a very wide
scope and was difficult to be estimated in a short time covering the experimental
session. Again, the investigator feels that some of the student-teachers of the
Experimental Group needed more assistance in carrying out some of the activities of
the module. However, it is noteworthy to mention that none of the student-teachers
disagreed with any of the statements regarding the usefulness of different
components of the module. On the whole they found the module quite helpful in
enhancing their Goal Setting Skill. Thus we can conclude that the module on
developing Goal-Setting Skill was quite useful to the student-teachers in enhancing
their self-managed learning skills.
4.4.2.2 Opinion of the Experimental Group About the Second Module of the
Strategy (Information Location Skill)
To find out the opinion of the student-teachers towards the second module of the
strategy viz. Information Location Skill, an opinionnaire consisting of ten statements
related to the various components of the module was prepared. The data collected
through the opinionnaire was analysed by finding out the percentage of responses of
the student-teachers towards each statement. The opinions in the form of percentage
of responses have been presented in the table below item wise.
Table 4.9 : Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 2)
No.
Statements
Strongly
Agree
agree
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
The module on developing information
location skill provided us with
interesting new information and
techniques to find information easily.
50%
45%
5%
(10)
(9)
(1)
The module was easy to read and easy
to understand.
40%
60%
(8)
(12)
The activities and exercises given in the
module were appropriate.
40%
60%
(8)
(12)
The module has helped me become
confident about finding and using the
various resources, tools and institutions
needed for my assignments and
projects.
30%
60%
10%
(6)
(12)
(2)
The module has helped me select the
right kind of information for my projects
and assignments.
30%
50%
20%
(6)
(10)
(4)
The module has helped me to use
library and other resources effectively.
35%
55%
10%
(7)
(11)
(2)
The module has helped me to find and
use internet materials effectively.
60%
40%
(12)
(8)
The module has helped me to know
what plagiarism means and how to
avoid it.
60%
40%
(12)
(8)
The module has helped me to know
how to produce a list of references for
various information sources.
35%
65%
(7)
(13)
The module has helped me in exploring
copyright laws related to computer and
software use.
30%
65%
5%
(6)
(7)
(1)
From the above analysis it is clear that the module on developing Information
Location Skill has helped the student-teachers become confident about finding and
using the various resources, tools and institutions needed for information location. It
is also clear that all the students were in favour of most of the statements related to
the usefulness of the module. Most of them agreed or strongly agreed with the
various aspects related to the module. However, twenty percent of the studentteachers were uncertain about whether the module had helped them select the right
kind of information for their projects. Again, the investigator feels that some of the
student-teachers required more time to master this particular aspect of the module. It
is however noteworthy to mention that none of the student-teachers totally disagreed
with any of the statements related to the effectiveness of the module. Thus it can be
concluded that the module on developing Information Location Skill was quite
beneficial to the student-teachers for enhancing their self-managed learning skills.
4.4.2.3 Opinion of the Experimental Group About the Third Module of the
Strategy (Information Processing Skill)
To find out the opinion of the student-teachers towards the third module of the
strategy viz. Information Processing Skill, an opinionnaire consisting of ten
statements related to the various components of the module was prepared. The data
collected through the opinionnnaire was analysed by finding out the percentage of
responses of the student-teachers towards each statement. The opinions in the form
of percentage of responses have been presented in the table below item wise.
From the opinion expressed by the student-teachers on the various aspects of the
third module of the strategy, it can be concluded that most of the student-teachers
have a favourable opinion towards the module. However, twenty-five percent of the
student-teachers were uncertain about whether the module had helped them
understand how the brain deals with information and about the strategies for
improving their reading skill. Here, the investigator feels that since the strategy was
basically prepared to enhance self-learning skills, less importance was given to
explanations of concepts like the working of the brain. Further, the strategies for
improving reading skill required lot of practice. The investigator could only provide
a basic understanding about them. However, it is noteworthy to mention that none of
the student-teachers disagreed with any of the statements regarding the effectiveness
of the module. Thus, on the whole, the student-teachers not only found the module
readable but also found it useful in understanding the workings of the brain. They
found that the module helped them develop many skills and techniques for
improving their information processing skill. Thus we can conclude that the module
on developing information processing skill was quite useful to the student-teachers
in enhancing their self-managed learning skills.
Table 4.10 : Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 3)
No.
Statements
Strongly
Agree
agree
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The module on developing information
processing skill provided me with
interesting new information and
techniques to process information
effectively.
Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
50%
50%
(10)
(10)
50%
50%
(10)
(10)
The activities and exercises given in the
module were appropriate.
25%
70%
5%
(5)
(14)
(1)
The module has helped me understand
how the brain deals with information in
a simplified manner using the
information processing model.
30%
45%
25%
(6)
(9)
(5)
The module has helped me become
aware of my present reading habits.
30%
60%
10%
(6)
(12)
(2)
The module has introduced me to a
number of strategies for improving my
reading skill.
35%
40%
25%
(7)
(8)
(5)
The KWL technique has helped me to
learn a topic in a better way.
25%
70%
5%
(5)
(14)
(1)
The module has provided useful techniques for improving my reading speed.
25%
65%
10%
(5)
(13)
(2)
The module has helped me identify my
present reading speed.
40%
55%
5%
(8)
(11)
(1)
The module has helped me identify my
learning style.
30%
70%
(6)
(14)
The module was easy to understand.
4.4.2.4 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the fourth module of the
strategy (Information Storing Skill)
To find out the opinion of the student-teachers towards the fourth module of the
strategy viz. Information storing skill, an opinionnaire consisting of eleven
statements related to the various components of the module was prepared. The data
collected through the opinionnnaire was analysed by finding out the percentage of
responses of the student-teachers towards each statement. The opinions in the form
of percentage of responses have been presented in the table below item wise.
Table 4.11 : Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 4)
No.
Statements
Strongly Agree
agree
Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
1.
The module on developing information
storing skill provided me with interesting
new information for storing information
effectively.
50%
(10)
50%
(10)
2.
The module was easy to read.
50%
(10)
45%
(9)
3.
The activities given in the module were
appropriate.
35%
(7)
65%
(13)
4.
The module has helped me become
aware of my present note taking and
note making skill.
35%
(7)
60%
(12)
5%
(1)
5.
The module has helped me take clear
meaningful classroom notes.
25%
(6)
70%
(14)
5%
(1)
6.
The module has helped me to use lecture
time effectively.
40%
(8)
50%
(10)
10%
(2)
7.
The module has introduced me to some
commonly used abbreviations & symbols
that may help me take notes quickly.
55%
(11)
45%
(9)
8.
The module has helped me to form
abbreviations from just about any word.
40%
(8)
55%
(11)
5%
(1)
9.
The module has helped me to use the
five steps Cornell system for effective
notes taking.
30%
(6)
50%
(10)
20%
(4)
10.
The module has helped me use the mind
mapping technique for effective note
making and note taking.
15%
(3)
85%
(17)
11.
The module has taught me how mind
maps may be used in a wide range of
situations.
15%
(3)
85%
(17)
5%
(1)
From the above analysis it is clear that all the student-teachers were in favour of
most of the statements related to the effectiveness of the module. Most of them
agreed or strongly agreed with the various aspects related to the effectiveness of the
module. However, a small percentage of student-teachers were undecided about
some of the statements, particularly the statement related to the Cornell system of
note-taking. The investigator feels that the actual use of the technique in classroom
condition would have made the concept more clear to them. Again it is noteworthy
to mention that, none of the student-teachers totally disagreed or disagreed with any
of the statements related to the effectiveness of the module. Thus it can be said that
the module on developing Information Storing Skill has helped the student-teachers
pick up various skills for improving their note-taking and note-making skill. It can
thus be concluded that the module on developing Information Storing Skill was
quite beneficial in enhancing self-managed learning skills among student-teachers.
4.4.2.5 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the fifth module of the
strategy (Information Retention Skill)
To find out the opinion of the student-teachers towards the fifth module of the
strategy viz. Information Retention Skill, an opinionnaire consisting of twelve
statements related to the various components of the module was prepared. The data
collected from the twenty student-teachers of the experimental group with the help
of the opinionnnaire was analysed by finding out the percentage of responses of the
student-teachers in each category. The opinions in the form of percentage of
responses have been presented in the table below item wise.
Table 4.12 : Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 5)
No.
Statements
Strongly Agree
agree
1.
The module on developing information
Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
40%
60%
(8)
(12)
45%
55%
(9)
(11)
30%
60%
10%
(6)
(12)
(2)
The module has helped me to have a
60%
30%
10%
basic awareness of how the brain works.
(12)
(6)
(2)
The module has helped me to apply
35%
60%
5%
(7)
(12)
(1)
The section on nutrition and memory
60%
35%
5%
improvement was quite useful.
(12)
(7)
(1)
The section on exercise and memory
25%
75%
(5)
(15)
25%
75%
(5)
(15)
30%
70%
(6)
(14)
45%
35%
20%
(9)
(7)
(4)
45%
50%
5%
(9)
(10)
(1)
35%
55%
10%
(7)
(11)
(2)
retention skill provided me with
interesting new information to retain
information
2.
3.
The module was easy to understand.
The activities given in the module were
appropriate.
4.
5.
techniques to remember essential
information when I need
6.
7.
improvement helped me understand the
importance of physical activity for
improving our learning.
8.
The module has introduced me to a
number of techniques to improve my
information retention skill.
9.
The module has shown me how to use
the principle of chunking to improve my
information retention skill.
10. The graphs and pictures used in the
module helped me to understand the
content more clearly.
11. The module has helped me understand
the difference between retention and
learning.
12. The module has made me aware of some
interesting facts about the new research
in the science of brain.
From the above analysis it is clear that almost all the student-teachers found the
module very helpful in improving their information retention skill. Only a small
number of student-teachers were uncertain about some of the aspects of the module
particularly the statement related to the use of graphs and pictures in the module. In
this particular module the investigator had made use of graphs to explain some of
the strategies for information retention. The investigator feels that more theoretical
knowledge about the concepts would have made the graphs more clear to the
learners. However, it is noteworthy to mention that none of the student-teachers
disagreed that the module was helpful to them. Thus it is clear that the module on
developing Information Retention Skill helped the student-teachers in acquiring
skills and techniques to remember essential information when needed. Thus it can be
concluded that the module on developing Information Retention Skill was very
effective in enhancing the self-managed learning skills of the student-teachers.
4.4.2.6 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the sixth module of the
strategy (INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SKILL)
To find out the opinion of the student-teachers towards the sixth module of the
strategy viz. Information retrieval skill, an opinionnaire consisting of six statements
related to the various components of the module was prepared. The data collected
from the twenty student-teachers of the experimental group with the help of the
opinionnnaire was analysed by finding out the percentage of responses of the
student-teachers in each category. The opinions in the form of percentage of
responses have been presented in the table below item wise.
Table 4.13 : Analysis of Opinionnaire (Module 6)
No.
Statements
Strongly Agree
agree
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
The module on developing information
retrieval skill provided me with
interesting new information and
techniques for information retrieval.
35%
65%
(7)
(13)
The module was easy to understand.
75%
20%
5%
(15)
(4)
(1)
The activities given in the module were
appropriate.
35%
65%
(7)
(13)
The module has helped me practice a
number of memory techniques to
enhance my ability to learn.
50%
50%
(10)
(10)
The techniques given in this module will
be of great help while giving exams or
participating in debates or seminars.
25%
60%
15%
(5)
(12)
(3)
The techniques given in this module will
make my learning more enjoyable.
55%
40%
5%
(11)
(8)
(1)
The above analysis shows that most of the student-teachers had a favourable opinion
towards the module on developing information retrieval skill. Almost all of them
either strongly agreed or agreed to the various statements regarding the effectiveness
of the strategy. None of the student-teachers disagreed or strongly disagreed to any
of the aspects regarding the usefulness of the strategy. However, a small number of
student-teachers were uncertain about some of the aspects related to the module. The
module thus helped the student-teachers in learning a number of techniques to
retrieve information as and when required from their long-term memory, particularly
during their exams or while participating in debates and seminars. Thus, we can
conclude that the module on developing Information Retrieval Skill was effective in
developing self-managed learning skills among student-teachers.
4.4.2.7 Opinion of the Experimental Group about the SML strategy as a whole
To find out the opinion of the student-teachers towards the SML strategy as a whole,
an opinionnaire consisting of twenty statements related to the various components of
the strategy was prepared. This opinionnaire was prepared in order to find out the
overall opinion of the student-teachers towards the various aspects of the strategy
like the presentation or lay out of the various modules, the various activities and
exercises included in the strategy, the usefulness of various features like ‗test
yourself‘, reflections, summary, etc of the strategy and what they felt was the
importance of such a strategy. The data collected from the twenty student-teachers
of the experimental group with the help of the opinionnnaire was analysed by
finding out the percentage of responses of the student-teachers in each category. The
opinions in the form of percentage of responses have been presented in the table
below item wise.
Table 4.14 : Analysis of Opinionnaire (SML strategy as a whole)
No.
Statements
Strongly Agree
agree
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The self-managed learning (SML) strategy
provided me with interesting new
information for improving my learning
skills.
40%
60%
(8)
(12)
The SML strategy consisted of number of
interesting activities to improve my
learning.
50%
50%
(10)
(10)
The SML strategy brought about an
overall improvement in the manner in
which I learn.
40%
60%
(8)
(12)
Studying through the SML strategy was
quite enjoyable.
40%
60%
(8)
(12)
The SML strategy helped me overcome
many of my learning difficulties.
45%
55%
(9)
(11)
I feel I would have done better in my
earlier examinations if I had learnt the
various skills provided in the SML
strategy.
40%
60%
(8)
(12)
The instructions used in the strategy
were not proper.
Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
80%
20%
(16)
(4)
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
The presentation of the content in the
SML strategy was logical.
30%
70%
(6)
(14)
The language used in the SML strategy
was simple.
30%
70%
(6)
(14)
The introductions given at the beginning
of each module in the strategy helped
me in preparing for learning the contents
of the module.
35%
65%
(7)
(13)
The facility provided through activities
for putting into practice the
techniques/methods I learnt were
adequate.
25%
75%
(5)
(15)
The diagrams, graphs and pictures used
in the strategy were quite clear.
20%
70%
10%
(4)
(14)
(2)
The examples used in the strategy were
not proper.
The summary provided at the end of
each module helped me in recalling
easily things already learnt.
45%
55%
(9)
(11)
The section “Test Yourself” given in
between the modules helped me in
recalling and verifying things already
learnt.
50%
50%
(10)
(10)
The modules were self explanatory.
65%
35%
(13)
(7)
There was no need of the section on
reflections.
60%
30%
10%
(12)
(6)
(2)
95%
5%
(19)
(1)
Such strategies should be implemented
from the school level itself.
35%
65%
(7)
(13)
The SML strategy should be made a part
of B. Ed curriculum.
35%
55%
10%
(7)
(11)
(2)
I would like to learn more about self
managed learning skills.
55%
45%
(11)
(9)
From the analysis of the opinion of the student-teachers towards the strategy as a
whole it can be concluded that almost all the student-teachers found the strategy
appropriate with respect to the introduction, the content, the activities and exercises,
the tests and the summary provided at the end of each module. They also found that
the language used in the modules were simple and easy to understand. Not only did
they find the module interesting and useful to improve their study skills but they also
found that studying the module was very enjoyable as it was very interactive in
nature due to number of activities and exercises provided in each module. However,
majority of the student-teachers were not clear about the need of the section on selfreflections given at the end of each module. Apart from this, they were in favour of
all the other components of the strategy. In fact, all the student-teachers felt that
such strategies should be introduced from school level itself and were in favour of
making the strategy a part of the B. Ed curriculum. Again all of them were interested
in knowing more about the self-managed learning strategy. This all shows that the
strategy was very useful in helping the student-teachers pick up learning to learn
skills. Thus we can conclude that the SML strategy as a whole was very useful in
enhancing the self-managed learning skills among student-teachers.
4.4.3
Opinion of the Experts About the SML Strategy
The third objective of the study was also to find out the experts opinion about the
strategy. To find out the opinion of experts about the SML strategy, unstructured
interview method was employed. Four teacher-educators from a teacher training
institute and two English language experts served as sample for the study. An
unstructured interview using open-ended questions technique was adopted to know
the opinion of the experts towards the developed strategy. The responses of the
experts were subjected to content analysis and the findings are presented below:
(i)
Almost all the experts expressed the opinion that the strategy is a good
attempt at developing self-managed learning skills among the learners since
it consisted interesting information and activities to improve an individual‘s
learning to learn skills.
(ii)
Majority of the experts found that the modules were very interesting and they
enjoyed going through the modules.
(iii)
The experts also felt that there would be a remarkable improvement in the
learning of an individual after going through the modules.
(iv)
The experts also expressed the opinion that the language used in the modules
was simple and understandable.
(v)
Again all the experts felt that the presentation of the content in the strategy
was logical.
(vi)
The experts felt that the modules were quite self explanatory and did not
require the assistance of a teacher.
(vii)
However some of the experts felt that the strategy was too lengthy especially
the second module for developing information location skills. They felt that
since the modules were lengthy the learners might loose motivation to learn.
(viii) Again all the experts were of the view that such strategy should be made a
part of the B.Ed. curriculum so that the future teachers are made aware of the
skills and techniques that are available to improve an individuals learning.
They can become aware of the practical aspects of the theory they learn in
their B.Ed. curriculum.
From the above analysis it can be concluded that the experts had a highly favourable
opinion towards the self-managed learning strategy. All of them were very positive
that the strategy would be very effective in developing self-managed learning skills
among any learner not just the student-teachers for whom the strategy was actually
prepared.
4.5
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
In the present study an effort was made to develop a strategy for enhancing the selfmanaged learning skills of student-teachers. The study was carried out with a view
to attaining three objectives.
The results presented in the first part of the chapter is concerned with the first
objective of the study, which was to identify the various skills, sub-skills and
techniques required to manage ones‘ own learning. While going through the
literature related to learning and pedagogy, the researcher could identify a large
number of cognitive and meta-cognitive skills that could be used to enhance ones‘
learning. Out of these skills, the researcher selected six gross skills that could be
taken up for the purpose of research. The six gross skills were selected mainly by
taking into consideration the nature of the learners concerned in the present study.
The six skills which were identified were Goal Setting Skill, Information Location
Skill, Information Processing Skill, Information Storing Skill, Information Retention
Skill and Information Retrieval Skill. Further, the skills and techniques that fall
under each of the gross skills were identified. The details of the sub-skills and
techniques that fall under each of the gross skills, are presented in the first part of
this chapter. In the 1998 study conducted by Dixit, the factors which were identified
to represent the principal strategies of learning were deep processing, elaborative
processing, fact retention, information dependence and success dependence.
Similarly, in 2010, study of Joshua reported that components essential to reading
include vocabulary development, prior knowledge and background information,
inference and prediction, and cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. The metacognitive strategies identified by Abdullateef (2008), include awareness of
cognition, planning, monitoring and self-checking, self-appraisal and engagement in
risk. While the meta-cognitive strategies in the 2002 study of Kaur included decision
making, predicting, logical reasoning, reflective thinking, creative thinking,
awareness and planning. The study skills used by Janfeshna and Rapka, in their 2006
study included scanning; skimming through comprehension, critical reading,
summarizing, understanding paragraph organization, note-taking and prediction.
While the study skills used by on-line learners in the 2010 study conducted by Wang
included planners/calenders, reviewing black-board and syllabus, taking notes,
downloading files posted on the black-board, using search engines and online
libraries and discussions with instructors and classmates using e-mail and discussion
boards. Thus, a large number of cognitive and meta-cognitive skills exist that can be
used to develop strategies for enhancing the learning capacity of students of all
level. In the present study, a combination of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies
were identified and selected so as to cover all the major steps required to develop
self-managed learning skills.
As the second objective of the study which was to develop a strategy for enhancing
the self-managed learning skills of the student-teachers for enhancing their learning
skills, the strategy consisted of six units in the form of six modules was developed.
Each concerned with the development of one of the gross skill identified in the first
part of the study. The modules were prepared as self-instructional materials from
which the students could learn on their own without the assistance of any instructor.
The self-instructional materials included the following components : (a) list of
contents, (b) learning objectives, (c) introduction, (d) concepts, (e) activities and
exercises, (f) Tests, (g) answer keys, (h) summary, (i) section for reflection and (j)
references. The components included in the study have some resemblance to the
components identified by Kapfer (1968) and Bedient et al. (1984) in their studies,
according to these researchers, these are the requirements for developing learning
packages that would allow pupil to learn at the pace and depth best suited to their
ability. Further, it was found by Gogoi (2007), Sharma (2008), Joseph (1983) and
Bedient et al. (1984) that self-learning method using modules was very useful for
learning. There was a positive change in the learners‘ performance since the
introduction of the self-instructional materials. This result is confirmed in the
present study.
The third objective of the study was to find out the effectiveness of the SML
strategy. In the present study, the effectiveness of the strategy was determined not
only in terms of the achievement of the student-teachers through the SML strategy
but also in terms of their opinion towards the strategy and experts‘ opinion about the
strategy. Supporting the primary hypothesis of the study, the Mean post-test
performance of the Experimental Group was significantly higher than the Mean of
Control Group. The performance of the student-teachers of the Experimental Group
was significantly better than the Control Group. In fact, seventy-five percent of the
student-teachers of the Experimental Group performed at mastery level obtaining a
score more than seventy-nine percent. The lowest score obtained by a studentteacher of Experimental Group was fifty-five percent. Thus, it can be concluded that
the strategy was very effective in enhancing the self-managed learning skills of the
student-teachers of the Experimental Group. This outstanding performance of the
Experimental Group might be due to the fact that they were actively involved in the
construction of knowledge due to the large number of activities and exercises
included in the modules. This may be also due to the fact that they found the strategy
very interesting and useful. It was observed by the investigator that the subjects
participating in the study had an intrinsic motivation to perform well, even though
they knew that the performance on the achievement test was not calculated into their
course grades. They found the strategy interesting and had the motivation to ―give it
their best.‖ This is further confirmed from the analysis of the opinions of the
student-teachers towards the strategy module-wise and as a whole. It was also found
that the student-teachers of the Experimental Group performed equally well in all
the six units of the strategy. Further, it was noticed that, in the student-teachers‘
performance in the different skills of the strategy, their performance in the unit
related to Information Retention Skill stands first, and Information Location Skill
the last. As stated earlier, the results of the opinion of the student-teachers towards
the SML strategy also showed that they had a favourable opinion towards the
strategy. Moreover they felt that the strategy as a whole was very useful in
improving their learning skills. They found the strategy very interesting and felt that
such strategies should be implemented from the school level itself. The evolved
strategy was further evaluated on the basis of expert‘s opinion towards the strategy.
It was found that the experts also had a highly favourable opinion towards the SML
strategy. The findings of the present study is some what similar to the findings of the
1990 study of La Vonne, 2002 study of Kaur, 2007 study of Annemie and 2008
study of Morisano, which all show that cognition and/or meta-cognition can be
trained or developed and has some value added in the achievement of the learners.
In addition to what is already discussed, it seems worthwhile to mention that all the
student-teachers of the Experimental Group were not ready to hand-over the
modules given to them for study during the intervention period. All of them wanted
to keep it for their future reference. This again proves that the student-teachers found
the strategy very useful for improving their self-managed learning skills.
4.6
MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The major findings of the study have been presented below:
(i)
Six skills were identified for developing self-managed learning skills among
student-teachers. These were: Goal Setting Skill, Information Location Skill,
Information Processing Skill, Information Storing Skill, Information
Retention Skill and Information Retrieval Skill.
(ii)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Goal
Setting Skill were: differentiating long-term goal from short-term goal, use
of SWOT analysis, use of SMART acronym, identifying ones‘ life-time
goals, identifying ones‘ learning goals, goal mapping, time-management
techniques, preparing activity logs, preparing term calendar, weekly schedule
and daily to-do-list.
(iii)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Location Skill were: identification of range of institutions where relevant
information could be found, analyzing the topic to be learned, breaking the
topic of study into searchable key-words, refining the key-words to obtain
relevant results, using library catalogues, using web-resources, evaluating the
resources and keeping records.
(iv)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Processing Skill were: using different strategies for reading, using KWL
strategy, SQ3R technique, speed reading and identifying ones‘ learning style.
(v)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Storing Skill were: identifying common abbreviations and symbols used
while taking notes, forming new abbreviations while taking and making
notes, forming new symbols while taking and making notes, listening skill,
Cornell system of note-taking and mind mapping.
(vi)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Retention Skill were: identifying nutrients which nurture brain function,
using techniques for improving memory, systematic revision and using the
principle of chunking.
(vii)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Retrieval Skill were: forming new acronyms, forming new abbreviations,
forming new acronymic sentences, using peg-word and using key-word.
(viii) A modular strategy was developed using the above mention skills, sub-skills
and techniques for enhancing the self-managed learning skills of the studentteachers.
(ix)
The self- managed learning (SML) strategy was found to be effective in
enhancing the learning to learn skills or Self- Managed Learning skills of the
student- teachers.
(x)
Most of the student- teachers i.e. 75% of them were able to perform at
mastery level in the achievement test after the administration of the selfmanaged learning strategy.
(xi)
The student-teachers had a positive opinion about the six skills taken up in
the strategy viz. Goal Setting Skill, Information Location Skill, Information
Processing Skill, Information Storing Skill, Information Retention Skill and
Information Retrieval Skill. Moreover they felt that the strategy as a whole
was very useful in improving their learning skills.
(xii)
They found the strategy very interesting and felt that such strategies should
be implemented from the school level itself.
(xiii) The experts had a highly favourable opinion towards the self-managed
learning strategy.
4.7
CONCLUSION
In essence, this study has completed a triad of efforts to identify, develop and find
out the effectiveness of a strategy for enhancing Self- Managed Learning skills
among student-teachers. Looking into the need of the hour, the investigator feels that
there is a need for conducting similar studies using different set of skills and using
samples studying at various levels. The same study may also be replicated using
different set of sub-skills and techniques for developing the gross skills mentioned in
the present study.
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY
5.1
INTRODUCTION
Education has always been important, but perhaps never more so in man‘s history
than today. ―Education for All‖ and ―Lifelong learning‖ has become the catch cry of
the new millennium. It is increasingly being accepted that we have entered an
information era or a knowledge society. Only by continued learning through the life
span will it be possible to maintain knowledge and skill currency (Candy et al.
1994). Due to the continuous changes in technology and the volumes of new
information generated through the internet and other information technologies
achieving quality education for all has become more difficult. What is now required
in the knowledge society, more than in previous eras, is the ability to learn more
quickly to cope with the increased volume of information and to process information
more effectively. This shows that there is an urgent need to equip people with
learning skills so that they can manage to learn on their own.
Unfortunately, the education process carried out in our schools and colleges
invariably lag behind the advances in information & communication technology. As
a result, after coming out of these institutions, the students find themselves
handicapped because the knowledge that they gained in these institutions become
outdated by the time they enter a job and start living an active social life. Thus, it is
increasingly being recognized that children need to ―learn how to learn‖, so that they
can continue learning throughout their life. This view has been highlighted by
UNESCO in its report on education according to which education should help
students acquire the instruments of knowledge: the essential learning tools of
communication & oral expression, literacy, numeracy & problem-solving; to gain
both a broad general knowledge & an in-depth knowledge of a few areas: to
understand rights & responsibilities; and most importantly, to learn how to learn.‖
Since education is a man-made process, designed to serve our changing needs, it is
in need of creative invention to make it work better. More than ever before it has
become important to equip the students of present system with the skill of learning
to learn.
Further, there is no doubt that the quality of a nation depends upon the quality of its
citizens and the quality of its citizens depends more than on any other single factor,
on the quality of their teacher. The teacher is the living ideal, the fountain head of
knowledge & the potential guide to provide directive growth and development of the
students of today as worthy citizens of tomorrow. However, in the course of time,
need and importance of education has also changed and as a result the role and
function of the teacher is also changing. Today teachers are considered as facilitators
of knowledge and not dispensers of knowledge and skills. This implies that teachers
are supposed to help learners to learn on their own, so that they can become
independent learners and thus take responsibility of their own learning. However,
self-managed learning (SML) skills are not formally taught in the classrooms of
today. This may be because the teachers themselves are not aware of such skills.
Moreover, this aspect of self-learning is not given due importance in the teacher
training programs.
From the review of related literature it was found that no such study has been
conducted in India for the development of self-managed learning skills among
student- teachers or at any other level. Although the researcher did find some studies
related to development of remedial instructional strategies aimed at improving
certain language skills in students. The researcher spotted a few studies conducted
abroad related to self- managed learning and learning to learn skills. However,
researches done in the area of self- managed learning abroad have tried to find out
the perception of students regarding self- managed learning and the difficulties they
face in the process of self- learning. The studies were mostly conducted on selfmanaged learning groups that were already present in different institutions. Hardly
any study has been found in which efforts have been made to develop a strategy to
enhance self- learning skills. The investigator therefore felt challenged to explore the
possibilities of such a study.
In the section that follows, some of the theories which helped the researcher to find a
base for the present study have been presented in brief.
5.2
COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE LEARNING
In what follows attempt is made to explain the different components of effective
learning. If the learners are to learn effectively, they have to fulfill certain
prerequisites. According to Garry D. Borich (1996), effective learning has three
major components namely (i) world knowledge (ii) knowledge of cognitive
strategies, and (iii) knowledge of meta-cognitive strategies. As these components
play crucial role in effective learning, they need to be discussed at some length.
(i)
World Knowledge : As infants grow into childhood and adolescence, they
increase their knowledge and skills. The total of all that is stored in their
long-term storage form the basis for their view of the world around them. It
helps them to make sense out of the various events, to understand the laws of
nature, to recognize cause and effect and to form decisions about goodness,
truth, and beauty. This total construct of how they see the world as Sousa
(2006) observed is called the cognitive belief system. As Antony Robbins
(1991) observes, it is experiences that provide the building blocks for the
people‘s beliefs, rules and values. Experiences are all what people have
recorded within their nervous system. Everything that they have seen, heard,
touched, tasted, etc are stored in their long-term memory sites. People‘s past
experiences have a lot to offer in their attempt at learning. If they believe that
they are good at learning, they should have sufficient number of instances to
support that belief. Limited experiences create limited life. If people want to
expand their lives, they need to extend their knowledge and skills by
pursuing ideas and experiences. Learning is ‗marked by the learners‘
capacity to explore and experiment. The more their experiences, the greater
is the possibility for the expansion of their knowledge and skills.
(ii)
Knowledge of Cognitive Strategies : Having a sound knowledge base of
the world alone may not make people effective learners. Apart from that,
they should have sound knowledge about cognitive strategies. Cognitive
strategies, as Woolfolk (2006) defines, are ideas for accomplishing learning
goals-a kind of overall plan of attack. They are general methods of thinking
that improve learning across a variety of situations. Years of research
indicates that using good learning strategies help learners‘ in their learning.
A strategy is an art of handling any task to the best advantage. It refers to a
series of well planned actions for achieving an aim. Important, although they
are, they are seldom taught directly at schools. Self -managed learners need
to know about them if they are to learn effectively. Sousa (2001), West et al
(1991) and quite a number of other scholars have identified and highlighted a
number of cognitive strategies. Some of the most important among them are
chunking, bridging, rehearsal strategies, practice strategies, organization
strategies, mnemonics, etc.
(iii)
Knowledge of Meta-cognitive Strategies : Learners should have not only
world knowledge and knowledge about various cognitive strategies but also
knowledge about meta-cognitive strategies if they are to learn effectively.
Meta-cognition involves knowledge and beliefs about the learners own
cognitive processes. Meta-cognition, as Santrock (2006) defines, is cognition
about cognition or knowing about knowing. Meta-cognition includes selfinterrogation, self-checking, self-monitoring, self-analysis and using memory
aids. Meta-cognition involves a number of strategies and tactics. These
strategies and techniques are generally used when cognition fails. They help
the learners in accomplishing the objectives of learning.
As self-managed learners, people need to examine and find whether they lack in any
of these components. In case they find missing proficiency in any of these areas,
they have to make concerted effort to build up competence in all these components.
Only when they have adequate level of proficiency in all these areas, they can be
effective learners.
5.3
THE PROCESS OF LEARNING
In the following sections, information regarding what cognitive psychologists know
about how the mind takes in information and what it does with that information once
it gets there, have been explained with the help of information processing model.
The Information Processing Theory
The primary source of information concerning human learning comes from research
related to information processing and cognitive controls according to which learning
is a monitored, controlled, and directed cognitive activity, utilizing the information
processing system of the brain for the purpose of modifying cognitive structures.
Figure 5.1 : The Information Processing Model
(Source: How the brain learns – D.A. Sousa)
Several models exist to explain learning and brain behaviour. The rapid proliferation
of computers has encouraged the use of the computer model to explain brain
functions and learning. The model presented in figure 5.1, which has been put
forward by David. A. Sousa (2006) uses common objects to represent various stages
in the learning process. The model limits its scope to the major cerebral operations
that deal with the collecting, evaluating, storing and retrieving of information. The
model starts with information from our environment and shows how the senses
reject or accept it for further processing. It then explains the two temporary
memories, how they operate, and the factors that determine if a learning is likely to
be stored. The model is simple, but the processes are extra ordinarily complex.
Implications for Learning
The information processing model of how the mind works is a metaphor. This model
helps us in thinking about how the minds of a learner works, thus enabling us to
present content in such a form to help learners understand better and retain whatever
they learn. The information processing model helps us understand how information
gets into the mind, how it is stored, and how it is retrieved for use in thinking.
Following are some implications of the information processing model of learning.
(i)
One cannot recall information that one‘s brain does not retain.
(ii)
How a person ―feels‖ about a learning situation determines the amount of
attention devoted to it.
(iii)
The working memory can handle only a few items at once. This functional
capacity changes with age. Pre-school infants can deal with about two items
of information at once. Pre-adolescents can handle 3 to 7 items, with an
average of five. Adolescents and adults can handle five to nine items of
information, with an average of seven. Thus keeping the number of items in
a learning block within the appropriate capacity limit increases the likelihood
that more learning will be retained.
(iv)
It is possible to increase the number of functional capacity of working
memory through a process called chunking.
(v)
Since the working memory is temporary and can deal with items for only a
limited time (15-20 minutes) it is important to package a study block into 15
to 20 minute session which is likely to result in maintaining greater learner
interest than one 40 minute study block.
(vi)
Information is most likely to get stored if it makes sense and has meaning.
Past experience always influence new learning. Therefore, we need to be
certain that whatever we learn contains connections to our past experience.
In the next section, a brief explanation about the self-managed learning strategy has
been presented.
5.4
THE SELF-MANAGED LEARNING STRATEGY
The self-managed learning strategy is an attempt by the investigator in developing
learning-to-learn skills among learners in general and student-teachers in particular.
Learning to learn skills or the self-managed learning skills are skills that a learner
might find quite useful while going about a learning task. It will not only enhance
his learning but will make the learning process an enjoyable one.
5.4.1
Assumptions of the Present Study
From the study of literature related to learning and from the researcher‘s own
experience there are three basic assumptions based on which the present strategy has
been developed. The three assumptions on which the self-managed learning strategy
is based are as follows:
(1)
Self-managed learning skills exist to some extent among all learners.
(2)
The Self-managed learning skills are not sufficient or have not been properly
developed among learners to overcome the challenges they face.
(3)
Self-managed learning skills can be enhanced so that the process of learning
becomes more efficient and enjoyable.
5.4.2
The Modules
The investigator prepared the SML strategy in the form of self-instructional
modules. Modules or self- instructional materials are based on the principles of
learning in general and self-learning in particular. Textual material in the modular
form is self-contained, sequentially arranged and consists of activity packages. The
text is presented in a simple language with cues to facilitate self-learning. It also
includes in text exercises to promote motivation to learn, which is also helpful in
making learning interactive. A module provides opportunities for self-assessment
and continuous feedback. Thus, self-instructional material or modules consists of
self-contained learning activity packages which promote self-learning, selfevaluation and self-enhancement through continuous feedback. It thus effectively
helps in achieving the predetermined objectives.
In the present study, the investigator prepared the self-managed learning strategy in
the form of six modules in order to achieve the aim of developing learning to learn
skills or self-managed learning skills among student-teachers. The SML strategy has
been prepared by the investigator by taking into consideration the different theories
of learning, the components of effective learning and the theory of how people learn
or the information processing theory. The six modules of the strategy pertain to the
six different skills which has been identified and included in the present study by the
investigator.
The self-managed learning skills which have been included in the present study are
as follows:
(1)
Goal Setting Skill
(2)
Information Location Skill
(3)
Information Processing Skill
(4)
Information Storing Skill
(5)
Information Retention Skill
(6)
Information Retrieval Skill
5.5
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.
What skills are required to manage ones‘ own learning?
2.
Which are the different techniques required to master the skills of selfmanaged learning (SML)?
3.
Can a well structured and well planned strategy be prepared to equip an
individual with self- managed learning skills?
4.
How far will such a strategy help an individual to manage ones‘ own
learning?
5.
What will be the opinion and reaction of the learners towards the prepared
strategy?
5.6
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Evolving a Strategy for Developing Self-Managed Learning Skills (SML) Among
Student-Teachers
5.7
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study has been designed to attain the following objectives:
(i)
To identify various skills, sub-skills and techniques required for managing
one‘s own learning.
(ii)
To develop a strategy for enhancing self-managed learning skills among
student-teachers.
(iii)
5.8
To evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy in terms of
(a)
Student-teachers‘ performance in the achievement test.
(b)
Student-teachers‘ reaction towards the SML strategy.
(c)
Expert‘s opinion towards the strategy.
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
The prepared strategy will enhance the self-managed learning skills of the studentteachers.
5.9
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The present study is an attempt towards evolving a strategy for helping studentteachers to pick up learning to learn skills. However, since learning is a life-long
process, every individual has to continue learning throughout his life span. Everyone
irrespective of age, sex, nationality and occupation need to continue learning. So the
study has a widespread relevance for all those who need to manage their own
learning.
5.10 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Though every effort has been taken to make the study as generalisable as possible, it
has few minor limitations.
1
The study was limited to the B.Ed. students of Kerala state.
2
The study was delimited to the six skills for self-managed learning, identified
by the researcher viz. Goal setting skill, information location skill,
information processing skill, information storing skill, information retention
skill and information retrieval skill.
5.11 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
Since the nature of the study is developmental cum experimental the methodology of
the present study has been divided into two parts namely:
PART-I Methodology of developing the strategy
PART-II Effectiveness of the strategy
5.11.1 Part-I: Methodology of Developing the Strategy
The major objective of the present study was to develop a strategy for enhancing
SML skills among student-teachers. Therefore, in the first phase of the research, the
investigator read critically all the available literature related to learning theories and
pedagogy. Based on this study, the assumptions of the study, the requirements of the
study and the principles based on which the strategy should be developed were
determined.
Further, the various skills, sub-skills and techniques required for developing selfmanaged learning skills among student-teachers were identified and finalized with
the help of experts in the field of education. In the next step, each of the sub-skill
and techniques were in turn, broken down into its components and presented in a
logical order in the form of flow charts. It was decided that the strategy would
consist of six units, each pertaining to the development of one of the gross skills
identified by the researcher. The gross skills which were identified for managing
ones‘ own learning are as follows:
(1)
Goal Setting Skill
(2)
Information Location Skill
(3)
Information Processing Skill
(4)
Information Storing Skill
(5)
Information Retention Skill
(6)
Information Retrieval Skill
Once the components were identified and presented in logical order in the form of
flow charts, the instructional objectives in behavioural terms were determined.
Finally, the modules were prepared. The prepared material was then reviewed (in the
light of the objectives of the study) by experts in the field of education. It was
further tested on five student-teachers (different from the sample). The modules
were edited and organized keeping in view all the observations made by the experts
and the student-teachers and the insight obtained by conducting the pilot study.
The design following which the strategy was finally developed is presented in what
follows:
(i)
Learning objectives: This section gives an idea about the objectives that
need to be achieved by the learner at the completion of the module. It tells
about the skills and techniques to be learnt in that particular module.
(ii)
Introduction : This section gives an overall idea about what has been
presented in the module so that the learner gets a bird‘s eye view of what
he/she is about to learn in that module.
(iii)
Content with activities and exercises: In this part of the module, the actual
content in the form of the various concepts related to that particular skill
along with examples, activities and exercises have been presented. Exercises
for practice have been presented after each concept. At the end of each
content in every module, some activities have been presented. If the activity
has a specific answer, an answer key has been provided at the end of the
activity. The activities which ask about the learner‘s opinions or situation, do
not have answer keys.
(iv)
Test yourself: Throughout the modules, questions to check the understanding
of the contents just learnt have been presented in the form of Test Yourself
sections. The answers to these questions have been provided at the end of the
module.
(v)
Summing up: In this section the summary of the entire content presented in
that particular module has been presented. This gives an opportunity to the
learner to revise the content just learnt.
(vi)
Reflections: At the end of each module, there is a section on reflection. A
number of questions related to that module are presented here. In this
section, the learner writes whatever comes to their mind regarding the
question at hand. These questions have no specific answers and are left to the
learner‘s imagination.
(vii)
References: Readymade references in the form of books or websites have
been provided at the end of each module so that the learner may enrich
oneself with extra knowledge regarding a particular skill or concept.
5.11.2 Part-II: Effectiveness of the strategy
5.11.2.1 Research Design
To find out the effectiveness of the developed strategy the Experimental method of
research was adopted. The design selected for the present study was pre-test-posttest equivalent group design.
5.11.2.2 Independent variable
In the present study the independent variable is the experimental treatment i.e. the
Self-Managed Learning strategy which was developed by the investigator.
5.11.2.3 Dependent variable
In the present study, the dependent variable is the achievement of the studentteachers in the SML skills which will be measured with the help of an achievement
test.
5.11.2.4 Sample
The sample consisted of forty student-teachers of a co-educational government aided
B. Ed college, viz. Titus II Teachers College, from Tiruvalla district in Kerala. The
sample were randomly selected on the basis of the ‗Table of Random Numbers‘ and
were systematically divided into two groups: Experimental Group (EG) and Control
Group (CG). Each group consisted of twenty students.
5.11.2.5 Materials and Tools used for the study
For the purpose of the present study the investigator used the following materials
and tools:
(i)
The Self-Managed Learning (SML) strategy, in the form of six self
instructional modules, each covering a different aspect of learning viz. Goal
Setting Skill, Information Location Skill, Information Processing Skill,
Information Storing Skill, Information Retention Skill and Information
Retrieval Skills.
(ii)
An opinionnaire for each of the six modules to find out the reaction of the
student- teachers towards each module.
(iii)
An opinionnaire for the entire strategy to find out the opinion of the studentteachers towards the strategy as a whole.
(iv)
Pre-test based on the Self- Managed Learning strategy
(v)
Post-test based on the Self- Managed Learning strategy
5.11.2.6 Procedure for validation of the strategy in brief
The experimentation phase consisted of a pre-test, implementation of the strategy,
post-test and collection of data regarding the reaction of student-teachers and experts
towards the prepared strategy. After the pre-test was taken to find out the studentteachers level of achievement with regard to knowledge, understanding and skill
about self- managed learning, the student- teachers were given orientation regarding
the content of the prepared strategy and the procedure to be adopted while using the
strategy. Then each student- teacher was given a copy of the prepared material to
enable them to work independently. In this way each of the unit was completed. At
the end of each unit, before passing on to the next unit, a unit test for that unit was
taken. After completion of all the units, a post- test was taken to find out the
achievement of the student- teachers. This was followed by collection of data
regarding the opinion of the student- teachers and experts regarding the strategy.
5.12 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
The data collected for finding out the effectiveness of the strategy was analyzed
using qualitative and quantitative methods.
Statistical techniques used for data analysis
Statistical analysis of the data collected was undertaken using procedures
appropriate for the purpose of the study. The statistical techniques used for the
analysis of the data for the present study were:

Mean

Standard Deviation

t-test
The above statistical techniques were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
strategy in terms of the student-teachers performance in the achievement test. i.e.
objective 3(i)

Percentage analysis was carried out to find out the percentage of students
attaining mastery level.

The data collected from the opinionnaire was analysed through frequency
distribution and percentage analysis. i.e. objective 3(ii)

The data gathered through interview of experts were analysed using content
analysis. i.e. objective 3(iii)
5.13 TENABILITY OF THE HYPOTHESIS
The tenability of the hypothesis is tested by considering the directional hypothesis
on the basis of the scores obtained in the achievement tests by the Experimental
Group and Control Group.
HYPOTHESIS
There will be a significant improvement in the self- managed learning skills of the
student- teachers of the Experimental Group after the intervention of the SelfManaged Learning strategy.
This hypothesis is fully substantiated as the obtained ‗t‘ value ( 21.702 ) is
significant at 0.01 level.
Hence the hypothesis titled ―The prepared strategy will enhance the self-managed
learning skills of the student-teachers.‖ is accepted.
5.14 MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The major findings of the study are as follows:
(i)
Six skills were identified for developing self-managed learning skills among
student-teachers. These were: Goal Setting Skill, Information Location Skill,
Information Processing Skill, Information Storing Skill, Information
Retention Skill and Information Retrieval Skill.
(ii)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Goal
Setting Skill were: differentiating long-term goal from short-term goal, use
of SWOT analysis, use of SMART acronym, identifying ones‘ life-time
goals, identifying ones‘ learning goals, goal mapping, time-management
techniques, preparing activity logs, preparing term calendar, weekly schedule
and daily to-do-list.
(iii)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Location Skill were: identification of range of institutions where relevant
information could be found, analyzing the topic to be learned, breaking the
topic of study into searchable key-words, refining the key-words to obtain
relevant results, using library catalogues, using web-resources, evaluating the
resources and keeping records.
(iv)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Processing Skill were: using different strategies for reading, using KWL
strategy, SQ3R technique, speed reading and identifying ones‘ learning style.
(v)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Storing Skill were: identifying common abbreviations and symbols used
while taking notes, forming new abbreviations while taking and making
notes, forming new symbols while taking and making notes, listening skill,
Cornell system of note-taking and mind mapping.
(vi)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Retention Skill were: identifying nutrients which nurture brain function,
using techniques for improving memory, systematic revision and using the
principle of chunking.
(vii)
The sub-skills and techniques that were identified for developing Information
Retrieval Skill were: forming new acronyms, forming new abbreviations,
forming new acronymic sentences, using peg-word and using key-word.
(viii) A modular strategy was developed using the above mention skills, sub-skills
and techniques for enhancing the self-managed learning skills of the studentteachers.
(ix)
The self- managed learning (SML) strategy was found to be effective in
enhancing the learning to learn skills or Self- Managed Learning skills of the
student- teachers.
(x)
Most of the student- teachers i.e. 75% of them were able to perform at
mastery level in the achievement test after the administration of the selfmanaged learning strategy.
(xi)
The student-teachers had a positive opinion about the six skills taken up in
the strategy viz. Goal Setting Skill, Information Location Skill, Information
Processing Skill, Information Storing Skill, Information Retention Skill and
Information Retrieval Skill. Moreover they felt that the strategy as a whole
was very useful in improving their learning skills.
(xii)
They found the strategy very interesting and felt that such strategies should
be implemented from the school level itself.
(xiii) The experts had a highly favourable opinion towards the self-managed
learning strategy.
5.15 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The present study can be conducted in the schools at the secondary and
higher secondary level.

A similar study can be conducted among the students studying at M.Ed level.

The strategy can be used for the students of other faculties also with
necessary modifications if required.

A strategy for developing self- managed learning skills taking into
consideration a different set of skills can be undertaken.

The present study was meant for students having an English medium
background the same can be done for students of other vernacular medium
background.

A similar strategy using the same skills but different sub-skills, techniques
and methods may be developed.

A similar strategy can be prepared and taught to the students by using powerpoint presentation and workshop method.

The improvement in the performance of the student-teachers in their college
examinations before and after the learning of the self- managed learning
skills can be found out.

An in depth study of the study skills used by bright students at varying levels
of education can be found out.

A strategy for enhancing study skills of bright students may then be
developed.

A strategy for developing study skills of below average students may also be
developed.

The study skills used by primary school students may also be determined.

A strategy may then be developed for introduction of study skills at this
level.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
PRE TEST
Name of the student:
Date:
Time: 35 minutes
Total Marks:
____________________________________________________________________
Dear student,
I am conducting a research to develop self managed learning skills among student
teachers. Before embarking on this path I would like to know how many of these
skills you already possess. For this purpose some questions have been given below.
Complete these questions which have been divided into six sections. Read each
question carefully, then select any one of the answers you think is correct in the
multiple choice questions.
These test items have no concern with your college examination. I assure you that
your answers shall be kept strictly confidential and will be used for the purpose of
my research work only.
Please attempt all the questions. Do not ask your companion for the answer. Try to
answer the questions in the time given to you.
(A)
1.
GOAL SETTING SKILL
What is the difference between a goal and a dream?
a)
both are the same
b)
goals are dreams with a deadline
c)
dreams are stronger than goals
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
2.
About how long could a short-term goal last?
a)
1 to 2 weeks
b)
6 months to 1 year
c)
5 or more years
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
3.
SWOT analysis helps you to know your
a)
spending, wastage, opportunities, treasures
b)
strengths, wants, offers, threats
c)
strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
4.
Tools which help you analyse how you really spend your time are known
as
a)
activity logs
b)
SWOT analysis
c)
To-do-list
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
5.
When you begin to study you should start with…
a)
the most difficult subject
b)
the easiest subject
c)
subject you like the most
d)
do not know
6.
Write down two of your study goals using the SMART acronym.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
7.
Write down any one of your pleasure goal and public service goal.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
8.
Create your own goal map in the space given below.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(B)
INFORMATION LOCATION SKILL
9.
Which of the following is a characteristic of scholarly journals?
a)
contains glossy pictures and advertisements
b)
reports on news events in a timely manner
c)
contains research articles
d)
provides an authors opinion about a controversial event
e)
do not know
10.
The data in a library catalogue is divided into separate indexes
according to…
a)
author
b)
title
c)
keyword
d)
subject
e)
all the above
f)
do not know
11.
The search engine which sends your search to several search engines
and then compiles them into one result is known as a…
a)
website
b)
meta search engine
c)
internet
d)
data base
e)
do not know
12.
You can combine keywords together when searching by using certain
terms (Boolean operators). Which of the following are Boolean
operators?
a)
UP/DOWN
b)
AND/OR
c)
IN/OUT
d)
YES/NO
e)
all the above
f)
do not know
13.
Plagiarism is …
a)
copying someone else‘s work and passing it off as your own
b)
an epidemic disease
c)
d)
e)
14.
acceptable
method of finding information
do not know
Make a list of key concepts and keywords of the following topic.
―Evaluate the impact of the Internet on practices for teaching and learning
employed by schools.‖
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
15.
A student downloads her favorite song to play as background music for
a multimedia project. The presentation will only be shown in the
classroom. This is an example of … (Tick the correct answer)
(a)
Appropriate Use
(b)
Inappropriate Use
16.
How will you write the reference of the following book using the APA
format: How the Brain Learns written by David Sousa in 2006 and
published by Corwin Press, California?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(C)
17.
INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILL
The information from the environment is detected by our brain through
our
a)
sensory register
b)
short term memory
c)
long term memory
d)
sensory organs
e)
do not know
18.
What happens to information that does not move from the sensory
register to short term memory?
a)
it is never learned
b)
it is learned but quickly forgotten
c)
it moves to long term memory
d)
it remains in sensory register
e)
do not know
19.
If you only need the shallowest knowledge of a subject you ------------the
material.
a)
read
b)
skim
c)
scan
d)
study
e)
do not know
20.
Speed reading leads to …
a)
decrease in concentration
b)
decrease in comprehension
c)
increase in concentration
d)
wastage of time
e)
do not know
21.
The reading rate of an average student is …
a)
130 w.p.m.
b)
230 w.p.m.
c)
600 w.p.m.
d)
10,000 w.p.m.
e)
do not know
22.
The finger technique is used to improve
a)
reading speed
b)
writing
c)
memory
d)
do not know
23.
A person who prefers graph, pictures, diagram is a
a)
global learner
b)
reflective learner
c)
verbal learner
d)
visual learner
e)
do not know
24.
Complete the KWL chart for the topic- Planets.
Topic:
K
W
L
Planets
The planets may be defined in the following way:
A planet is a celestial body that is in orbit around the sun. It has sufficient mass for
its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes nearly a round
shape and has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. In the solar system the
inner planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. All the inner four planets are
dense rocky bodies and are collectively called terrestrial planets (Earth-like). They
appear to chiefly consist of iron and rock. The outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune are very big with large satellite families. They are composed
mostly of hydrogen, helium, ammonia and methane. These planets are called Jovian
after Joves, the Greek name for Jupiter, because they resemble Jupiter in many
aspects
25.
Rahul can read 690 words in 4 minutes. Calculate Rahul‟s reading
speed?
(D)
INFORMATION STORING SKILL
26.
The characteristics of a good note are
a)
easy to understand
b)
pages numbered
c)
well abbreviated
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
27.
Note taking involves …
a)
taking notes during lecture
b)
copying down what is written on the blackboard
c)
taking notes from books
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
28.
A good way to increase your note taking speed is to use …
a)
standard symbols
b)
self made symbols
c)
standard abbreviations
d)
self made abbreviations
e)
all the above
f)
do not know
29.
The good listener is constantly thinking, evaluating and making
connections.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
30.
By using Cornell system you do not require to …
a)
re-write your notes
b)
take notes
c)
make notes
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
31.
An alternative method for note taking and note making is …
a)
Venn diagram
b)
c)
d)
e)
Mind mapping
flow chart
SQ3R
do not know
32.
Form abbreviations for each of the following words. Use the way of
abbreviation that you think best suits the word.
1.
incorporated -----------------------------------------------------------------2.
mount
-----------------------------------------------------------------3.
picture
-----------------------------------------------------------------4.
gulf
------------------------------------------------------------------
33.
Read each sentence that follows and rewrite them using symbols. You
can use the same symbol more than once.
1.
In the twenty first century there is an increase in the amount of
pollutants and decrease in the number of trees without which
purification of air is difficult.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.
She could not find out her percentage therefore she wrote down the
marks she obtained.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
34.
Read the following information about stars and prepare a mind map for
the same.
Stars
A star is a ball of gas that is so hot it burns and glows. If you look at the sky
on a clear night, you will be able to see constellations of stars. The stars in
each constellation are named after letters in the Greek alphabet. For
thousands of years sailors used the stars to navigate. They were able to tell in
which directions they were travelling.
Galaxies are giant groups of stars. Each galaxy consists of millions and even
trillions of stars. Most galaxies are one of four shapes: spiral, irregular, oval,
and elliptical. Our own galaxy is the Milky way. It is made up of 100 billion
stars. The Milky Way is in the shape of a spiral. Nebulae are seen as fuzzy
patches of light as you look at the night sky. They are actually giant clouds
of space dust and gas where new stars are born and old stars die. The Great
Nebula of Orion can be seen with the naked eye.
(E)
35.
INFORMATION RETENTION SKILL
Learning and retention are the same.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
36.
The left brain deals with …
a)
logic
b)
maths
c)
language
d)
rational thinking
e)
all the above
f)
do not know
37.
Certain nutrients that nurture and stimulate the functions of the brain
are …
a)
vitamin B
b)
vitamin E
c)
vitamin C
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
38.
Daily physical activities not only help in weight control but also improve
the capacity of your brain.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
39.
We remember better during which times of a learning period?
a)
beginning of a learning period
b)
end of learning period
c)
middle of learning period
d)
a&b
e)
a&c
f)
do not know
40.
We remember best at about _________ minutes after learning finishes.
a) 30 mins.
b) 5 mins.
c)
d)
e)
10 mins.
1 hour
do not know
41.
A chunk can be a …
a)
word
b)
number
c)
phrase
d)
whole story
e) all the above
f) do not know
42.
Use the principle of chunking to retain the following information:
1.
ABOTCUPSUNLAPA
2.
43.
17122004
Use the principle of chunking to remember the following string of
words.
food
air
insect
Dog
mosquito
sneeze
(F)
44.
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SKILL
The acronym “CAGED” can be used to remember which of the
following information …
a)
car, aeroplane, truck, scooter, train
b)
Einstein, Copernicus, Galileo, Archimedes, Darwin
c)
cock, duck, eagle, peacock
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
45.
The strategy in which the first letter of each piece of information to be
remembered is used to form a sentence is known as …
a)
acronym
b)
acronymic sentence
c)
abbreviation
d)
keyword
e) do not know
46.
Keyword is a strategy in which you learn a new word or concept by ...
a)
linking it with a word that sounds like it
b)
substituting a peg word for a number word
c)
forming a word using the first letter of each piece of information
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
47.
A good strategy to retrieve information in a certain order is …
a)
acronym
b)
abbreviation
c)
acronymic sentence
d)
b&c
e)
a&c
f)
do not know
48.
Write an acronym for each of the following sets of information. The
pieces of information in each set can be remembered in any order.
1.
Elements: aluminium, magnesium, Gold, Iodine, Copper
.....................................................................................................
2.
Countries: Denmark, London, India, Hungary, China
.....................................................................................................
49.
Write an abbreviation for each of the following sets of information. The
pieces of information in each set should be remembered in order:
1.
Name of G8 countries: France, Russia, Italy, Japan, UK, US,
Germany, Canada
.....................................................................................................
2.
50.
Neighboring states of Rajasthan: Delhi, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
.....................................................................................................
Use the peg word strategy to remember the following information.
Names of first four prime ministers of India:
1.
Jawaharlal Nehru
1947
.....................................................................................................
2.
Lal Bahadur Shastri
1964
.....................................................................................................
3.
Indira Gandhi
1966
.....................................................................................................
4.
Morarji Desai
1977
.....................................................................................................
APPENDIX II
POST TEST
Name of the student:
Date:
Time: 35 minutes
Total Marks:
____________________________________________________________________
Dear student,
You have been learning and practicing various skills and techniques to improve your
self learning through the modules/ instructional materials given to you. I would like
to know how far these modules have helped you in becoming a better learner. For
this purpose some questions have been given below. Complete these questions
which have been divided into six sections. Read each question carefully, and then
select any one answer you think is correct for the multiple choice questions.
These test items have no concern with your college examination. I assure you that
your answers shall be kept strictly confidential and will be used for the purpose of
my research work only.
Please attempt all the questions. Do not ask your companion for the answer. Try to
answer the questions in the time given to you.
(A)
1.
GOAL SETTING SKILL
Which is a life time goal?
a)
learn a new sport this year
b)
become a good teacher
c)
help a friend everyday this week
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
2.
About how long could a long-term goal last?
a)
1 to 2 weeks
b)
6 months to 1 year
c)
2 to 10 years
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
3.
A powerful technique for understanding your strengths and weaknesses
and for looking at the opportunities and threats you face is
a)
SMART goal setting
b)
goal mapping
c)
SWOT analysis
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
4.
Keeping an activity log helps you to understand …
a)
how you spend your time
b)
when you perform at your best
c)
number of hrs you spend in low yield job
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
5.
We should review lecture notes just after class …
a)
in order to see if we need to add anything to it
b)
as forgetting is greatest within 24 hrs without review
c)
to retain information for longer duration
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
6.
Write down two of your study goals using the SMART acronym.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
7.
Write down any one of your artistic goal and career goal.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
8.
Create your own goal map in the space given below.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(B)
9.
INFORMATION LOCATION SKILL
Which of the following resource contains more up to date information
for locating information?
a)
books
b)
journals
c)
primary sources
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
10.
When searching a library catalogue if you are not sure what your search
term are you should search using the…
a)
author
b)
title
c)
keyword
d)
subject
e)
all the above
f)
do not know
11.
Following is an example of a meta search engine…
a)
www.google.com
b)
www.yahoo.com
c)
www.askjeeves.com
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
12.
You have started a search using a database and found only a few
documents on your topic. You decide to include synonyms (word of
similar meaning) in your search statement. To connect the synonyms
you would use the Boolean operator…
a)
AND
b)
+
c)
NOT
d)
OR
e)
do not know
13.
Copyright is used to protect the rights of the creators of …
a)
music
b)
literature
c)
art
d)
e)
f)
14.
films
all the above
do not know
Make a list of key concepts and keywords of the following topic.
―Evaluate the impact of the e-learning on the achievement of students.‖
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
15.
A student downloads her favorite song to play as background music for
a multimedia project. The presentation will only be shown in the
classroom. This is an example of … (Tick the correct answer)
(a)
Appropriate Use
(b)
Inappropriate Use
16.
How will you write the reference of the following book using the APA
format: The Monk who sold his Ferrari written by Robin Sharma in the
year 2003 and published by Jaico Publication house, Mumbai?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(C)
17.
INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILL
According to the information processing model, without a conscious
effort to work with the recently received information we forget 82% of
the information within 24 hours and almost all of it within a few days.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
18.
Information is most easily transferred to the long term memory if it is
….
a)
strange
b)
unique
c)
repeated
d)
strong emotional association
e)
all the above
f)
do not know
19.
When you read the chapter introductions, summaries in detail and
speed read contents of chapter you are ------------------the text.
a)
skimming
b)
scanning
c)
reading
d)
studying
e)
do not know
20.
Re-reading a text improves your reading speed.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
21.
An excellent reader reads at the rate of …
a)
230 w.p.m.
b)
600 w.p.m.
c)
10,000 w.p.m.
d)
do not know
22.
According to the finger technique for improving your reading speed it is
enough to understand 70 to 80% of what you read.
a)
true
b)
c)
false
do not know
23.
A person who prefers to do physical experiments and learn by trying is a
…
a)
reflective learner
b)
active learner
c)
sequential learner
d)
intuitive learner
e)
do not know
24.
Complete the KWL chart for the topic- Planets.
Topic:
K
W
L
Effect of Internet on our daily lives
The maximum effect of the internet is actually on the daily life of the individuals.
Life has become drastically smooth and easy over the internet, while in the previous
years seeking for a job required several visits to the offices and companies and
interviews, these days all what is required is you detail resume emailed to the
company's analysis division which assures you of any possibilities for getting the job
instead of waiting and getting rejected in the end. Even in the minor daily life
activities like traveling and planning is also related to the internet in some way or
the other. Internet can now be used to inquire about the flight timings and delays
which make it easier to plan for the departure time. Any piece of information
regarding anything at all in our daily lives, may it be a cosmetic technique for the
ladies or the men health problems, the cooking recipes for trying the new dishes or
the home decoration tips, the information on the latest appliance or product you are
going to buy or the search for the new house, it is all there ready for you on the
internet. The most interesting aspect of the internet influencing our daily lives is the
factor of entertainment. Entertainment no longer demands your money or expense,
today you can just log on the internet in your free time and get involved talking to
people of similar interests, or watch movies or play games, its all there in the
internet.
25.
Rahul can read 690 words in 4 minutes. Calculate Rahul‟s reading
speed?
(D)
26.
INFORMATION STORING SKILL
A good note contains no abbreviations and has chunks copied from
books or lectures.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
27.
Note making involves …
a)
taking notes from books
b)
organizing rough notes
c)
copying down what is dictated
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
28.
To improve your note taking skill during lectures …
a)
avoid writing details you can easily get later from a textbook
b)
avoid using abbreviations and symbols
c)
do not challenge what the lecturer says
d)
do not know
29.
In order to improve your listening skill practice listening attentively the
first ten minutes of the period since this will help you develop the power
to listen well for the rest of the period.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
30.
In the Cornell system of note taking you divide the record sheet into
a)
two columns
b)
three columns
c)
four columns
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
31.
Mind maps can be used for
a)
making notes
b)
taking notes from lectures
c)
quick revision
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
32.
Form abbreviations for each of the following words. Use the way of
abbreviation that you think best suits the word.
1.
incomplete ---------------------------------------------------------------2.
master
-----------------------------------------------------------------3.
perfect
-----------------------------------------------------------------4.
gorgeous
------------------------------------------------------------------
33.
Read each sentence that follows and rewrite them using symbols. You
can use the same symbol more than once.
Living in the twenty first century is not the same as living in the twentieth
century.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------She found out the increase in percentage of students using the internet.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
34.
Read the following information about Yoga and prepare a mind map for
the same.
Yoga
The word Yoga comes from the Sanskrit word "Yuj" meaning to yoke, join or
unite. This implies joining or integrating all aspects of the individual - body
with mind and mind with soul - to achieve a happy, balanced and useful life,
and spiritually, uniting the individual with the supreme. According to the
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the ultimate aim of Yoga is to reach "Kaivalya"
(emancipation or ultimate freedom). This is the experience of one's
innermost being or "soul". Yoga is therefore a spiritual quest. However,
along the path of yoga, the aspirant also gains health, happiness, tranquillity
and knowledge which are indicators of progress and an encouragement to
continue their practice. There are said to be 4 main paths (Margas),
according to the Bhagavad Gita, by which to reach the ultimate goal of Yoga
- "Kaivalya." There is the path of Knowledge (Jnana Marga) in which one
learns to discriminate between what is real and what is illusory, the path of
selfless work (Karma marga), the path of devotion (Bhakti Marga) and the
path of control of the mind (Yoga Marga) where all the activities of the mind
and consciousness are studied and brought under control.
(D)
35.
INFORMATION RETENTION SKILL
Most people use less than 10% of their brain. This statement is true or
false.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
36.
The right brain deals with …
a)
logic
b)
creativity
c)
language
d)
do not know
37.
Which of the following nutrients are concentrated in the brain and are
associated with cognitive function?
a)
vitamin B
b)
vitamin E
c)
Omega-3-fatty acids
d)
all the above
e)
do not know
38.
Deep breathing exercises like pranayam increases the capacity of the
brain.
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
39.
In order to maintain our ability to remember high enough, we should
not take rest in between. This statement is …
a)
True
b)
false
c)
do not know
40.
In order to improve your information retention skill, in a 2 hour
learning session you should have ________ learning periods.
a)
2
b)
3
c)
4
d)
1
e)
do not know
41.
How many chunks of information can we generally hold in short- term
memory?
a)
7±2
b)
8±3
c)
5±2
d)
7
e) do not know
42.
Use the principle of chunking to retain the following information:
1.
ABACUSMATSTU
2.
43.
18052008
Use the principle of chunking to remember the following string of
words.
may
mango
watermelon
sun
morning
temperature
(F) INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SKILL
44.
The acronym “POPE” can be used to remember which of the following
information …
a)
pen, rubber, pencil, eraser
b)
peacock, owl, parrot, eagle
c)
peacock, owl, parrot, eagle, swan
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
45.
The acronymic sentence “At the girls club” refers to …
a)
planets of solar system
b)
colours of rainbow
c)
pairing of nuclear bases in DNA
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
46.
The first step in the keyword strategy is to …
a)
change the word whose meaning you need to remember into a
keyword.
b)
Create a picture in your mind of the keyword
c)
recall the picture you created in your mind
d)
none of the above
e)
do not know
47.
The strategy in which you retrieve information with the help of visual
cues is…
a)
acronym
b)
abbreviation
c)
keyword
d)
pegword
e)
d&c
f)
do not know
48.
Write an acronym for each of the following sets of information. The
pieces of information in each set can be remembered in any order.
1.
Elements: Uranium, Silver, Titanium, Mercury
2.
Countries: Denmark, England, Russia, Switzerland, Malaysia
49.
Write an abbreviation for each of the following sets of information. The
pieces of information in each set should be remembered in order:
1.
Colours of Rainbow: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red
2.
50.
Neighboring countries of India: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China,
Nepal, Pakistan , Afghanistan
Use the peg word strategy to remember the following information.
Names of last four Presidents of India:
1.
Shankar Dayal Sharma
2.
K.R. Narayanan
3.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
4.
Pratibha Patil
APPENDIX III
ANSWER KEY – PRE-TEST
1.
(b)
23.
(d)
45.
(b)
2.
(b)
24.
-
46.
(a)
3.
(c)
25.
-
4.
(a)
26.
(d)
5.
(a)
27.
(d)
6.
-
28.
(e)
7.
-
29.
(a)
8.
-
30.
(a)
9.
(c)
31.
(b)
10.
(e)
32.
-
11.
(b)
33.
-
12.
(b)
34.
-
13.
(a)
35.
(b)
14.
-
36.
(e)
15.
-
37.
(d)
16.
-
38.
(a)
17.
(d)
39.
(d)
18.
(a)
40.
(c)
19.
(b)
41.
(e)
20.
(c)
42.
-
21.
(b)
43.
-
22.
(a)
44.
(b)
47. (d)
48.
-
49. 50.
-
APPENDIX IV
ANSWER KEY – POST TEST
1.
(b)
23.
(b)
45.
(b)
2.
(c)
24.
(a)
46.
(c)
3.
(c)
25.
(b)
47.
(c)
4.
(c)
26.
(b)
48.
(a)
5.
(b)
27.
(b)
49.
(c)
6.
(d)
28.
(a)
50.
(c)
7.
(d)
29.
(d)
8.
(c)
30.
(c)
9.
(b)
31.
(a)
10.
(c)
32.
(a)
11.
(c)
33.
(d)
12.
(c)
34.
(c)
13.
(d)
35.
(a)
14.
(d)
36.
(b)
15.
(d)
37.
(b)
16.
(e)
38.
(d)
17.
(a)
39.
(a)
18.
(a)
40.
(b)
19.
(e)
41.
(a)
20.
(b)
42.
(c)
21.
(a)
43.
(a)
22.
(b)
44.
(d)
APPENDIX V
SCORING KEY (Pre-Test and Post-Test)
1.
0.5
23.
0.5
45.
0.5
2.
0.5
24.
8
46.
0.5
3.
0.5
25.
2
47.
0.5
4.
0.5
26.
0.5
48.
4
5.
0.5
27.
0.5
49.
4
6.
4
28.
0.5
50.
8
7.
4
29.
0.5
8.
10
30.
0.5
9.
0.5
31.
0.5
10.
0.5
32.
4
11.
0.5
33.
4
12.
0.5
34.
9
13.
0.5
35.
0.5
14.
6
36.
0.5
15.
1
37.
0.5
16.
3
38.
0.5
17.
0.5
39.
0.5
18.
0.5
40.
0.5
19.
0.5
41.
0.5
20.
0.5
42.
4
21.
0.5
43.
8
22.
0.5
44.
0.5
APPENDIX VI
OPINIONNAIRE
(Module 1)
NAME: ___________________________
CLASS: ________________
DATE: ____________________________
You have been learning and practicing various skills and techniques to improve your
goal setting skill with the help of the module given to you. You might like to offer
your valuable suggestions regarding this module and their components. It would be
of help to know your opinions and suggestions in finalizing this module.
A number of statements regarding this module and its various components are given.
Your opinion regarding these statements may differ in various degrees. You have to
consider each of these statements separately and mark the extent each has helped
you in improving your goal setting skill. The columns on the right hand side show
five categories namely Strongly agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree and Strongly
Disagree. You have to show the extent of your opinions regarding each statement by
putting a tick ( √ ) mark against it in the relevant column. Please tick only in one of
the column as per the extent of your liking.
If you have any special suggestions other than those given in the statements, please
write them down in the space provided at the end of the questionnaire under the
heading ‗ suggestions‘.
No.
Statements
Strongly
agree
1.
The module on developing goal
setting skill provided us with
interesting new information and
techniques for setting effective
goals.
2.
The module was easy to read and
easy to understand.
3.
The activities and exercises given in
the module were appropriate.
4.
The module has helped me identify
my short term and long term goal.
Agree
Uncertain Disagree
Strongly
disagree
5.
The module has helped me identify
my personal goals covering almost
all important areas in my life.
6.
The module has helped me
understand my strengths and
weaknesses which I am well placed
to take advantage of while achieving
my goals.
7.
The module has helped me
understand the points to be kept in
mind for setting an effective goal.
8.
The goal mapping technique helped
me practice goal setting skill in the
most powerful and effective way
used in the present times.
9.
The module has helped me to
become clear about my reasons for
learning.
10. The module has introduced me to a
number of tools to ensure that I get
the greatest benefit of the limited
amount of time available to me.
11. The module has helped me to
practice
time
management
techniques for successful studying.
Q.1.
Which section of this module did you find the most interesting?
________________________________________________________
Q.2.
Which section of this module did you find the most useful in improving your
goal setting skill?
________________________________________________________
SUGGESTIONS:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
APPENDIX VII
OPINIONNAIRE
(Module 2)
NAME: ___________________________
CLASS: ________________
DATE: ____________________________
You have been learning and practicing various skills and techniques to improve your
information location skill with the help of the module given to you. You might like
to offer your valuable suggestions regarding this module and their components. It
would be of help to know your opinions and suggestions in finalizing this module.
A number of statements regarding this module and its various components are given.
Your opinion regarding these statements may differ in various degrees. You have to
consider each of these statements separately and mark the extent each has helped
you in improving your information location skill. The columns on the right hand
side show five categories namely Strongly agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree. You have to show the extent of your opinions regarding each
statement by putting a tick ( √ ) mark against it in the relevant column. Please tick
only in one of the column as per the extent of your liking.
If you have any special suggestions other than those given in the statements, please
write them down in the space provided at the end of the questionnaire under the
heading ‗ suggestions‘.
No.
Statements
Strongly
agree
1.
The
module
on
developing
information location skill provided
me with interesting new information
and techniques to find information
easily.
2.
The module was easy to read and
easy to understand.
3.
The activities and exercises given in
the module were appropriate.
4.
The module has helped me become
confident about finding and using
the various resources, tools and
Agree
Uncertain Disagree
Strongly
disagree
institutions
needed
for
assignments and projects.
my
5.
The module has helped me select
the right kind of information for my
projects and assignments.
6.
The module has helped me to use
library
and
other
resources
effectively.
7.
The module has helped me to find
and
use
internet
materials
effectively.
8.
The module has helped me to know
what plagiarism means and how to
avoid it.
9.
The module has helped me to know
how to produce a list of references
for various information sources.
10.
The module has helped me in
exploring copyright laws related to
computer and software use.
11.
The module has taught me how to
read and evaluate the various
resources which I might be using for
my projects and assignments.
Q.1.
Which section of this module did you find the most interesting?
________________________________________________________
Q.2.
Which section of this module did you find the most useful in improving your
information location skill?
________________________________________________________
SUGGESTIONS:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
APPENDIX VIII
OPINIONNAIRE
(Module 3)
NAME: ___________________________
CLASS: ________________
DATE: ____________________________
You have been learning and practicing various skills and techniques to improve your
information processing skill with the help of the module given to you. You might
like to offer your valuable suggestions regarding this module and their components.
It would be of help to know your opinions and suggestions in finalizing this module.
A number of statements regarding this module and its various components are given.
Your opinion regarding these statements may differ in various degrees. You have to
consider each of these statements separately and mark the extent each has helped
you in improving your information processing skill. The columns on the right hand
side show five categories namely Strongly agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree. You have to show the extent of your opinions regarding each
statement by putting a tick ( √ ) mark against it in the relevant column. Please tick
only in one of the column as per the extent of your liking.
If you have any special suggestions other than those given in the statements, please
write them down in the space provided at the end of the questionnaire under the
heading ‗ suggestions‘.
N
o.
Statements
1.
The
module on
developing
information
processing
skill
provided me with interesting new
information and techniques to
process information effectively.
2.
The module was easy to read and
easy to understand.
3.
The activities and exercises given in
the module were appropriate.
4.
The module has helped me
understand how the brain deals
with information or how learning
takes place, in a simplified manner
using the information processing
model.
Strongly
agree
Agree
Uncerta
in
Disagre
e
Strongly
disagree
5.
The module has helped me become
aware of my present reading habits
and my attitude towards reading.
6.
The module has introduced me to a
number of strategies for improving
my reading skill.
7.
The KWL technique has helped me
to learn a topic in a better way.
8.
The module has provided useful
tips and techniques for improving
my reading speed.
9.
The module has helped me identify
my present reading speed.
10
.
The module has helped me identify
my learning style and helped me
expand the manner in which I learn.
Q.1.
Which section of this module did you find the most interesting?
________________________________________________________
Q.2.
Which section of this module did you find the most useful in improving your
information processing skill?
________________________________________________________
SUGGESTIONS:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
APPENDIX IX
OPINIONNAIRE
(Module 4)
NAME: ___________________________
CLASS: ________________
DATE: ____________________________
You have been learning and practicing various skills and techniques to improve your
information storing skill with the help of the module given to you. You might like to
offer your valuable suggestions regarding this module and their components. It
would be of help to know your opinions and suggestions in finalizing this module.
A number of statements regarding this module and its various components are given.
Your opinion regarding these statements may differ in various degrees. You have to
consider each of these statements separately and mark the extent each has helped
you in improving your information storing skill. The columns on the right hand side
show five categories namely Strongly agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree. You have to show the extent of your opinions regarding each
statement by putting a tick ( √ ) mark against it in the relevant column. Please tick
only in one of the column as per the extent of your liking.
If you have any special suggestions other than those given in the statements, please
write them down in the space provided at the end of the questionnaire under the
heading ‗ suggestions‘.
No.
Statements
Strongly
agree
1.
The
module
on
developing
information storing skill provided me
with interesting new information
and
techniques
for
storing
information effectively.
2.
The module was easy to read and
easy to understand.
3.
The activities and exercises given in
the module were appropriate.
4.
The module has helped me become
aware of my present note taking and
note making skill.
Agree
Uncertain Disagree
Strongly
disagree
5.
The module has helped me take
clear, meaningful classroom notes
and study effectively from them.
6.
The module has helped me to use
lecture time effectively.
7.
The module has introduced me to
some commonly used abbreviations
and symbols that may help me take
notes quickly.
8.
The module has helped me to form
abbreviations from just about any
word.
9.
The module has helped me to use
the five step Cornell system for
effective notes taking.
10.
The module has helped me use the
mind mapping technique for
effective note making and note
taking.
11.
The module has taught me how
mind maps may be used in a wide
range of situations.
Q.1.
Which section of this module did you find the most interesting?
________________________________________________________
Q.2.
Which section of this module did you find the most useful in improving your
information storing skill?
________________________________________________________
SUGGESTIONS:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
APPENDIX X
OPINIONNAIRE
(Module 5)
NAME: ___________________________
CLASS: ________________
DATE: ____________________________
You have been learning and practicing various skills and techniques to improve your
information retention skill with the help of the module given to you. You might like
to offer your valuable suggestions regarding this module and their components. It
would be of help to know your opinions and suggestions in finalizing this module.
A number of statements regarding this module and its various components are given.
Your opinion regarding these statements may differ in various degrees. You have to
consider each of these statements separately and mark the extent each has helped
you in improving your information retention skill. The columns on the right hand
side show five categories namely Strongly agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree. You have to show the extent of your opinions regarding each
statement by putting a tick ( √ ) mark against it in the relevant column. Please tick
only in one of the column as per the extent of your liking.
If you have any special suggestions other than those given in the statements, please
write them down in the space provided at the end of the questionnaire under the
heading ‗ suggestions‘.
No.
Statements
Strongly
agree
1.
The
module
on
developing
information retention skill provided
me with interesting new information
and techniques to retain information
easily.
2.
The module was easy to read and
easy to understand.
3.
The activities and exercises given in
the module were appropriate.
4.
The module has helped me to have a
basic awareness of how the brain
works and how to use this
knowledge to help me learn better.
Agree
Uncertain Disagree
Strongly
disagree
5.
The module has helped me to apply
techniques to remember essential
information when I need it.
6.
The section on nutrition and
memory improvement was quite
useful.
7.
The section on exercise and memory
improvement helped us understand
the importance of physical activity
for improving our learning.
8.
The module has introduced us to a
number of techniques to improve
my information retention skill.
9.
The module has shown me how to
use the principle of chunking to
improve my information retention
skill.
10.
The graphs and pictures used in the
module helped us to understand the
content more clearly.
11.
The module has helped me
understand the difference between
retention and learning.
12.
The module has made me aware of
some interesting facts about the
new research in the science of brain.
Q.1.
Which section of this module did you find the most interesting?
________________________________________________________
Q.2.
Which section of this module did you find the most useful in improving your
information retention skill?
________________________________________________________
SUGGESTIONS:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
APPENDIX XI
OPINIONNAIRE
(Module 6)
NAME: ___________________________
CLASS: ________________
DATE: ____________________________
You have been learning and practicing various skills and techniques to improve your
information retrieval skill with the help of the module given to you. You might like
to offer your valuable suggestions regarding this module and their components. It
would be of help to know your opinions and suggestions in finalizing this module.
A number of statements regarding this module and its various components are given.
Your opinion regarding these statements may differ in various degrees. You have to
consider each of these statements separately and mark the extent each has helped
you in improving your information retrieval skill. The columns on the right hand
side show five categories namely Strongly agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree. You have to show the extent of your opinions regarding each
statement by putting a tick ( √ ) mark against it in the relevant column. Please tick
only in one of the column as per the extent of your liking.
If you have any suggestions other than those given in the statements, please write
them in the space provided at the end of the questionnaire under the heading ‗
suggestions‘.
No.
Statements
Strongly
agree
1.
The module on developing
information retrieval skill provided
me
with
interesting
new
information and techniques for
information retrieval.
2.
The module was easy to read and
easy to understand.
3.
The activities and exercises given in
the module were appropriate.
4.
The module has helped me practice
a number of memory techniques to
enhance my ability to learn.
Agree
Uncertain Disagree
Strongly
disagree
5.
The techniques given in this
module will be of great help while
giving exams or participating in
debates or seminars.
6.
The techniques given in this
module will make our learning
more enjoyable.
Q.1.
Which section of this module did you find the most interesting?
________________________________________________________
Q.2.
Which section of this module did you find the most useful in improving your
information retrieval skill?
________________________________________________________
SUGGESTIONS:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
APPENDIX XII
OPINIONNAIRE
(Self Managed Learning Strategy)
NAME: ___________________________
CLASS: ________________
DATE: ____________________________
You have been learning and practicing various skills and techniques to improve your
self learning with the help of the modules given to you. The self managed learning
strategy as a whole consisted of six modules aimed at developing your learning
skills viz. Goal setting skill, Information location skill, Information processing skill,
Information storing skill, Information retention skill & Information retrieval skill.
Now that you have gone through all the modules, you might like to offer your
valuable suggestions regarding the strategy as a whole. It would be of help to know
your opinions and suggestions in finalizing the strategy.
A number of statements regarding the self managed learning strategy are given.
Your opinion regarding these statements may differ in various degrees. You have to
consider each of these statements separately and mark the extent each has helped
you in improving your learning skills. The columns on the right hand side show five
categories namely Strongly agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree and Strongly
Disagree. You have to show the extent of your opinions regarding each statement by
putting a tick ( √ ) mark against it in the relevant column. Please tick only in one of
the column as per the extent of your liking.
If you have any special suggestions other than those given in the statements, please
write them down in the space provided at the end of the questionnaire under the
heading ‗ suggestions‘.
No.
Statements
Strongly
agree
1.
The self managed learning (SML)
strategy
provided
me
with
interesting new information for
improving our learning skills.
2.
The SML strategy was quite useful
as it consisted of number of
interesting techniques and activities
to improve my learning.
3.
The SML strategy brought about an
overall improvement in the manner
in which I learn.
Agree
Uncertain Disagree
Strongly
disagree
4.
The SML strategy was not only
interesting but also enjoyable.
5.
The SML strategy helped me
overcome many of my learning
difficulties.
6.
I feel I would have done better in
my earlier examinations if I had
learnt the various skills provided in
the SML strategy.
7.
The instructions used in the strategy
were not proper.
8.
The presentation of the content in
the SML strategy was logical,
appropriate and interesting.
9.
The language used in the SML
strategy
was
simple
and
understandable.
10.
The introductions given at the
beginning of each module in the
strategy helped me in preparing for
learning the contents of the
module.
11.
The facility provided through
activities for putting into practice
the techniques/methods I learnt
were adequate and quite helpful.
12.
The diagrams, graphs and pictures
used in the strategy were quite
clear
and
helped
me
in
understanding the concepts better.
13.
The examples used in the strategy
were not proper.
14.
The summary provided at the end of
each module helped me in recalling
or revising easily things already
learnt.
15.
The section “Test Yourself” given in
between the modules helped me in
recalling and verifying things
already learnt.
16.
The modules were self -explanatory.
17.
There was no need of the section on
reflections.
18.
Such
strategies
should
be
implemented from the school level
itself.
19.
I liked the SML strategy and it
should be made a part of B.Ed
curriculum.
20.
I would like to learn more about
self-managed learning skills.
SUGGESTIONS:
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
APPENDIX XIII
BLUE PRINT FOR PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST
VARIABLES
Type of Question
KNOWLEDGE
O
S
E
UNDERSTANDING
APPLICATION
O
O
S
E
S
SKILL
E
O
S
E
Content
3
Goal Setting Skill
(0.5)
Information Location Skill
(0.5)
Information Processing
(0.5)
`
2
(0.5)
4
(0.5)
1
4
(0.5)
(1)
1
3
(4)
2
(6)
1
(2)
1
(10)
(3)
1
1
TOTAL NO.
OF
QUESTIONS
TOTAL
MARKS
PERCENTAGE
8
20.5
20.5
8
12.5
12.5
13.5
13.5
(8)
1
(9)
1
9
20
20
(8)
1
9
15.5
15.5
(8)
1
7
18
18
50
100
100
9
Skill
3
(0.5)
6
(0.5)
1
(0.5)
Information Storing Skill
(0.5)
Information Retention Skill
(0.5)
Information Retrieval Skill
(0.5)
TOTAL
(3)
21
(3)
3
(4)
1
1
(4)
1
2
(0.5)
12

Figure within the bracket indicates marks

Figure outside the bracket indicates nos. of questions
(1)
1
(12)
4
(4)
1
1
(4)
3
(11)
(8.5)
2
4
( %)
(43)
5
EVOLVING A STRATEGY FOR
DEVELOPING
SELF-MANAGED LEARNING (SML)
SKILLS
AMONG STUDENT-TEACHERS
VOLUME II
A Thesis Submitted to
The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN EDUCATION
Guide
Prof. N. Pradhan
Investigator
Ms. Lisa Joseph
227
CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDY IN EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION & PSYCHOLOGY
THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA
VADODARA 390 002
AUGUST 2013
GETTING STARTED
We are not born knowing how to study. It has been found that many students fail in
the academic field or are not interested in studying, not for lack of ability, or brains,
or even courage, but simply because they have never been taught how to manage
their own learning. The good news however is that there are a variety of study skills
for any student looking for an opportunity to improve his learning. Studying
effectively is a learned behaviour and this is why there are a number of different
study skills that are available to students of all level.
About the SML Strategy
Welcome to the Self Managed Learning (SML) strategy, a program designed to
enable you to simply, successfully turn your learning goals into reality. The program
consists of six simple steps in the form of six modules which may be used as a self
study material. With a wealth of hands on experience, each module will keep you
engaged and help you retain critical skills.
Learning Objectives
On completion of the SML strategy, you will know how to:

Set practical goals and take responsibility of your own learning

Use time wisely

Search for information using the library and internet.

Cite the resources you use for your projects and follow copyright laws

Use various techniques to develop powerful reading skills
228

Increase your reading speed

Take clear meaningful classroom notes and study effectively from them

Practice memory techniques to enhance your ability to learn

Use various techniques that will directly or indirectly improve your
concentration and intelligence

Improve your test performance
The SML strategy for improving your self learning skills focuses on a different
aspect of learning in each module. However, as your study progresses, you will
notice that these skills are interconnected. Developing one aspect of your study will
also help with other aspects. For example, improving your reading speed also
improves your concentration because the mind gets enough work, so it does not have
time to go in different directions or get distracted. Scientific studies have proved that
reading faster improves understanding. This leads to improvement in both memory
and concentration.
Don‘t be put off by modules that look difficult or by words you don‘t know. You
may need to read some chapters several times – but that‘s typical of advanced
learning. When you have lived with them for a few weeks and thought about them,
the ideas and vocabulary will become everyday words to you.
In the first module on developing goal setting skill you will find everything that
you will need to know about goal setting theory and learn how to clarify and set
goals.
In the second module on information location skill, we will try to explore the main
types of resources that you might need as a student - books, journals, primary
sources, the Internet, databases etc. - and learn how to search for information from
these resources.
The third module on developing information processing skill presents a simplified
explanation of how the brain deals with information using the Information
229
Processing Model and shows various techniques to improve your information
processing skill.
The fourth module on developing information storing skill gives ideas for creating
useful and effective notes from which you can learn more easily.
The fifth module on developing information retention skill will show you some
surprisingly easy ways to increase the capacity of your brain using various
techniques which will directly or indirectly improve memory, concentration and
intelligence.
In the sixth module on developing information retrieval skills you will learn a
number of techniques to retrieve information from your long term memory.
What you need to know
The SML strategy has been designed to be as self explanatory as possible. But there
are a few things you should know before you begin to study the modules.
ACTIVITY
At the end of each content in every module, you will find some activities. Keep a
pencil handy. Any time you see an activity, you should try to complete it. If the
activity has a specific answer, an answer key is provided at the end of the activity.
Some activities ask you to think about your own opinions or situation; these types of
activities do not have answer keys.
TEST YOURSELF
Throughout the modules you will find questions to check your understanding of the
contents you just learnt in the form of Test Yourself sections. Any time you see this
section, you should try to complete it before going on to the next content. The
answers to these questions have been provided at the end of the module.
REFLECTIONS
At the end of each module there is a section on reflections. In this section you need
to write whatever comes to your mind regarding the question at hand. These
questions have no specific answers and are left to your imagination. You need to
hand over this paper to the researcher after you complete each module.
230
How to get maximum benefit from this program
As you read and learn through these modules you will realize that it contains a
number of different tools and techniques for improving the various dimensions of
your learning. Don‘t read it in a superficial way. Read it sincerely and expect big
improvement. Please follow the suggestions given below to get maximum benefit
from this course.

The best way to use this learning strategy is to skim through it quickly so that
you get an overview of what is contained within it. Then read through each
section carefully.

Do not skip any activity or technique.

It helps if you plan a fixed place and a fixed time each day that you can read this
course and learn.

As you learn techniques, you need to practice them to develop new skills and
talents. Reading a technique and practicing just once is not enough to get full
benefit.

Realize that learning a new technique or skill is like learning to ride a bicycle. It
requires practice and patience. You do not learn to ride a bicycle in one hour. In
the same way, do not try to read this course like a novel in one afternoon and
expect to master the learning skills.

To make the fullest use of this course, plan to spend about half an hour every day
for a few weeks.
There are many avenues for successful study. Experiment, explore. Be creative. Find
what suits you best.
I wish you success in your learning and your life.
231
Module 1
GOAL SETTING SKILL
Contents
1-1
Learning Objectives
1-2
Introduction
1-3
Short term goals and long term goals
1-4
SWOT Analysis
1-5
S.M.A.R.T goal setting
1-6
Goal mapping
1-7
Starting to set personal goals
1-8
Trying to know your learning goals
1-9
Finding out how you really spend your time
1-10
Strategies on using time
1-11
Effective aids for goal setting
1-12
Summing up
1-13
Reflections
1-14
References
232
1
1.1
GOAL SETTING SKILL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
As you learn through this module, you will be able to:

Differentiate long term goals from short term goals

Identify your strengths and weaknesses using SWOT Analysis

Learn the steps in SMART goal setting

Identify your lifetime goals

Identify your learning goals

Programme your subconscious mind for success using Goal Mapping

Find out how you really spend your time

Plan and manage your study time with the help of a Semester Calendar, Weekly
Schedule, and Daily To Do List.
1.2
INTRODUCTION
A goal is something you want to accomplish. Everything that has been achieved by
humankind, big and small, has always started with having a goal. Before Neil
Armstrong set his foot on the moon he set the goal to do so; before Einstein
discovered the theory of relativity he set the goal to look for it; before any of the
great artists created a masterpiece, they first had the goal to do it in their mind.
Goal setting is a powerful process to know precisely what you want to achieve and
where exactly to concentrate your efforts. It is a natural function of the brain. By
setting a goal we make a decision which in turn triggers a subconscious process in
our mind that transforms the decision into a deed. Learning the most effective way
to set goals is the number one prerequisite for success in any endeavor for any
233
individual, team or organization. Properly set goals can be incredibly motivating,
and as you get into the habit of setting and achieving goals you‘ll find that your self
confidence builds fast. Learning to set and achieve goals is the master skill of life as
it is the skill that enables the achievement and learning of all other skills and
objectives.
In the present module you will find everything that you will need to know about
goal setting theory and learn how to clarify and set goals.
1.3
SHORT TERM GOALS AND LONG TERM GOALS
Let us start the process of developing goal setting skill by trying to first understand
what a goal is and which are the different types of goals. Almost all of us have a
dream or a wish which we would love being fulfilled. What makes this intention or
dream a real goal is that it has an achievement date or a deadline. Without a date it is
just a wishful fancy. Goals can broadly be classified into (i) short term goals, (ii)
medium term goals, & (iii) long term goals. Generally speaking, a short term goal is
usually anything up to one year. For example, completing a homework assignment
or obtaining 90% marks in your final exams is a short term goal. In the same way
medium term goals tend to be between one-to-two years and long term goals are
generally considered to be anything from two years to ten years For example,
learning abacus to improve your mathematical skills is a medium term goal while
becoming a scientist is a long term goal.
Activity
List three learning goals or objectives that are most important to you, and indicate
whether they are long term, medium term, or short term by putting a tick mark ( √ )
in the appropriate column.
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My Learning Goals
Long term
(achieve within
2-10 yrs.)
Medium term
(achieve within
1-2 yrs.)
Short Term
(achieve (within
1 yr)
1
2
3
(1-3) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
What makes a dream a real goal is that it has a ________________.
Q.2.
A short term goal is usually anything which can be achieved in _______year/(s)
while a long term goal can be achieved within __________years.
Q.3.
You want to become a politician. This is a ________________________goal.
Before setting out on our journey to acquire learning to learn skills let us take a
holistic look at our personal brand with the help of SWOT analysis which will help
us to identify the areas in which we can improve ourselves and our life. Moreover,
SWOT analysis is a powerful tool which will help us take control of our educational
goals and adjust our actions to make progress in the right direction.
1.4
SWOT ANALYSIS
The abbreviation SWOT stands for strengths, weakness, opportunities and threat.
SWOT Analysis is a powerful technique for understanding your strength and
weaknesses, and for looking at the opportunities and threats you face. This technique
will not only help you uncover opportunities that you are well placed to take
advantage of while achieving your goals but will also help you understand your
weaknesses which in turn will help you manage and eliminate threats that would
otherwise catch you unaware. Successful people always build on their strengths,
correct their weakness and protect against internal weaknesses and external threats.
They also keep a watch on their overall environment and recognize and exploit new
opportunities faster than their competitors. Although SWOT Analysis was originally
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developed to analyze organizations and opportunities, you can also carry out a
SWOT Analysis on yourself.
How to use the tool?
1.
The first step in a SWOT analysis is to make a worksheet by drawing a cross,
creating four sectors, one each for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats. An outline of a worksheet is shown below.
2.
The next step is to list specific items related to the problem at hand (e.g.
Learning), under the appropriate heading in the worksheet. It is best to limit
the list to 10 or fewer points per heading and to avoid over-generalizations.
To carry out SWOT Analysis, use the following Performa. Fill in the Performa by
writing down the answers to the questions that follow.
Strengths
Weakness
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
6.
6.
7.
7.
8.
8.
9.
9.
10.
10.
Opportunities
Threats
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
6.
6.
7.
7.
8.
8.
9.
9.
10.
10.
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Strengths
You start by identifying your strengths, which represent your internal capabilities
and resources in this result area. Write down the answers to the following questions
in the strength column of the Performa. Keep in mind that not all of these questions
will apply to every result area. Just use the ones that make sense to help you identify
your strengths.
1.
What am I good at?
2.
What advantages ( for example, skills, education, experience, connections )
do I have that others do not have?
3.
What do I enjoy doing?
4.
What areas am I competent in, that are not just subject specific? (Think in
wider terms of emotional and social intelligence too.) e.g. good
communication skill or can make friends quickly, etc.
5.
What subjects do I get good marks in?
6.
What do I do better than anyone else?
7.
What personal resources do I have access to?
8.
What do other people ( and my teachers ) see as my strengths?
9.
Is there any particular learning styles that I lean towards? E.g. I learn better
by hearing or by seeing graphs, pictures, etc.
10.
Any other strengths?
The next step is to identify your weaknesses, which represent your internal
liabilities. In many cases, the lack of a strength or resource can be considered a
weakness. Here are some ideas to help you identify your weaknesses:
Weakness
Write down the answers to the following questions in the weakness column of the
Performa.
1.
Are there any specific subjects, skills or areas that I am weaker in?
2.
Do I have any specific learning difficulties?
237
3.
What could I improve?
4.
What should I avoid? (e.g. procrastinating, gossiping, etc.)
5.
Are there any resources that I need? (e.g. money, time, help)
6.
What things are the people around me likely to see as my weakness?
Your strengths and weaknesses give you an idea of your internal capabilities,
resources and liabilities. The next step in SWOT analysis is to identify your external
opportunities for profit, growth and improvement. Here are some ideas to help you
identify them:
Opportunities
Write down the answers to the following questions in the opportunities column of the
Performa.
1.
What are the good opportunities facing me?
2.
How can I take advantage of my strengths?
3.
How can I use my strengths to overcome my weakness?
4.
What are the important trends I am aware of?
5.
What are the opportunities in school/college that I enjoy?
6.
What possibilities can I see for developing my learning?
7.
How could I (or my teacher) make small adjustments to help me learn more
effectively?
Now identify your threats, which represent external events, environmental factors,
or changes that could affect you negatively. Here are some ideas to help you identify
some threats:
Threats
Write down the answers to the following questions in the threats column of the
Performa.
1.
What obstacles do I face?
2.
Do they present threats to my learning?
238
3.
What makes me feel uncomfortable in class?
4.
What hinders me or stops me from learning?
5.
Could any of my weaknesses seriously threaten me?
6.
What de-motivates me?
After carrying out the SWOT analysis ponder over the following questions?

How can I Use each Strength?

How can I Stop each Weakness?

How can I Exploit each Opportunity?

How can I Defend against each Threat?

(1-4) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
What does the abbreviation SWOT stand for?
Q.2.
What is the use of carrying out a SWOT analysis?
Keeping in mind the knowledge about your strengths and weaknesses let us now try
to understand the art of smart goal setting with the help of the acronym SMART.
1.5
S.M.A.R.T GOAL SETTING
The SMART acronym will help you remember the components of an effective goal.
By setting S.M.A.R.T goals you will be studying with a clearer and specific mind
set.
1.
Your goal must be specific
The first letter in the acronym SMART, S stands for specific. To be a successful
goal setter, do not set vague goals. Be as specific as possible. Do not say I want to
get good marks. This is a vague statement. Instead, say, ―I want to get 80 marks.‖
Similarly, do not say, ―I want to be a better reader.‖ Say, ―I want to improve my
reading speed.‖
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2.
It must be Measurable
The second letter in the acronym SMART, M stands for measureable. Goals can be
achieved only if they are able to be measured in some way. A goal that says, ―I want
to score as many marks as possible is not measurable.‖ Instead say, ―I want to obtain
98 marks in all the subjects in my final semester.‖
3.
ABC your goals
The third letter in the acronym SMART, A stands for ABC. This is the part where
you decide how you are going to achieve your goal. First of all prioritize your goals.
Lay down what is it that you want to achieve first, what next, etc. Next mention how
you are going to achieve it. For example, your goal would now look something like,
―I want to improve my reading speed by 10 wpm. I will do this by skimming over
words like ―the‘ and ‗an‘.
4.
Your goals must be Realistic
The fourth letter in the acronym SMART, R stands for realistic. We must set high
goals. For excellence can never be achieved by accident, it requires you to push
yourself beyond your comfort zone. But it is also necessary to make sure your goals
are something that is within reach. You must keep your goals high enough to inspire
and reasonable enough to be always within reach.
5.
Your goals must be Time bound
The fifth letter in the acronym SMART, T stands for time bound. A goal must have
a deadline. Otherwise they remain as a dream. Set a date to accomplish each task.
Make sure the date is both specific and realistic to you. You cannot say, ―I will
revise the chapter on Growth and development. You will have to determine when to
complete it. Like, ―I will revise the chapter on growth and development within the
next 10 days.‖ This gives you a definite time to shoot for and help keep you working
towards the goal.
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Activity
My SMART GOALS
The following activity will help you in the process of SMART goal setting. This
activity has been selected to help you set your learning goals; however, you may use
it to cover goals covering other aspects of life too.
Date: ------------------Life aspect: Learning
Specific goal How will the goal
be measured?
(assign a quantity)
I will increase my
e.g. I want to reading speed
improve my from 230 w.p.m.
to 500 w.p.m.
reading.
Actions required to
achieve goal
Is the goal and
Time-line
required
When will the goal
actions
be achieved?
realistic?
(assign a date)
Yes
I will achieve this
goal by
25/10/2012.
(i) Search the net on
reading speed.
(ii) Locate resources to
learn techniques to
improve reading speed.
(iii) Learn skills to improve
reading speed.
Specific goal How will the goal
Actions required to
Is the goal and
Time-line
be measured?
achieve goal
required
When will the goal
actions
(assign a quantity)
be achieved?
realistic?
(assign a date)
1.
2.
3.
4.
(1-5) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Q.2
Q.3.
What does the acronym SMART stand for?
I will improve my life style- this is a specific goal. T/F
I will exercise for 30 mins daily to improve my memory and health- this
goal is measurable. T/F
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1.6
GOAL MAPPING
The secret of success in any goal setting strategy lies in its ability to connect your
consciously chosen objectives to your subconscious mind so that your subconscious
mind begins to pursue your goal automatically. The key to successfully
communicating goals to the subconscious mind and programming it for success lies
in the combined use of words and pictures. This section will teach you how to create
a goal map, a whole-brain system designed by Brian Mayne, to connect your
consciously chosen goals to your subconscious mind in the most powerful, effective
way used today. Goal Mapping is a combination of Goal Setting and Mind Mapping
(you will learn about mind mapping in module 4). However it is more than just the
combination of these two skills. Goal mapping impacts your left and right brain by
using imagery (the language of the subconscious mind) bringing words, pictures and
symbols together to create extraordinary power.
The steps to complete a Goal Map are as follows (you will see an example at the end
of the goal mapping process):
Step 1 – Dream – This first step requires you to let go of any self-limiting beliefs
and ideas and dream about life just the way you want it to be. Imagine it is Diwali
and you can have anything you want with the wave of a magic wand. Really imagine
this new life for yourself and experience how you would feel if you were living that
life now. Now quickly write down all of the things that made that dream special.
My wishes are:
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
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Step 2 – Order – Now from this ideal life, pick your top five goals. When you have
done that, identify your number one goal.
My top five goals are:
My number one goal is:
Step 3 – Draw – Step 3 requires you to take a clean sheet of paper and about one
third of the way down from the top draw a picture or symbol that represents your
number one goal or main goal. You don‘t have to be an artist to do this because the
drawing or sketch will be symbolic of your goal; however, try and use as much
colour as possible. Then draw two lines on each side of your number one goal and
draw pictures or symbols representing each of your four remaining goals (subgoals).
Step 4 – Why – We are never motivated by logic but always by emotion. Your next
step is to identify the emotional reasons why you simply must achieve your goals,
such as Love, Freedom or Family. From the top of your image of your number one
goal use key words, pictures or symbols for your emotional reasons.
Step 5 – When – Place your start date at the bottom of the goal map and then draw
two parallel lines up to your completion date that you should write just under your
number one goal.
Step 6 – How – Down the right hand side of the path you have drawn between your
start and completion dates, identify what resources you will need, interim objectives
you will need to complete or skills you will have to attain before your goals will be
realised. This is the HOW of your goal setting.
Step 7 – Who – As Brian says, any goal of any value will require advice, assistance
or support from someone else. Place the names of these people down the left hand
side of the path you have drawn between your start and completion dates.
Adapted from: www.liftinternational.com
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Example
Finally, to make the Goal Mapping process effective, it is crucial that you review
your Goal Map every day and take the necessary action to achieve your goals. The
more emotionally attached to the process you can get, the more effective it can be.
Activity
Prepare your own goal map following the seven steps of goal mapping on a sheet of
paper.
(1-6) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Who invented the goal mapping technique?
Q.2.
The key to successfully communicating goals to the subconscious mind
and programming it for success lies in the combined use of _______ and
_________.
Write down the seven steps of goal mapping?
Q.3.
In the next session, we shall see how to start setting our personal goals.
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1.7
STARTING TO SET PERSONAL GOALS
Goals are set on a number of different levels: First you decide what you want to do
with your life and what large-scale goals you want to achieve. Second, you break
these down into the smaller and smaller targets that you must hit so that you reach
your life time goals. Finally, once you have your plan, you start working to achieve
it.
This section explains a simple technique for setting personal goals. It starts with
your life time goals, and then works through a series of lower level plans
culminating in a daily to-do- list. By setting up this structure of plans you can break
even the biggest life goals down into a number of small task that you need to do
each day to reach the life time goals.
Your Life time goals
The first step in setting personal goals is to consider what you want to achieve in
your lifetime, as setting lifetime goals give you the overall perspective that shapes
all other aspects of your decision making.
To give a broad, balanced coverage of all important areas in your life, try to set
goals in some of these categories ( or in categories of your own, where these are
important to you.)

Artistic : Do you want to achieve artistic goals? If so, what?

Attitude : Is any part of your mindset holding you back? Is there any part of
the way that you behave that upsets you? If so, set a goal to improve your
behaviour or find a solution to the problem?

Career : What level do you want to reach in your career?

Education : Is there any knowledge you want to acquire in particular? What
information and skills will you need to achieve other goals?

Family : How do you want to be seen by your family members? How are
you going to be a good son/daughter, husband/wife, father/mother, etc.?
245

Financial : How much do you want to earn by what stage?

Physical : Are there any athletic goals you want to achieve, or do you want
good health deep into old age? What steps are you going to take to achieve
these goals?

Pleasure : How do you want to enjoy yourself? – You should ensure that
some of your life is just for you.

Public service : Do you want to make the world a better place by your
existence? If so, how?
After deciding your goals in the above categories assign a priority to them from I to
IX. It is also important to ensure that the goals you have set are the goals that you
want to achieve not what your parents, spouse, family or employer want them to be.
Activity
1.
Set aside two hours to think through your lifetime goals in each of the above
categories. Write them down on a sheet of paper.
2.
Once you have set your lifetime goals, set a 25 year plan of smaller goals
that you should complete if you are to reach your life time plan.
3.
Then set a 5 year plan, 1 year plan, 6 month plan and 1 month plan of
progressively smaller goals that you should reach to achieve your life time
goals. Each of these should be based on the previous plan.
4.
Now create a daily to do list of things that you should do today to work
towards your life time goals. At an early stage these may be to read books
and gather information on the achievement of your goals. (Details of
preparing daily to do list has been presented in a later section of this
module)
6.
Finally, review your plans, and make sure that they fit the way in which you
want to live your life.
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Note: Make sure to review and update your to do list on a daily basis. Periodically
review the longer goals and modify them to reflect your changing priorities and
experience.
1.8
TRYING TO KNOW YOUR LEARNING GOALS
Being clear about your reasons for learning, and what you want to achieve from your
learning is important if you want to get the most from your educational experience.
To be clear about this, you must understand where you have come from, and where
you are going to.
Activity
Reflect on the following questions to get started on the process of identifying your
reasons for learning.
1.
What is your background?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2.
What are your goals in life?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3.
Why are you studying?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4.
Where do you see your study taking you?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
247
5.
If you were to envision your occupation 1, 2, 5 years after graduation, what
would it look like?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
(1-7)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Name at least four different categories in which you may set your lifetime
goals.
_____________________________________________________________
Q.2. You want to make this world a better place to live in-This is your
___________ goal.
Since time is a very important factor to achieving your goal, let us first try to find
out how we usually spend our time during a normal day.
1.9
FINDING OUT HOW YOU REALLY SPEND YOUR TIME
Activity Logs
Activity Logs are tools that help you analyze how you really spend your time.
Keeping an activity log for several days not only helps you to understand how you
spend your time but also helps you to know when you perform at your best. Note
down the things you do as you do them on the activity log given below. Every time
you change activities, whether you are opening a mail, talking to a friend, studying,
making tea, or whatever note the time of the change.
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Time
Activity description
Duration
Value (High,
Medium, Low)
Learning from your Log
Once you have logged your time for a few days, analyze your daily activity log. You
may be alarmed to see the number of hours you spend in doing low value jobs.
249
Analyze your activity log and try to identify and eliminate time wasting or low yield
jobs.
Schedule your most challenging tasks for the times of the day when your energy is
highest. That way your work will be better and it should take you less time.
In the following section find out the number of hours you spend each week for the
following activities using the following chart. From this activity you will be able to
find out the number of hours you have at your disposal for achieving your goals.
Activity
1.
Indicate the number of hours you spend for each activity daily in the first
column.
2.
Indicate the number of days per week you spend for each activity in the
second column.
3.
Multiply the two figures to find out the number of hours you spend for each
item in a week.
4.
Total the last column to get the amount of time you spend on all your
required activities during one week.
5.
Subtract this total from 168 (total number of hours in one week).
6.
Divide your answer by 7 to get the average daily number of free hours you
have at your disposal.
Activities
Hours (Per day)
Regular Classes
Extra Curricular Activities
Personal needs (letter- Writing,
Cleaning etc.)
Home chores (Indoor and Out)
Meals
Sleep
Home work
Watching T.V.
Studies
Others
Total
Free Time
168 - X =
Average daily free time = 168 - X/7 =
Days (Per Week)
Hours (Per Week)
X=
250
(1-8)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Tools that help you analyse how you spend your time are known as ...........
Write down at least two advantages of using an activity log.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q.2
Now that you are aware of how you use your time let us try to understand some
techniques which will help us take maximum benefit of the limited amount of time
available to us for studies.
1.10 STRATEGIES ON USING TIME:
Following are some tips to ensure that you get the greatest benefit possible with the
limited amount of time available to you.
1.
Blocks of study time and breaks : It is always useful to develop and plan
for, blocks of study time in a typical week in advance. Blocks ideally are
around 50 minutes, but perhaps you become restless after only 30 minutes?
Some difficult material may require more frequent breaks. Shorten your
study blocks if necessary—but don‘t forget to return to the task at hand!
What you do during your break should give you an opportunity to have a
snack, relax, or otherwise refresh or re-energize yourself. (For example,
place blocks of time when you are most productive: are you a morning
person or a night owl?)
Q.1
Jot down one best time block you can study. How long is it?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q.2
What makes for a good break for you? Can you control the activity and
return to you studies?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.
Dedicated study spaces : Determine a place free from distraction (no cell
phone or text messaging!) where you can maximize your concentration and
be free of the distractions that friends or hobbies can bring! You should also
251
have a back-up space that you can escape to, like the library, or a
departmental study center, where you can be anonymous. A change of venue
may also bring extra resources.
Q.1
What is the best study space you can think of? What is another?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.
Weekly reviews : Weekly reviews and updates are also an important
strategy. Each week, like a Sunday night, review your assignments, your
notes, your calendar. Be mindful that as deadlines and exams approach, your
weekly routine must adapt to them! ( A weekly schedule may help – you
will learn more about it in the next section)
Q.1.
What is the best time in a week you can review?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.
Prioritize your assignments : When studying, get in the habit of beginning
with the most difficult subject or task. You‘ll be fresh, and have more
energy to take them on when you are at your best
Q.1
What subject has always caused you problems?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.
Achieve “stage one”--get something done! : The Chinese adage of the
longest journey starting with a single step has a couple of meanings: First,
you launch the project! Second, by starting, you may realize that there are
some things you have not planned for in your process. Details of an
assignment are not always evident until you begin the assignment. Another
adage is that ―perfection is the enemy of good‖, especially when it prevents
you from starting! Given that you build in review, roughly draft your idea
and get going! You will have time to edit and develop later.
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Q.1
What is a first step you can identify for an assignment to get yourself started?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.
Postpone unnecessary activities until the work is done! : Postpone tasks
or routines that can be put off until your school or college work is
finished! This can be the most difficult challenge of time management. As
learners we always meet unexpected opportunities that look appealing, then
result in poor performance on a test, on a paper, or in preparation for a task.
Distracting activities will be more enjoyable later without the pressure of the
test, assignment, etc. hanging over your head. Think in terms of pride of
accomplishment. Instead of saying ―no‖ learn to say ―later‖.
Q.1.
What is one distraction that causes you to stop studying?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.
Identify resources to help you : Are there tutors? An ―expert friend‖ ?
Have you tried a keyword search on the Internet to get better explanations?
Are there specialists in the library that can point you to resources? What
about professionals and professional organizations. Using outside resources
can save you time and energy, and solve problems.
Q.1.
Write down three examples for that difficult subject above? Be as specific as
possible.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.
Use your free time wisely : Think of times when you can study "bits" as
when walking, riding the bus, etc. Perhaps you‘ve got music to listen to for
your course in music appreciation, or drills in language learning? If you are
walking or biking to school, when best to listen? Perhaps you are in a line
waiting? Perfect for routine tasks like flash cards, or if you can concentrate,
to read or review a chapter. The bottom line is to put your time to good use.
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Q.1.
What is one example of applying free time to your studies?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.
Review notes and readings just before class: This may prompt a question
or two about something you don‘t quite understand, to ask about in class, or
after. It also demonstrates to your teacher that you are interested and have
prepared.
Q.1.
How would you make time to review? Is there free time you can use?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.
Review lecture notes just after class :
Then
review
lecture
material
immediately after class. The first 24 hours are critical. Forgetting is greatest
within 24 hours without review! (You will learn more about information
retention skill in module 5).
Q.1.
How would you do this? Is there free time you can use?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1-9)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
When studying you should always begin with the easiest subject. T/F
You should review your notes within 24 hours at least once to improve
your probability of remembering better. T/F
Q.2
The next section will introduce you some tools for effective goal setting.
1.11 EFFECTIVE AIDS FOR GOAL SETTING
There are only so many hours in a day, a week, and a term. You cannot change the
number of hours, but you can decide how to best use them so that you make sure
you achieve your lifetime goals. To be successful in school or college, you must
carefully manage your study time. Following are three aids that you may use to
make the most of the time available to you:
254
1. Term Calendar
2. Weekly Schedule
3. Daily To-do-list
Prepare a Term Calendar
At the beginning of a term, prepare a Term Calendar. Update it as the term goes on.
Here is what to do to prepare a Term Calendar.

Record your school assignments with their due dates and your scheduled
tests.

Record your planned school activities.

Record your known out-of-school activities.
Prepare a Weekly Schedule
Each Sunday before a school week, prepare a Weekly Schedule. Update it as the
week goes on. Here is what to do to prepare a Weekly Schedule.

Record your daily classes.

Enter things to be done for the coming week from your Term Calendar.

Review your class notes from the previous week to see if you need to add
any school/ college activities.

Add any out-of-school/college activities in which you will be involved
during the week.

Be sure to include times for completing assignments, working on projects,
and studying for tests. These times may be during the school day, right after
school, evenings, and weekends.
Prepare a Daily To-Do-List
Each evening before a school day, prepare a Daily To-do-List for the next day. Place
a (√) next to each thing to do as you accomplish it. Here is what to do to prepare a
Daily To-do-List.
255

Enter the things to do for the coming day from your Weekly Schedule.

Enter the things that still need to be accomplished from your Daily Organizer
from the previous day.

Review your class notes for the day just completed to see if you need to add
any

school / college activities.
Add any out-of-school / college activities in which you will be involved the
next day.
Your Weekly Schedule should have more detail than your Term Calendar. Your
Daily Organizer should have more detail than your Weekly Schedule. Using a Term
Calendar, a Weekly Schedule, and a Daily Organizer will help you make the best
use of your time.
For planning to be effective, it should be done regularly. To make sure you reach
your goals you should keep the following things in mind:
1.
You need continual reminders of your long-term goals. Consider putting
them on your fridge, above your computer, at your desk - wherever you will
see them.
2.
You should also review your short-term goals on a weekly and monthly basis
by considering the following questions:
a)
Are you meeting your goals?
b)
If not, what do you need to change in order to meet them?
c)
Do your goals need to change to fit the new context of your study this
week/month/semester?
(1-10) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Name the tools which will help you to manage your time more effectively.
Q.2.
Your weekly schedule should have more detail than your term calendar
while your daily-to-do list should have more details than your weekly
schedule. T/F.
256
1.12 SUMMING UP
A goal is something you want to accomplish. By setting a goal we make a decision
which in turn triggers a subconscious process in our mind that transforms the
decision into a deed. Generally speaking goals can be short term, medium term or
long term. A short term goal is usually anything up to one year. In the same way
medium term goals tend to be between one-to-two years and long term goals are
generally considered to be anything from two years to ten years.
The acronym SWOT stands for strength, weakness, opportunities and threats.
SWOT Analysis is a powerful technique for understanding your strength and
weaknesses, and for looking at the opportunities and threats you face. Although
SWOT Analysis was originally developed to analyze organizations and
opportunities, you can also carry out a SWOT Analysis on yourself.
To remember the characteristics of an effective goal you may use the SMART
acronym. To be effective your goals must be specific, measurable, prioritized,
realistic and time bound.
Goal mapping is a powerful technique for goal setting since it connects your
consciously chosen objectives to your subconscious mind so that your subconscious
mind begins to pursue your goal automatically. Goal Mapping is a combination of
Goal Setting and Mind Mapping.
Activity Logs are tools that help you analyze how you really spend your time.
Keeping an activity log for several days not only helps you to understand how you
spend your time but also helps you to know when you perform at your best. The
other tools that you may use for effective goal setting include: A semester calendar,
a weekly schedule and a daily-to-do list.
1.13
REFLECTIONS
1.
Think about what you have learned in this unit. Write about it here.
..........................................................................................................................
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257
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..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
2.
How will this make you a better student?
..........................................................................................................................
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..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
3.
How will this make you a better teacher?
..........................................................................................................................
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..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
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ANSWER KEY
1-3.
Ans.1. deadline
Ans.2. one, two to ten
Ans.3. long term goal
1-4.
Ans.1. The abbreviation SWOT stands for strengths, weakness, opportunities
and threat.
Ans.2. SWOT Analysis is a powerful technique for understanding our
strength and weaknesses, and for looking at the opportunities and threats we
face which in turn will help us take control of our goals.
1-5
Ans.1. The acronym SMART stand for smart, measureable, abc, realistic and
time bound.
Ans.2. false
258
1-6.
Ans.1. Brian Mayne,
Ans.2. words, pictures
Ans.3. wish, order, draw, why, when, how, who
1-7
Ans.1. artistic, attitude, career, education, family, financial, physical,
pleasure, public service
Ans.2. public service
1-8
Ans.1. activity logs
Ans.2. Activity log helps to identify and eliminate time wasting or low yield
jobs and helps us to schedule the most challenging tasks for the times of the
day when our energy is highest.
1-9
Ans.1. False
Ans.2. True
1-10
Ans.1. Term Calendar, Weekly Schedule, Daily To-do-list
Ans.2. True
259
REFERENCES
Lewis, H (1985). How to study. Gujrat Sahitya Prakashan, India.
http://www.how-to-study.com/study-skills/en/34.asp
http://pkab.wordpress.com
http://www.liftinternational.com
http://www.mindtools.com
http://www.ehow.com
260
Module 2
INFORMATION LOCATION SKILL
Contents
2-1
Learning Objectives
2-2
Introduction
2-3
Analyzing the topic for study
2-4
Identifying search tools and collections to use
2-4 (a) Resources for locating Information
2-4 (b) Tools for locating Information
2-4 (c) Institutions and collections for locating Information
2-5
Locating and obtaining resources
2-5 (a) Using Library Catalogues
2-5 (b) Using Web resources
2-6
Exploring copyright Laws related to Computer and software use
2-7
Reading and Evaluating
2-8
Keeping Records
2-9
Summing up
2-10
Reflections
261
2
2.1
INFORMATION LOCATION SKILL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
As you learn through this module, you will be able to:

Take advantage of the different types of tools and resources available for
locating information

Identify the range of institutions and collections open to you for locating
information

Analyse your topic and break it down into searchable keywords.

Refine those keywords in order to obtain the right results.

Search for resources using the library catalogue

Use the various web resources

Understand copyright laws related to the use of web resources

Evaluate resources

Keep appropriate records
2.2
INTRODUCTION
Being able to search for useful information that is relevant to your studies is one of
the key skills that will improve your marks, as well as the overall quality of your
study experience. In the following section we will try to explore the main types of
resources that you might need as a student - books, journals, primary sources, the
Internet, databases etc. - and learn how to search for information from these
resources. Further, you will also learn to evaluate these resources and learn about
copyright laws and how to avoid intellectual dishonesty.
How to locate information?
Information comes in many different forms and it is important that you consider
what types of information you need for your assignments, projects, essays or
dissertation even before you visit the library or turn on your computer. You should
262
be clear whether you need a book, a journal, a web page, or a newspaper?
Sometimes you may need to go through another academic‘s dissertation or thesis.
Getting to the information you need is another step in your information location
which is followed by evaluating the resource and finally acknowledging your
sources.
In general, the process of conducting information location can be broken down into
the following six activities. These are not necessarily distinct steps which can be
undertaken in a set order one after the other, the process of conducting information
location will vary according to the topic being studied.
Step 1: Analyze the topic for study
Step 2: Identify search tools and collections to use
Step 3: Locate and obtain resources
Step 4: Exploring copyright Laws related to Computer and software use
Step 5: Read and evaluate
Step 6: Keep records
2.3
STEP 1: ANALYZE THE TOPIC FOR STUDY
At the beginning of the information location process it is necessary to spend some
time analyzing your topic. This can involve preliminary reading to develop your
ideas and establish the scope of the search. It may be useful to state your topic as a
question and then begin to isolate the key concepts and distinct and unique words
which can later be used as subject keywords in information searches. As you analyze
the subject further and consult more resources the emphasis and focus of your search
may change and you may need to broaden or narrow its scope.
Thus step one of information location process involves:
1. Establishing the scope of your search topic and
2. Identifying the subject keywords
Before establishing the scope of your topic it may help to present your topic in
question form so that we can isolate the key concepts which can later be used as
subject keywords.
Using the example of an assignment topic:
“Evaluate the impact of e-learning on science teaching in the Indian context.”
Above topic may be represented in question form as follows:
263
What is the impact of e-learning on science teaching in India?
Activity
1.
Write the topic of your study in the following column.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
2.
Now, state your topic in question form.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Establishing the scope of your topic
You may find it helpful to consider the following questions in order to define the
scope of the topic under study:
1.
Does the topic of study cover a particular time period?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
2.
Does the study cover a specific geographical area? If yes, name the area
being covered.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
3.
If the study involves people, what age group, gender and place of origin are
to be included?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
4.
Are all dates of publication to be included?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
5.
Is the search going to include publications from other countries?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
264
6.
Will the search include other languages and scripts?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
7.
Are all perspectives to be considered? For example, philosophical, political,
psychological, etc.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Defining the parameters of your search like this will help you when it comes to
doing keyword searches, which is one of the most powerful ways of locating
information.
Identifying the subject keywords
It is important to break your topic down into concepts (usually nouns rather than
verbs or adjectives).It will facilitate the search process. Do not type in the title of the
assignment or use long descriptive phrases when searching as this will only find
articles with that exact phrase in the title or abstract.
Using the example of an assignment topic:
“Evaluate the impact of e-learning on science teaching in the Indian context.”
Key concepts for this assignment would be:

E-learning

Science teaching

India
After identifying the keywords you need to produce a list of keywords. When doing
this you need to consider the following:

Spelling variants, e.g. behaviour / behavior

Variations of a root word, e.g. feminism / feminist / feminine

Single and plural versions of words

Relevant abbreviations and acronyms, e.g. UN for United Nations

Technical terms and jargon, e.g. RAM, bit, byte, CPU, are jargon terms
related to computing
265

Alternative usage and vocabulary, e.g. narcotics / drugs, Tories /
Conservatives

Alternative meanings and contexts, e.g. web, mouse

Changes in terminology, e.g. Native Americans
Chennai/Madras, Vadodara/Baroda, Mumbai/Bombay

Synonyms
/
Red
Indians,
From our example the following list of keywords can be identified:
e-learning, internet, www, world wide web
science(s), physical and biological science(s), chemistry, physics, biology
India, Bharat
When conducting searches you may also find it necessary to:

Include more general terms if you do not obtain enough results, e.g. replace
chemistry with science

Include narrower terms if you obtain too many results, e.g. replace America
with United States

Specifically exclude certain categories, e.g. Impact on teaching, not learning.
Bearing the above points in mind, it‘s a useful exercise to take apart your topic and
make a list of your subject keywords.
ACTIVITY
Make a list of keywords of the topic you mentioned in the previous activity.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2-3)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
What are the steps involved in the information location process?
.........................................................................................................................
Identify the keywords from the following topic by underlining the relevant
word/words : "Effect of environmental pollution on the Taj Mahal".
Q.2.
2.4
STEP 2: IDENTIFY SEARCH TOOLS AND COLLECTIONS TO USE
Information comes in many different forms and there are different tools and
collections to locate these information. The second step in information location
process involves identifying tools and collections that may be used for collecting
266
information. A range of tools are available to facilitate the information location
process. You need to identify which of these are relevant to your subject and when it
would be appropriate to use them. You may need to visit a number of different
collections located in institutions such as libraries, museums and records offices
during your search.
Resources, Tools & collections for Locating Information
A number of resources, tools and collections are available to us to carry out
information location. Let us try to understand them one by one.
(a)
Resources for Locating Information
The different types of resources that may contain the information you require for
your assignments, projects, dissertation, etc. may be listed as follows:

Books

Electronic books

Journals

Popular magazines/Local and National newspapers

Theses and dissertations

Primary sources

Websites
Books
Books can provide in depth coverage of the subject of study and usually contain
bibliographies that are a useful source of further references. They are usually
accessible and authoritative, although they may not be as up to date as a journal
article.
Electronic books
It is now possible to access the full text of some books electronically. Some of these
books are made available on the web and are viewed using a PC and others are
accessed using a dedicated hand-held reader. They are all usually known as e-books
and are in either html or pdf format.
Journals
Scholarly journals publish research articles written by academics, researchers and
professionals which are made available in printed or electronic form. They tend to
be more up to date than books and can provide more specialised consideration of a
267
subject. Usually they are authoritative as they have been refereed before publication
by experts who evaluate them.
Popular magazines may sometimes also be of interest because they can provide a
popular perspective on certain subjects. Local and national newspapers are best
resource to find information on an issue or event that had occurred only in the last
few days. They also provide a primary source for historical events and they may
contain useful photographs. Editorials and articles can be a further source of
information but due regard must be given to the possible bias.
Theses and dissertations
Theses and dissertations are a source of original and advanced research on a subject
and may contain useful bibliographies. As far as possible, consult theses and
dissertations that have been written or are currently being written on your search
subject. Usually you will need to consult theses in the library in which they are
held.
Primary sources
You will probably use primary sources in your assignments, project or study. These
can be more difficult to locate and access than secondary sources. Primary sources
might be any of the following types of publications (this list is not exhaustive):

Official publications, e.g. census, parliamentary debates, public enquiries,
royal commissions and statistics.

Annual reports of any organizations, e.g. companies, friendly societies,
charitable foundations, educational establishments.

Archive materials such as manuscripts, correspondence and diaries.

Publications of learned societies.

Grey literature, e.g. publications from pressure groups, research
organisations, newsletters, fact sheets, brochures, technical reports,
unpublished conference papers, curricula etc.
Websites
Websites can be very useful for information location and can provide easy access to
a large amount of current, detailed information. However they must be used with
caution, any resources located on the web should be carefully evaluated.
268
(2-4 (a)) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Name at least four resources that may be used in the information location
process.
Q.2.
Official publications, manuscripts, newsletters, curricula, etc. are examples
of ________________ resources.
Q.3.
The resource that contains more up to date information than books and can
provide more specialized consideration of a subject is____________.
(b)
Tools for locating information
The following tools may help you identify and locate the resource you may need for
your study or assignments:

Library catalogues

Bibliographies

Indexes and abstracts

Full-text databases

Academic portals

Search engines
Library catalogues
Individual libraries have catalogues which enable you to search the library's
collection for books and periodicals and often other items such as DVDs or CDs.
You can usually search by author, editor, title, subject headings or keywords.
Bibliographies
Bibliographies are compilations of the works by and about an individual author or a
particular subject. They may be annotated and can range from short selective works
to large comprehensive ones. Printed ones are a good initial tool in the search
process but if an online version exists it may contain details of the latest
publications.
Indexes and abstracts
Some indexes and abstracts are general, for example Periodicals Content Index
(PCI), and others are subject based, for example Historical Abstracts or MLA
International Bibliography. They can be used to search journals for

articles on a particular subject
269

articles by a specific author

articles that cite another article
The electronic versions enable searching through hundreds of journals
simultaneously and are very useful, especially at the start of the search process. The
coverage varies considerably; some include books, conference papers, technical
reports and dissertations, for example PsycInfo.
Full-text databases
Full-text databases are similar to indexes and abstracts but also provide the full text
of the article, usually in pdf or html format. JSTOR, Ingenta and Academic Search
Premier are all full-text databases.
Search Engines
Search engines are a useful way to obtain a lot of information on a subject quickly.
Search engines are used to search the World Wide Web; they operate by using
software to automatically collect the words on millions of web pages. Currently
Google is one of the most commonly used search engine.
Academic portals
These are portals or gateways to collections of links to authoritative websites which
have been selected, evaluated and classified by specialists. Therefore they are an
excellent place to start searching a subject on the web. They are usually freely
available. There are different types:

General reference gateways, e.g. Librarian's Index to the Internet

Subject based gateways, e.g. SOSIG, Humbul

(2-4 (b)) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Name at least four tools that may be used in the information location
process.
Q.2.
______________ are used to search the World Wide Web.
Q.3.
____________ are compilations of the works by and about an individual
author or a particular subject.
270
(c)
Institutions & collections for locating information
It is unlikely that your home library will hold all of the resources relevant to your
search topic. You may need to consult a wider range of resources by exploring
collections in related disciplines and collections in other libraries and institutions.
You should always contact a library before you visit for the first time to check that
you are entitled to access.
You may want to visit:

Academic libraries

National libraries

Museums and Art galleries

Government libraries

Special libraries

Archives and Records Offices
The following section provides you with an overview of these different types of
collections and institutions.
Academic libraries
Academic libraries will probably hold resources relevant to your search. You may
find it a useful starting point to find out which institutions (other than your own) are
conducting studies in your subject area.
National libraries
National libraries usually stock a copy of most items published in the country, and
their holdings represent a wealth of both printed and non print material.
Museums and art galleries
Many major museums and art galleries have significant libraries that, depending on
your subject, may hold relevant resources.
Government libraries
There are numerous government department libraries that may hold relevant
resources. Their collections include their own publications and their own
unpublished materials which may not be easily available elsewhere. However they
are not always open to the public.
271
Special libraries
There are numerous important libraries which may hold relevant resources and are
not part of the academic, public or government sectors. These include the libraries of
professional societies, charities and other bodies.
Archives and Records Offices
You may need to visit an archive or records office to consult historical records such
as correspondence, minute books, directories, genealogical information, maps and
plans. It is often necessary to contact the institution in advance and provide details of
the materials you wish to consult.
(2-4 (c)) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Name at least four institutions or collections that may be used in the
information location process.
Q.2.
The libraries of professional societies and charities are known as
______________.
Q.3.
In order to consult historical records such as correspondence, minute
books, directories, genealogical information, maps and plans you may need
to visit a __________________.
2.5
STEP 3: LOCATE AND OBTAINING RESOURCES
After identifying the different tools and collections that may assist your study the
next step is to locate them and obtain the relevant resources such as books, journals
or web resources.
In the following sections we shall learn to use two important tools for information
location viz. library catalogues and the World Wide Web, particularly freely
available websites for locating information.
(a)
Using library catalogues
A library catalogue tells you what material is held by that library. Most libraries
have computerised catalogues which allow you to access the library catalogue via
the Internet. This type of computerised catalogue is often referred to as an OPAC
(Online Public Access Catalogue) or Web OPAC. To access a library catalogue via
the Internet you will need to know its URL, or web address.
There may be older library material which does not yet have a computer record, find
out the coverage of the online catalogue you are using from a member of library
staff.
272
A library catalogue traditionally has covered the print material in one library only.
However, there are now catalogues which allow cross-searching of multiple
catalogues at once, such as COPAC which enables you to search across the
catalogues of many major academic libraries.
To fully exploit the range of services on a modern library catalogue you need to
understand what you are searching and how to search effectively.
Searching
When searching a library catalogue you are searching across data in each individual
record. This data is normally divided into separate indexes according to the data
type, e.g. author, title, subject heading. You can search across these indexes
individually and also you can usually conduct a word or keyword search across all
of the indexes in the library catalogue, for example:
Which type of search to choose?

Search a specific index like Author or Title when you only want to retrieve
that type of data.

Use a Subject index search when you want to browse for items in a
particular subject area. Remember you will be searching an index of predefined subject headings which have been assigned to materials. If you have
problems using this type of search, try a keyword search or ask a member of
library staff for help.

Use a Keyword search if you are not sure what your search term is, for
example if you do not know if your search term is a title or subject heading,
or if you want to search across many indexes at once.
When you open a catalogue record of any particular book you are presented with the
following information.
1. Bibliographic information about the work:

the author and title of the work

the publication date, publisher and other bibliographic information
273

the type of material (e.g. book, DVD)
2. Item information about the copies of the book the library has:

the item's location within the library or group of libraries

the classmark of the item (this tells you where the book is on the shelf)

the status of the item (whether it is currently on loan, available in the library
or reference use only)
Example : In the example below you can see the item information included in a
table between elements of the bibliographic record.
The underlined entries (e.g. Author, Subject) act as links to lists of other records
containing those fields.
Activity
Try using your college library catalogue to search for a book such as, Jasim Ahmed
(2009). Teaching of Biological Sciences, PHI learning private ltd., New Delhi.
(2-5 (a)) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
The computerized catalogues which allow you to access the library
catalogue via the Internet are known as ________________.
Q.2.
If you do not know if your search term is a title or subject heading, or if
you want to search across many indexes at once you should search using a
______________ search.
Q.3.
The classmark in a library catalogue
_______________of the book in the library.
tells
you
about
the
274
(b)
Using web resources
The web is a useful source of vast amounts of current information. If you want
information on a search topic and you know the appropriate titles, phrases, or
technical languages use a search engine or a meta search engine. Examples of some
search engines are as follows:
http://www.google.com, http://www.yahoo.com, http://www.alltheweb.com,
http://www.excite.com, http://www.altavista.com, http://www.go.com
Metasearch Engines
If any one search engine covers only a fraction of the web, how can you perform a
comprehensive search? One solution is the metasearch engine. This type of search
engine submits your search to several search engines and then compiles the various
results sets into one results list. This page introduces you to a couple of the best
metasearch engines.
http://www.allonesearch.com,
http://www.metacrawler.com
http://www.dogpile.com,
http://www.askjeeves.com
The following table lists various web resources for collecting specific type of
information.
To
Browse a broad topic
Yahoo
www.Yahoo.com
Google
www.google.com
Lycos
www.lycos.com
Search a narrow topic
Excite
www.excite.com
Alta vista
www.altavista.com
Go
www.go.com
Search largest amount of
internet ( meta search
engines)
Ask Jeeves
www.askjeeves.com
Metacrawler
http://www.metacrawler.co
m/
All the web
www.alltheweb.com
Argus Clearninghouse
www.clearinghouse.net/
About.com/Mining Co.
http://www.about.com/
Search only reviewed sites A Well-Lighted Place for
Kids
http://www.computerlearni
ng.org/WellLite.htm
Browse educational topics
Blue Web’n
Connections +
Schrock’s Guide
and resources
http://www.kn.pacbell.com/
http://www.mcrel.org/resourc
http://school.discovery.co
wired/bluewebn/
es/ links/hotlinks.asp
m/schrockguide/
Search specific types of
databases
Switchboard
www.switchboard.com/
Gov Spot
http://www.govspot.com/
Research-It!
www.itools.com/research-it/
Search for educational
materials and reviews
K-12 Weblinks Database
www.itrc.ucf.edu/k12db/
EvaluTech
www.evalutech.sreb.org/
FREE
www.ed.gov/free/
275
Using a search engine
To carry out a simple search using Google, you need to type your subject keywords
into the search box provided and press the 'enter' key or click on the 'search' (or 'go')
button. In order to obtain relevant results you will normally need to enter more than
one keyword.
Refining your search using Boolean Logic
When using a search engine to search the web it will usually return many thousands
(or millions) of irrelevant results. The world wide web contains so much information
that it can sometimes seem impossible to conduct information location without
looking through pages of irrelevant results. In order to find the exact information we
need, it is necessary to refine our search using the Boolean Logic.
Computerized search mechanisms are based on Boolean logic, named after George
Boole, a nineteenth-century English mathematician who devised a new system for
analyzing variables. It is helpful to know Boolean logic when doing Internet search.
Boolean logic consists of three logical operators: AND, OR, and NOT.
AND requires all terms to appear in a record
OR retrieves records with either term.
NOT excludes terms.
It is important to know how the search engine will combine the keywords that you
enter into the search box. Google searches for all the words that you enter in the
search box. Note: The operators must always be entered in upper case or they will be
ignored altogether in the search
Example
1.
If you type science teaching India into the search box, Google would search
for pages that contain the words science AND teaching AND India as if you
were using the Boolean AND operator.
2.
If you type teaching NOT learning, Google would search for pages that
contain the words teaching and exclude the pages containing the term
learning.
3.
If you type physical science AND biological science NOT social science,
Google would search for pages that contain both physical science and
biological science and exclude the pages containing the term social science.
276
Searching by Phrase
Another way of combining your keywords is a phrase search. To conduct a phrase
search type quotation marks around the phrase that you want to search for.
Example
If you type "e-learning in chemistry", this will find web pages that contain this
exact phrase. It would not return a web page that contained these words in different
parts of the same web page. This is more specific than a search that simply combines
all the words.
Using Truncation
If you want to expand your search to include a specified word root with different
word endings, enter the first part of a key word (word root), and insert a symbol,
usually * (asterisk).
Example
Chem* ( retrieves chemistry, chemical, chemtrails, chemotherapy)
For further improving your internet information skills you may use the
following online tutorials:
http://www.vts.rdn.ac.uk/
Activity
1.
Write down the keywords and phrases of the topic under study, which you
had highlighted in the previous activity of this module.
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
2.
Open your web browser.
3.
In the address box, type www.google.com or web address of the search
engine you want to use.
4.
In the search field, type a keyword from step 1 that reflects your search topic.
Write the keyword below for future reference.
............................................................................................................................
5.
Press Enter.
6.
How many Web pages did your search locate?
............................................................................................................................
277
7.
Looking at the descriptions of the web sites, in your opinion, was this search
successful?
............................................................................................................................
8.
Click Back to return to the search engine‘s home page.
9.
In the Search field, along with your key word, add a phrase from step 1 and
enclose it in quotation marks. Write the phrase below for future reference.
............................................................................................................................
10.
Press Enter.
11.
How many Web pages did your search locate?
............................................................................................................................
12.
In your opinion, was this search successful?
............................................................................................................................
13.
In the address box, type www.askjeeves.com or web address of the meta
search engine you want to use.
............................................................................................................................
14.
In the search box, enter the same keywords you used in step 4.
15.
Press Enter.
16.
How many Web pages did your search locate?
............................................................................................................................
17.
In your opinion, was this search successful?
............................................................................................................................
18.
Click Back to return to the meta search engine‘s home page.
19.
Add the phrase used in step 9 in quotation marks.
20.
Press Enter.
21.
How many Web pages did your search locate?
............................................................................................................................
22.
In your opinion, was this search successful?
............................................................................................................................
23.
Thinking of the search results from the two different search sites, which
produced the most valuable Web sites on your topic?
278
............................................................................................................................
NOTE: Each search engine or meta search engine will come up with different
results. If you do not find the results you want from one, first try to modify
your search terms using the Boolean logic, and then try a different search
engine or meta search engine.
(2-5 (b)) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
List two names each of a search engine and meta search engine.
Q.2.
What is a meta search engine?
Q.3.
Which Boolean operators would you use in the following cases:
2.6
(i)
'with all of the words' is the equivalent of the Boolean operator
___________
(ii)
'with the exact phrase' is the same as using ________________
(iii)
'with at least one of the words' or while using synonyms is the
equivalent of the Boolean operator ___________
(iv)
'without the words' is the equivalent of the Boolean operator
________________
STEP 4: EXPLORING COPYRIGHT LAWS RELATED
TO COMPUTER AND SOFTWARE USE
With the advent of the Internet and the ability to easily copy anything you see, it is
easy to forget that much of the material on the internet is the property of someone
else.
Plagiarism, which means taking someone else‘s ideas or words and using them as if
they were your own, is a serious offence.
To avoid plagiarism keep the following things in mind

keep accurate records of your sources

identify material that needs referencing

paraphrase, summarise and quote correctly

reference correctly, by citing within your text and providing a list of references.
Copyright is, as it sounds, to do with rights and copying. The owner of an ―artistic‖
work has rights set down in the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 on how
279
their work may be copied. Copyright is used to protect the rights of the creators or
legal owners of literature, art, music, sound recordings, performances, photographs,
films and broadcasts.
The following section will help you understand copyright laws and its fair use
clause, which gives some allowance to use copyrighted elements in certain
circumstances.
Activity
We shall try to understand the copyright laws by taking the following Copyright
Quiz. Tick the correct answer and verify with the answer key given at the end of the
quiz.
1.
A student downloads 10 pictures from various Internet sites for his science
presentation. On the last slide, he lists the Web addresses where he obtained
the information and images.
(a) Appropriate Use
(b) Inappropriate Use
2.
A teacher copies an article out of a journal, several excerpts out of an
anthology, and an entire 30-page short story to create her own booklet of
reading materials for her students. She gives a full citation for each resource
at the end of the booklet.
(a) Appropriate Use
(b) Inappropriate Use
3.
A student downloads her favorite song to play as background music for a
multimedia project. The presentation will only be shown in the classroom.
(a) Appropriate Use
(b) Inappropriate Use
4.
A teacher creates an educational Web site including pictures and several
pages of text from other Web sites, as well as stories and essays created by
his students. No permissions for any of these items were obtained.
(a) Appropriate Use
(b) Inappropriate Use
5.
A teacher downloads a shareware program from the Internet and installs it on
all of the school lab computers for student use for a particular project. He
280
does not pay the $25 software fee for each installation. Within 30 days, he
removes the program.
(a) Appropriate Use
(b) Inappropriate Use
The above quiz has been adapted from Intel teach to the future program.
Answer Key
1.
Appropriate use : It is within Fair Use for the student to download 10 pictures from various
Internet sites for a school project. Copyright laws and the Fair Use provision do not indicate
how one would cite one's sources.
However, the Fair Use Guidelines for Educational Multimedia state that the student would
need to include complete reference citations, not just the URL source. The Fair Use
Guidelines for Educational Multimedia is not law, but has been created to help educators
and students have clearer guidelines as to what constitutes "fair use." These guidelines also
state that one would also need to include basic copyright information below each of the
copyrighted images.
2.
Inappropriate use : Creating a course pack in this manner is overstepping the provisions of
Fair Use. One article out of a journal or newspaper is probably acceptable, several excerpts
out of an anthology is questionable depending on the amount, but the entire 30-page story
would not be considered fair use. She would need to obtain prior authorization to use it.
Even if all of the elements within this teacher's booklet were considered appropriate under
the Fair Use provision, copying these works may not be done to create, replace, or substitute
for anthologies, compilations, or collective works that already exist.
3.
Inappropriate use : First, for Fair Use, the music must be legally obtained. The student
downloaded a copy of the song that she did not pay for. In addition, an entire song is beyond
the recommendations of the Fair Use Guidelines for Educational Multimedia
4.
Inappropriate use : This teacher would need to check the use restrictions of the sites where
he obtained the pictures. If the site is anything other than a "free" image site, he should ask
permission to use the images, plus cite his sources. The several Web pages of text would
probably be beyond fair use, depending upon the amount used, so the teacher should request
permission to use the text, or simply create a link to the original site and not use the text
verbatim in his own. Students and their parents would need to sign an authorization form to
allow the teacher to post original student work because the students' original work is also
protected under copyright law, plus parents have the right to keep their children's work off of
the Web.
5.
Appropriate use: Software does not fall under Fair Use. However, most shareware
programs have a 30-day evaluation period in which you may use the software freely. After
30 days, the amount for the shareware software should be paid or the program should be
uninstalled. Some shareware programs have built-in limitations on their trial versions. The
281
teacher should check the use agreements carefully and check his school/district policy about
downloading and using shareware software on school computers.
For more information on copyright law and Fair Use, visit:
http://www.educationworld.com/a_currr/curr280.shtml
(2-6) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Q.1. What does plagiarism mean?'
Q.2.
Which points should you keep in mind to avoid plagiarism?
Q.3.
What are copyright laws used for?
(i)
2.7
STEP 5: READING AND EVALUATING
It is important to evaluate each and every material that you may consult during your
search. You will need to determine whether the resource has useable, factual, and
reliable information.
In order to evaluate any book that you may use during your library search
consider the following questions:
1.
Is the book relevant to my topic of study? For example, check the content is
within the scope of your search.
............................................................................................................................
2.
Is the book from an authoritative source? For example, ensure the author is
an expert in the field or the book is produced by a reputable organisation.
............................................................................................................................
3.
Is the book accurate? For example, check that the arguments are supported
with independent evidence.
............................................................................................................................
4.
Is the book still current? For example, consider the date of publication, check
that it is the latest edition and that it considers any important recent
developments.
............................................................................................................................
282
To evaluate Internet resources you may use the following performa adapted
from Intel Teach to the Future programme.
1.
URL of website.
............................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
2.
Name of website.
............................................................................................................................
3.
What is the purpose or goal of this website?
............................................................................................................................
4.
What organization or individual created this site?
............................................................................................................................
5.
Do they have a built in bias toward the information?
............................................................................................................................
6.
What other references are cited for the information presented?
............................................................................................................................
7.
What other type of organizations link to this site? Using Google as your
search engine, type link: and the Web site address (example:
link:www.website.com).
............................................................................................................................
8.
Who is the author of the page and does this person have valid credentials to
present this information?
............................................................................................................................
9.
Is there a way to provide feedback on the Web site and create an exchange
with the author or Web site manager?
............................................................................................................................
10.
How old is the material on the Web site? Is it current or outdated?
............................................................................................................................
11.
Describe how this Web site might be used in your Unit:
............................................................................................................................
12.
Reviewing your answers above, is this a good site to use for your Unit?
............................................................................................................................
283
For additional information on how to evaluate Web sites you may visit the following
website:
http://lone-eagles.com/search6.htm
(2-7) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Write down at least two points to be kept in mind while evaluating a book
from your library search?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Q.2.
Write down at least two points to be considered while evaluating an internet
resource?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
2.8
STEP 6: KEEPING RECORDS
Keeping records is integral to information location skill and should be undertaken
from the outset and throughout the process. At all stages of the information location
process it is essential to keep a record of the following, including the dates:
1. Search strategies used, e.g. note the exact search strings used for future
reference.
2. Search tools used, e.g. record the different databases/websites searched.
3.Books, journal articles and all other materials retrieved and consulted, it is
essential that you record the full bibliographical details, e.g. author or editor's name
and initials, title, date of publication, place of publication, publisher.
4. Websites consulted, in addition to any 'bibliographic' details note down the URL
and the date that you accessed the website. Remember the website may have
changed or been removed next time you look for it.
5. Libraries and other institutions visited
In the course of your studies you will be expected to acknowledge books, journal
articles, etc, used in preparation for assignments, projects, essays, and dissertations,
by producing a list of references/bibliography with each one so as to ensure that you
follow copyright laws. Creating a bibliography/reference list will also help you find
resources again when you need additional information for your project.
284
Following section will help you to understand how to cite the resources that you
may have used during information location, using the APA citing format.
The APA (American Psychological Association) citing format, shown below, has
been widely adopted by science and mathematics related departments as the
preferred method for documenting sources.
General Rules for Citing Sources – APA Style

Double-space the reference list with a hanging indent.

APA style recommends the use of italics, rather than underlining, for titles.
However, if the instructor requires adherence to older rules, use underlining.

Invert all authors‘ names using only the initials of the first and middle names
(e.g., Smith, J. J.). Use commas to separate multiple authors.

An author could be an organization or group. If there is no author, move the title
to the author position before the date of publication or posting.

Alphabetize the list of citations by each entry‘s first significant word (not an,
the, etc.). Alphabetize entries with numbers as if the numbers were spelled out.

The publication or posting date is to be placed within parenthesis. If there is no
date, include ―n.d.‖ in parenthesis, for example: (n.d.).

An article, subtitle, or chapter is typed in plain text (no italics or quotation
marks). Capitalize only the first word.

A title of a book, periodical, brochure, report, or Web site is typed in italics.

For non-Web resources, include the city and the publisher of the work in the
following format: City: Publisher. If the city could be confused with another or
is not well-known, include the state and/or country.

For a Web site citation, include the words ―Retrieved from‖ before the Web
address (URL). Do not type a period after the URL; however, any other type of
source requires a period at the end.
For more information on citing online sources in APA Style you may visit the
following website:
http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html
Following are some examples of citing resources using the APA citing format.
1. ENTIRE BOOK OR CHAPTER IN A BOOK
Basic Form
Author(s). (Year of publication ). Chapter Title. Book Title, pg. no., Publisher.
285
Example
Ram,V.P & Srikanth,S.(2003). The Magic of dreams. Advantage CA Reaching the
Top, pg. 17, Snow white Publications Pvt. Ltd., Bombay.
2.
ARTICLE BASED ON A MAGAZINE OR JOURNAL
Basic Form
Author(s). (Year of publication–indicate ―n.d.‖ if date is unknown). Title. Magazine
or Journal Title, volume (issue, if given), paging. [Add the date of retrieval and
the URL for online resources only if you believe that the print version differs
from the electronic version.]
Example
Butler, D.L. (2002). Individualizing Instruction in Self-Regulated Learning. Theory
into Practice, Vol. 41(2), 81-92.
Lee,F.L.,& Musumeci, D. (1988).On Hierarchies of Reading Skills and Text Types.
(Electronic version). The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 72 (2), 173-187.
Retrieved August 21, 2010, from http://links.jstor.org
3.
BASIC WEB PAGE CITING
Basic Form
Author, A.A. (date of posting). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from
organization name Web site: URL
Example
Fresco, (1997, March). In Britannica Online. Retrieved August, 14, 2001, from
Encyclopedia Britannica Web site: http://www.eb.com:180
(2-8) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Note down the things that you should keep a record of while conducting
information location?
..........................................................................................................................
Q.2.
Why is it important to note down the date that you accessed a website?
..........................................................................................................................
Q.3.
Following is the reference cited for a ...
Sousa, D.A.(2006). How the brain learns. Corwin Press, California.
..........................................................................................................................
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2.9
SUMMING UP:
The process of conducting information location can be broken down into the
following six activities:
Step 1: Analyse the topic for study
Analyzing the topic involves establishing the scope of your research topic and
identifying the subject keywords.
Step 2: Identify research tools and collections to use
A range of resources, tools and collections are available to facilitate the information
location process. The different types of resources that are available for information
location are as follows: books, electronic books, journals, popular magazines, local
and national newspapers, thesis and dissertations, primary sources and websites. The
various tools available for information location include library catalogues,
bibliographies, indexes and abstracts, full text data bases, academic portals and
search engines. The various institutions and collections open for information
location include Academic libraries , National libraries ,Museums and Art galleries,
government libraries, special libraries archives and record offices.
Step 3: Locate and obtain resources
After identifying the different tools and collections that may assist your study the
next step is to locate them and obtain the relevant resources using library catalogues
or the world wide web.
Step 4: Exploring copyright Laws related to Computer and software use
Much of the property on the internet is the property of someone else. The copyright
laws and its fair use clause gives some allowance to use copyrighted elements in
certain conditions.
Step 5: Read and evaluate
It is important to evaluate each and every material that you may consult during your
search in order to determine whether the resource has useable, factual, and reliable
information.
Step 6: Keep records
Keeping records is integral to information location skill and should be undertaken
from the outset and throughout the process. It is important to note down (at the time)
the full bibliographic details of all the resources you consult, including websites.
287
REFLECTIONS:
1.
Think about what you have learned in this unit. Write about it here.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
2.
How will this make you a better student?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
3.
How will this make you a better teacher?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
4.
How would you use the power of internet to support your role as a teacher
and to enhance your student‘s learning in the future? Write about it here.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
5.
How serious is the matter of ―copyright issue‖ within and outside your future
classrooms?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
6.
Everything on the Internet is not good. How would you create awareness
amongst your future students about this fact?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
288
ANSWER KEY
2-3.
Ans.1. The six steps involved in the information location process are: Analyze the
topic for study, Identify search tools and collections to use, Locate and obtain
resources, Exploring copyright Laws related to Computer and software use, Read
and evaluate and Keep records
Ans.2. Key words for the topic are : environmental pollution and Taj Mahal.
2-4(a).
Ans.1. Books, Journals, Primary sources, magazines, newspapers
Ans.2. Primary resources
Ans.3. Journal
2-4(b).
Ans.1. Library catalogues, Bibliographies, search engines, indexes and abstracts
Ans.2. Search Engines
Ans.3. Bibliographies
2-4(c).
Ans.1. Academic libraries, national libraries, museums and art galleries, government
libraries
Ans.2. Special libraries
Ans.3. Archives and record office
2-5(a).
Ans.1. OPAC (Online Public Access Catalogue) or Web OPAC
Ans.2. Key word search
Ans.3. location
2-5(b).
Ans.1. search engines: www.google.com. www.excite.com ; meta search engines:
www.allonesearch.com, www.askjeeves.com
Ans.2. Meta search engine is a search engine which submits your search to several
search engines and then compiles the various results sets into one results list.
Ans.3. (i) AND, (ii) quotation marks, (iii) OR, (iv) NOT
289
2-6.
Ans.1. Plagiarism, means taking someone else‘s ideas or words and using them as if
they were your own.
Ans.2. To avoid plagiarism the following points should be kept in mind: keep
accurate records of your sources, identify material that needs referencing,
paraphrase, summarise and quote correctly, reference correctly, by citing within
your text and providing a list of references.
Ans.3. Copyright is used to protect the rights of the creators or legal owners of
literature, art, music, sound recordings, performances, photographs, films and
broadcasts.
2-7.
Ans.1. Is the book from an authoritative source?, Is the book still relevant?
Ans.2. What is the name of the website and who is the author of the page.
2-8.
Ans.1. You should keep a record of search strategies, search tools, books, journal
articles, websites and libraries and institutions visited.
Ans.2. It is important to note the date of retrieving a website since the website may
have changed or been removed the next time it is looked for.
Ans.3. Book
290
REFERENCES:
Candau, D. et al. (2004). The Intel Teach to the Future Program. Intel Corporation.
http://www.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/tutorial/
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/library/training/tutorials.htm
http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html
.http://www.iupui.edu/~copyinfo/
291
Module 3
INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILL
Contents
3-1
Learning Objectives
3-2
Introduction
3-3
The information processing model
3-4
Transfer of information from short term memory to long term memory
3-5
Reading Inventory
3-6
Strategies for improving your reading skill
3-7
KWL strategy
3-8
SQ3R strategy
3-9
Speed Reading
3-10
The Finger Technique
3-11
Learning style
3-12
Summing Up
3-13
Reflections
3-14
Answer Key
3-15
References
292
3
3.1
INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
As you learn through this module, you will be able to:

Know how the brain processes information

Use three different strategies to process information while you read

Use KWL strategy to improve your reading comprehension

Learn how to fully absorb information using SQ3R Technique

Learn to speed read a text

Learn in a way that suits you by knowing the various learning style
3.2
INTRODUCTION
The following module presents a simplified explanation of how the brain deals with
information using the Information Processing Model and shows various techniques
to improve your information processing skill. Further in this chapter you will be
introduced to some skills for comprehension and speed reading which are very
important for improving your reading skill which is an important aspect of
information processing. The mastery of these skills with regular practice will not
only improve the quality of your learning but will also help you learn quickly with
ease.
3.3
THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
To understand the benefits of using various techniques to improve learning, it is
important to know how our brain processes the information it gets from its
surrounding and ultimately stores it in the long term memory. This can be explained
in a simplified manner using the Information processing model. According to this
model there are mainly three types of memory which are as follows:

Sensory Memory

Short Term Memory

Long Term Memory
293
Sensory Memory
Information from the environment enters our brain and reaches the sensory memory
through our five senses viz. sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. The sensory
memory filters this information in just milliseconds using our past experience to
determine the data‘s degree of importance. If the data signals are found unimportant
they are dropped out of the processing system while the remaining information
enters short term memory.
Short Term Memory
Short Term Memory is a place where conscious processing of information takes
place. The information processing model represents it as a place of limited capacity
where we can build, take apart, or rework ideas for eventual storage somewhere else.
Information in the short term memory can come form the sensory memories or be
retrieved from long term memory. According to this model, without a conscious
effort to work with the recently received information we forget 82% of the
information within 24 hours and almost all of it within a few days. The advantage of
this process is that it helps us to avoid being overloaded with too much irrelevant
information. The disadvantage is that the short term memory may also discard
important information thinking that it is irrelevant.
Source: http://nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/learning/memory.html
Long Term Memory
Information having strong emotional impact and information that we want to
remember are usually transferred from our short term memory to our Long term
memory. This is how we remember many of our childhood memories and whatever
we learn in school or college. Long term memory contains tremendous amount of
294
information that was acquired through years and years of formal or informal
education.
3.4
TRANSFER OF INFORMATION FROM SHORT TERM
MEMORY TO LONG TERM MEMORY
According to the Information processing theory information is most easily
transferred to long term memory if there is a strong emotional association or if it is
strange or unique, or if the information is associated with some of our critical needs.
The other way to transfer information to long term memory is to repeat information
so that slowly and gradually it is transferred to long term memory. This implies that
if we do not revise enough times much of our hard work will be wasted.
(3-3)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Name the three types of memory according to the information processing
model.
Q.2.
Information in the short term memory can come form the ____________ or
be retrieved from ____________________ memory.
Q.3.
Which type of information is most easily transferred to the long term
memory?
..........................................................................................................................
3.5
READING INVENTORY
Most of the information processing is done through reading which is a complex
activity. Like most other learned activity reading is an integration of a number of
important skills. To become more aware of your present reading habits and attitude
answer the following questions. There are no ―right‖ or ―wrong‖ answers. There is
no score. The inventory is meant to increase your awareness.
A. Your reading habits
1.
In general, how well do you think you read?
-- Very well ---Well ---Average ---Poorly ---Very poorly
2.
How fast do you think you read?
---Very fast ---Fast ---Average ---Slowly ---Very slowly
3.
How according to you is your vocabulary in English?
---Excellent ---Good ---Poor
295
B. Problems you may face in Reading
Often Sometimes Rarely
1. Do you often have to reread material in order to understand -------- ----------
--------
it?
2. Do you find it hard to concentrate?
---------
3. Do you have difficulty in recalling to mind what you have --------
------------------
--------------
read, after a week?
4. Do you feel worried after you have read, whether you have
got all the main points?
--------- -------- --------
C. How much reading do you do?
Hours per week
1. Newspapers
-----------------
2. Magazines
-----------------
3. Journals
-----------------
4. Fiction
-----------------
5. Non fiction
-----------------
D. Your attitude towards reading
1. Do you enjoy reading?
-----------------------
2. What type of reading do you like and what type do you dislike?
3. Did you enjoy any particular book in the last few months?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Are you an active reader? That is, do you make notes, read critically, look up
unfamiliar words or facts.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. In general, do you think reading is important to you? How do you propose to
better your reading ability?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Adapted from: Lewis, H (1985). How to study, Gujrat Sahitya Prakashan, India.
296
The section that follows will show you how to use three different strategies to read
intelligently.
3.6
STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING YOUR READING SKILL
Strategy 1: Knowing what you want to know
Before starting to read a book or long article that is connected with your studies the
first thing to ask yourself is:
1. Why you are reading the text?
Reasons for reading:
a) to get a general idea of what a particular subject is all about
b) to pass time
c) to keep up-to-date with what is happening in the world
d) to find some information that might be useful for an essay
e) because the book is on the course booklist
2. What do you want to know after reading it?
Once you know the answers to the above two questions, you can examine the text to
see whether it is going to move you towards this goal. An easy way of doing this is
to look at the introduction and the chapter headings. The introduction should let you
know whom the book is targeted at, and what it seeks to achieve. Chapter heading
will give you an overall view of the structure of the subject. Ask yourself whether
the book meets your needs. Ask yourself if it assumes too much or too little
knowledge. If the book isn‘t ideal, would it be better to find a better one?
Strategy 2: Knowing how deeply to study the material
a. If you only need the shallowest knowledge of the subject, you can skim the
material. Here you read only chapter headings, introductions and summaries.
b. If you need a moderate level of information on a subject, then you can scan the
text. Here you read the chapter introductions and summaries in detail. You may then
speed read the contents of the chapters, picking out and understanding key words
and concepts. At this level of looking at the document it is worth paying attention to
diagrams and graphs.
c. Only when you need detailed knowledge of a subject it is worth studying the text.
Here it is best to skim the material first to get an overview of the subject. This gives
you an understanding of its structure, into which you can fit the detail gained from a
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full, receptive reading of the material. SQ3R is a good technique for getting a deep
understanding of a text. You shall learn about this technique in a later section of this
module.
Strategy 3: Active reading
When you are reading a document in detail, it often helps if you highlight,
underline and annotate it as you go on. This emphasizes information in your mind,
and helps you to review important points later. Doing this also helps to keep your
mind focused on the material and stops its wandering. Often pointing the fingers to
the words being read establishes a smooth rhythmical habit. The reader is not
restricted to the use of his forefinger as a visual aid and can use to advantage a pen
or a pencil. The visual aid will make the reading speed faster.
In the next section we shall learn about two techniques viz. KWL technique and
SQ3R technique for improving your reading comprehension.
(3-6)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Name the three strategies for improving your reading skill.
Q.2.
When you read only chapter headings, introductions and summaries you
___________ the material.
Q.3.
What does scanning a text imply?
_____________________________________________________________
Q.4.
3.7
While reading you may use your _____________or a _________ as a
visual aid to make the reading faster and establish a smooth rhythmical
habit.
KWL strategy
KWL is a learning strategy which is particularly useful for improving your reading
comprehension. It is very useful when you are reading to learn a topic. This
technique ties together your prior knowledge, your desire to learn more, and the
conclusions of your learning.
The acronym KWL stands for the three sequential techniques you may use while
reading a text or a book.
K------ Know, W------ Want to know, L------ Learned
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How to use the tool?
1.
Draw a KWL chart as shown below.
2.
In the first column list everything you know about the topic of study.
3.
In the second column list everything you want to know about the topic.
4.
After you finish reading or studying the topic list what you have learned
about the topic in the third column.
5.
Now check the W column and see which questions were answered and which
were left unanswered.
6.
Revisit the K column to see if you had any misconceptions about the topic.
Activity
Now that you have learned the KWL strategy, select one topic in your course for
which you will use this strategy.
1.
What is the title of the chapter?
2.
Draw a KWL chart as shown below.
K
What I Know
W
What I want to know
L
What I Learned
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3.
Before starting to read, write the things you already know about the topic in
the K column.
4.
Now, write the things you wish to know about the topic after reading the
chapter in the W column. Raise questions that you would like answered as
you learn about the topic.
5.
Read the chapter and take notes of things you learn in the L column.
6.
Are there any questions in the W column which were left unanswered?
(Yes/No).
7.
If yes, which were the questions left unanswered?
Q.1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q.2 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q.3 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.
Re-read the text and find answers to the above questions?
9.
Were there any misconceptions about the topic? (Yes/No)
10.
If so, describe in one or two sentences the misconceptions you had about the
topic.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
(3-7)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
What does the acronym KWL stand for?
Q.2.
Before starting to read, write the things you already know about the topic in
the ________________ column.
Q.3.
Read the chapter and take notes of things you learn in the _________
column.
3.8
SQ3R STRATEGY
The acronym SQ3R stands for five sequential techniques you may use while reading
a text or a book.
S ------ Survey, Q ----- Question, R1 ------ Read, R2 ------ Recall, R3 ------ Review
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SQ3R is a useful technique for fully absorbing written or printed information. By
using SQ3R method actively you can read a text and get the maximum benefit from
your reading time.
How to use the tool?
1.
Survey : This step helps you gather the information necessary to focus on the
chapter and formulate questions for yourself as you read the chapter. Scan
the contents, introduction, chapter introductions and chapter summaries to
pick up a shallow overview of the text. Read each boldface heading and
subheading. This helps you create a framework for the chapter in your mind
before you begin to read. This provides a structure for the thoughts and
details to come. Review any graphics. (charts, maps, diagrams, pictures, and
other visual aids.) Review any reading aids in the chapter. This includes
italics, chapter objectives, definitions and study questions at the end of the
chapter.
2.
Question : Turn boldface headings into one or more questions and write
down your question on the left third of a piece of paper. Make a note of any
questions on the subject that come to mind, or particularly interest you
following your survey. Perhaps scan the documents again to see if any stand
out. These questions can be considered almost as study goals- understanding
the answers can help you to structure the information in your mind.
3.
Read : Now read the document. Reading the section fills in the information
around the mental structures you have been building by surveying the
chapter and developing questions about the section. Read through useful
sections and detail, taking care to understand all the points that are relevant.
As you read the section, look for the answers to your questions and jot them
down, in your own words, on the right two-thirds of your piece of paper. It
can also help to take notes in mind map format which has been explained in
detail in module 4.
4.
Recall : At the end of each section of the chapter recall what you have read.
Look at the question(s) you wrote down before you read the section. Cover
your answers with a piece of paper and see if you can answer the questions
from memory. When you can answer your question(s) about this section, go
back to step two, "question." Develop and write down your question(s) for
this section, read the section and then recite again. Proceed through the
chapter repeating these three steps.
301
5.
Review : Once you have run through the exercise of recalling the
information, you can move on to the stage of reviewing it. This review can
be by rereading the document, by expanding your notes, or by discussing the
material with colleagues. A particularly effective method of reviewing
information is to have to teach it to someone else.
Activity
Now that you've learned about SQ3R, survey, question, read, recall and review, the
next step is to incorporate this into your study strategies. Select one paper for which
you will use SQ3R to read every chapter.
Survey the chapter
1.
What is the title of the chapter?
..........................................................................................................................
2.
Is there a chapter summary at the beginning or end of the chapter? (Yes/No)
3.
On what page(s) is the summary located? _____ Read any summary
information.
4.
List the main subheadings in this chapter.
(i)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ii)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iii)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iv)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(v)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(vi)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(vii)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.
Are there any graphs, charts, or pictures? (Yes/No)
6.
If so, describe one or two of the following:
Graphs:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Charts:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pictures:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.
Are there study questions listed at the end of the chapter? Read any study
questions Listed.
8.
Are there key vocabulary words listed at the end of the chapter? Read any
key vocabulary words listed
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9.
Describe in one or two brief sentences what this chapter will be about.
Question yourself about the chapter
Turn the major subheadings that you listed above into questions. Use who, What,
Where, When, Why, and How when writing your questions.
1.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Read each chapter subheading one at a time and then
Recite/Recall the answers to each question you asked.
Answer all questions using one or two sentences.
1.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Review the entire chapter by going back to your questions and answers.
Combine the information by writing the heading, questions, and answers in
outline form.
(3-8)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
What does the acronym SQ3R stand for?
Q.2.
While surveying the text which points should be kept in mind?
Another important skill you need to master to improve your information processing
skill is to speed read a text. In the following section we shall learn some techniques
to increase your reading speed.
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3.9
SPEED READING
Speed reading is a collection of reading methods which attempt to increase rates of
reading without greatly reducing comprehension or retention. The reading rate of an
average student is calculated to be about 230 words per minute (w.p.m). Experts say
that it is physiologically possible to read about 10,000 w.p.m. However, we consider
a person who reads at the rate of 600 w.p.m. an excellent reader! By increasing your
reading speed you can save time and use this extra time to revise the content. Speed
reading not only saves time but also improves your comprehension since reading at a
high rate keeps you mentally alert.
In this section we shall learn one of the methods to increase your reading speed, but
before that let us go through some tips that could greatly enhance your reading
speed.
Tips for increasing your reading speed:
1. Practice
As we all know practice makes a man perfect. Similarly, one of the most obvious
speed reading technique is to practice reading as much as you can.
2. Time Yourself
It is useful to know your speed at the start, so time yourself reading a favourite
passage or article in a newspaper using a stopwatch. You can also find out your
reading speed using various tests available on the internet. Some of the websites
offering such tests are www.speedreading.com, www.readingsoft.com,
http://mindbluff.com/askread.htm#7. You may also find your reading speed using
the method mention in the next section of this module.
3. Avoid distractions
Get rid of all kinds of distraction while you practice speed reading. Try to focus on
what you read without any interruptions.
4. Make it a habit NOT to re-read
One of the best speed reading tips is to train yourself not to re-read the same
material. Many people read and re-read the same words over and over again to make
sure that they understand the real meaning. This is a real waste of time. To stop this
habit you can use a piece of plain paper or card to cover the lines you have read.
You may also run a pointer along the line as you read. This could be a finger, or a
pen or pencil.
304
5. Eliminate sub-vocalization
While reading many people sub vocalize or silently pronounce the words. Whether
you actually move your lips or say the words in your head its important to stop as it
slows you down.
How do you rate your reading speed?
The average reading speed is around 230 words per minute (wpm). If your reading
speed is between

0 – 150 wpm you are a slow reader.

150 – 230 wpm you are a below average reader.

230 – 350 wpm you are an average reader.

350 – 500 wpm you are a fast reader

500 – 800 wpm you are an excellent reader.

> 800 wpm you are a skim reader since studies show that comprehension drops
off sharply at speeds greater than 800 wpm for almost all readers.
Finding out your reading speed
To find out your present reading rate follow the following steps:
1.
Select a book you would normally read provided it has no dialogue in it.
Count the number of words each page contains, approximately. You need not
count each word on every line, but select a few ‗representative‘ lines and
take the average number of words each contains. Then count the number of
lines each page contains; multiply this total number with the number of
words per line, to obtain the approximate number of words per page.
2.
Keep a stop watch at hand. Place a marker against the line you start from,
and another on line that totals 500 words.
3.
Set the watch and start reading at your normal rate. When you reach the
second marker, stop the watch. Then calculate your speed:
500 / no. of minutes = speed in words per minute
Activity
Find out your reading speed by using the above method or online by using the online
tests.
What is your current reading speed?
305
3.10 The finger technique – to improve your reading speed
Now we shall learn the finger technique to improve reading speed. Use this
technique for all your reading during the training period. The goal of this technique
is to train your mind and eyes to read faster and faster, so do not try to understand
everything that you read. It is enough to understand 70% or 80% only. What is
important is to move your finger fast and see or read the words as your finger moves
under a line.
How to use the technique?
1.
Open any chapter in a textbook.
2.
Keep the book upside down to make sure your mind does not try to
understand anything that is written.
3.
Now move your finger under the lines of print and try to see words just
above your finger as the finger moves.
4.
Move your finger as fast as you can from left to right under each line of
print.
5.
Use this technique for 5 minutes while moving your finger smoothly and
rapidly with a sense of urgency and seeing the words above the finger.
6.
After 5 minutes cover your eyes with your palms so that you relax your eyes
and give them some rest. Do this for 2 minutes.
7.
Now, keep the book upright so that as you can move your finger you can see
the words, read, and understand them.
8.
Take care not to move your lips or speak aloud as you read.
9.
use this technique and read for 5 minutes.
10.
Again take a 2 minute break to give rest to your eyes.
11.
Repeat steps 2-6.
12.
Repeat steps 7-10.
13.
Now test your reading speed again.
Activity
Use the above technique and find out your new reading speed?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What was your old reading speed?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------306
Everyone almost doubles their reading speed after using the finger technique.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Use the above technique for at least three weeks before you really start to become a
speed reader for life.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Adapted from: Bapna, R. Mind Power Study technique. Mind power research institute, India.
In the next section of the module we shall try to understand the different learning
styles and find out your learning style.
(3-10) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
The reading rate of an average student is ________ (w.p.m) while that of
an excellent reader is ______(w.p.m).
Q.2.
Which are the two habits that slows down your reading speed?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q.3.
What is the goal of the finger technique?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.11 LEARNING STYLES
A learning style is a person‘s ―characteristic strengths and preferences in the ways
they take in and process information.‖ In simple words, learning styles are different
ways of learning. Your preferred styles guide the way you learn. They also change
the way you internally represent experiences, the way you recall information and
even the words you choose. We explore more of these features in the following
sections:
Once you know your own natural learning preference, you can work on expanding
the way you learn, so that you can learn in other ways, not just in your preferred
style. And by understanding learning styles, you can learn to create an environment
in which everyone can learn from you, not just those who use preferred style.
Felder and Silverman’s Index of Learning Styles
One of the most widely used models of learning styles is the Index of Learning
Styles developed by Richard Felder and Linda Silverman in the late 1980s.
According to this model (which Felder revised in 2002) there are four dimensions of
307
learning styles. Think of these dimensions as a continuum with one learning
preference on the far left and the other on the far right.
Sensory
Intuitive
Visual
Verbal
Active
Reflective
Sequential
Global
Sensory learners prefer concrete, practical, and procedural information. They look
for the facts.
Intuitive learners prefer conceptual, innovative and theoretical information. They
look for the meaning.
Visual learners prefer graphs, pictures, and diagrams. They look for visual
representations of information.
Verbal learners prefer to hear or read information. They look for explanation with
words.
Active learners prefer to manipulate objects, do physical experiments and learn by
trying. They enjoy working in groups to figure out problems.
Reflective learners prefer to think things through, to evaluate options, and learn by
analysis. They enjoy figuring out a problem on their own.
Sequential learners prefer to have information presented linearly and in an orderly
manner. They put together the details in order to understand the big picture emerges.
Global learners prefer a holistic and systematic approach. They see the big picture
first and then fill in the details.
Once you know where your preferences lie on each of these dimensions, you can
begin to stretch beyond those preferences and develop a more balanced approach to
learning. Not only will you improve your learning effectiveness, you will open
yourself up to many different ways of perceiving the world.
Balance is the key. You don‘t want to get too far on any one side of the learning
dimensions. When you do that you limit your ability to take in new information and
make sense of it quickly, accurately and effectively.
(3-11) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Q.2.
Q.3.
_______ prefer to manipulate objects, do physical experiments and learn by
trying.
___ prefer to think things through, to evaluate options, and learn by
analysis.
_______ prefer concrete, practical, and procedural information for learning.
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3.12 SUMMING UP:
According to the information processing model there are mainly three types of
memory which are as follows:

Sensory Memory
Whatever we see, hear, smell, feel or taste gets filtered through our sensory memory
which in just milliseconds uses our past experience and determines the data‘s degree
of importance.

Short Term Memory
Short Term Memory is a place where conscious processing of information takes
place. The information processing model represents it as a place of limited capacity
where we can build, take apart, or rework ideas for eventual storage somewhere else.

Long Term Memory
Long term memory contains tremendous amount of information that was acquired
through years and years of formal or informal education. Information having strong
emotional impact and information that we want to remember are usually transferred
from our short term memory to our Long term memory.
Most of the information processing while learning is done through reading which is
a very complex activity. Two strategies that are important for improving your
reading comprehension include the KWL strategy and the SQ3R strategy. The KWL
technique ties together your prior knowledge, your desire to learn more, and the
conclusions of your learning, while by using the SQ3R method actively you can read
a text and get the maximum benefit from your reading time. Speed reading is a
collection of reading methods which attempt to increase rates of reading without
greatly reducing comprehension or retention. The reading rate of an average student
is calculated to be about 230 words per minute (w.p.m). By using the finger
technique you can increase your reading speed.
A learning style is a person‘s ―characteristic strengths and preferences in the ways
they take in and process information.‖ According to Felder and Silverman‟s Index of
Learning Style, there are four dimensions of learning styles. Think of these
dimensions as a continuum with one learning preference on the far left and the other
on the far right.
Sensory
Intuitive
Visual
Verbal
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Active
Sequential
Reflective
Global
3.13
REFLECTIONS
1.
Think about what you have learned in this unit. Write about it here.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
2.
How will this make you a better student?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
3.
How will this make you a better teacher ?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
ANSWER KEY
3-3.
Ans.1. Sensory Memory, Short Term Memory, Long Term Memory
Ans.2. sensory memory, long term memory
Ans.3. Information which has a strong emotional association or is strange or unique,
or is associated with some of our critical needs or is repeated several times are
transferred easily to long term memory.
310
3-6.
Ans.1. knowing what you want to know, knowing how deeply to study the material,
active reading
Ans.2. skim
Ans.3. Scanning implies reading the chapter introductions and summaries in detail,
and then speed reading the contents of the chapters. At this level of looking at the
document it is worth paying attention to diagrams and graphs.
Ans.4. forefinger, pen/pencil
3-7.
Ans.1. K---Know, W---Want to know, L---Learned
Ans.2 K
Ans.3. L
3-8.
Ans.1. S---survey, Q---Question, R---read, R---recall, R---review.
Ans.2. While surveying the text one should scan the contents, introduction, chapter
introductions and chapter summaries to pick up a shallow overview of the text. Read
each boldface heading and subheading. Review any graphics. (charts, maps,
diagrams, pictures, and other visual aids.) Review any reading aids in the chapter.
This includes italics, chapter objectives, definitions and study questions at the end of
the chapter.
3-9.
Ans.1. 230, 600
Ans.2. Re-reading a text or sub-vocalisation reduces reading speed.
Ans.3. The goal of the finger technique is to increase your reading speed.
3-11.
Ans.1. Active learners
Ans.2. Reflective learners
Ans.3. Sensory learners
311
REFERENCES
Sousa, D.A.(2006). How the brain learns. Corwin Press, California.
Lewis, H (1985). How to study. Gujrat Sahitya Prakashan, India.
http://www.mindtools.com
http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy6/edpsy6_info.htm
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/classes/cs6751_97_winter/Topics/humancap/memory.html
http://nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/learning/memory.html
http://www.readingsoft.com
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Module 4
INFORMATION STORING SKILL
Contents
4-1
Learning Objectives
4-2
Introduction
4-3
Self check
4-4
Lectures and Note-taking
4-5
Improving your notes taking skill for lectures
4-5 (a) Some commonly used abbreviations
4-5 (b) Forming abbreviations
4-5 (c) Using symbols
4-5 (d) Suggestions for better listening
4-6
The Cornell system of note taking
4-7
Mind mapping
4-8
Summing up
4-9
4-10
Reflections
References
313
4
INFORMATION STORING SKILL
4.1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
As you learn through this module, you will be able to:
4.2

Check how useful and effective your present notes are

Identify ways of improving your note taking skill for lectures

Identify a number of common abbreviations/symbols

Use and form new abbreviations while taking notes

Improve your listening skill

Learn the Cornell system of notes taking

Use the mind mapping technique for notes taking and notes making
INTRODUCTION
Information storing mainly involves two skills viz. notes taking and notes making.
Note taking implies taking notes during a lecture sometimes copying down what is
written on the blackboard or dictated. One may also take notes from books, copying
chunks of important matter or summarizing. These notes are usually unorganized.
Note making implies organizing your rough notes, by combining notes taken during
lectures with those taken during study from various reference books. You put
together all related ideas in a particular order, and in an easy to read format.
Being able to take clear comprehensive notes, which allow you to understand and
learn the presented material for your course assignments or exams, is a vital skill for
students at college and university. It can also be a major challenge if you are coming
up from school without having had to make your own notes on what was happening
in class. The following chapter gives ideas for creating useful and effective notes
from which you can learn more easily. You will also be introduced to an interesting
way of taking and making notes using mind mapping technique.
Before we go any further let‘s check how good you are at notes taking and notes
making.
314
4.3
SELF-CHECK
How efficient is your note taking?
Rate your current competence in note taking, using the scale:
5
4
3
2
1
For example, if you consider your note taking is easy to read award yourself a 5. If,
however, it is a little hard to read you could award yourself a 2.
Circle your rating for each statement then add up your total.
My note taking is…
5
4
3
2
1
Easy to read …………………………Hard to read
5
4
3
2
1
Brief, to the point…………………………Too detailed
5
4
3
2
1
Easy to understand…………………………Hard to understand
5
4
3
2
1
Well organized …………………………Poorly organized
5
4
3
2
1
Pages numbered/labeled …………………………No system
5
4
3
2
1
Easy to learn from …………………………Difficult to learn from
5
4
3
2
1
Well abbreviated …………………………No abbreviations
5
4
3
2
1
Important ideas stand out…………………………Not easy to see important
Points
clearly
5
4
3
2
1
In my own words …………………………Chunks copied from books or
Lectures
315
Total score:
The points on the left side indicate the characteristics of a good note. Try to improve
your notes taking/making skill keeping these points in mind.
Adapted from: Cottrell, S. (1999) The Study Skills Handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
4.4
LECTURES AND NOTE-TAKING
Lectures are designed to be useful starting points for learning, giving a general
overview of the subject, its main ideas and theories. At every lecture you are
presented with a large amount of information, spoken, written (on the black board),
or through demonstration and experiments. It is next to impossible to store
everything in your memory. So you make notes to remind you. Even the sketchiest
note-making is better than simply sitting and letting information drift through your
mind.
Lecture notes are a great asset to efficient study for the following reasons:
(a)
Lecture notes constitute a permanent record. This is necessary for revision
and subsequent study.
(b)
Note-taking helps you react intelligently to the lecture. The mind and the
senses – eyes, ears, touch (writing) – come into play, thus enriching the intake of knowledge. Thus note taking keeps you alert in class and increases
your participation.
(c)
Good lecture notes will provide you the means of checking the accuracy of
what you think the lecturer said.
(d)
A good set of notes will help you demonstrate meaningful relationships
between different ideas, learned at different times from different sources.
(e)
Lecture notes help to stimulate organized thinking, which makes the reading
of your textbook easy.
(4-3)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Define note-taking and note-making.
Q.2.
Note down at least five characteristics of a good note.
Q.3.
Write down at least two reasons for preparing lecture notes?
Now let us try to see how we can become good at note taking.
316
4.5
IMPROVING YOUR NOTES TAKING SKILL FOR LECTURES
To become efficient at note-taking at lectures you may use the following tips –
which have been classified as under:
Before the lecture
During the lecture
After the lecture
Before the lecture

Glance through your notes from the previous lecture, and look for links with the
next lecture.

Read (or just flick through) a book on the subject of the lecture. Look for
themes, issues, topics and headings. Look up any technical word you don‘t
understand.

Write down questions you want answered. Leave space to write the answers
under each question either during or after the lecture.

Reflect and jot down your points, opinion.
Activity
Select a subject of your choice and make the preparations required before attending
a lecture. You may use the following record sheet to jot down questions you want
answered during the lecture. Fill in the first two columns of the following cover
sheet.
RECORD SHEET
Lecture notes: cover sheet
Subject area/unit:
Date:
Subject of lecture:
Lecturer:
Unit:
Preparation: Questions and ideas prompted by reading or discussion prior to the
lecture; what do I want to find out during this lecture?
317
Opening comments by the lecturer. Issues , questions, etc., to be addressed during
the lecture
Main theme of the lecture
Main points made in the lecture; examples or evidence given (use supplementary
sheets as necessary)
Questions raised by the lecturer
References to books, etc
During the lecture

At the beginning of the lecture jot down the main topics to be covered as
declared by the lecturer.

Take notes of headings, questions, sub-points, and references. (Use record sheet
given above)

Avoid writing details you can easily get later from a textbook. Keep your
attention for your listening. If you are not clear where information comes from,
ask.

In your head, challenge what the lecturer says: this will help to focus your
attention. Ask , ‗Is this always the case?‟, „How representative is this?‟, „Why is
this?‟ & „Do I agree?‟

Indicate new questions raised by the lecturer in a different colour.

Use abbreviations and symbols wherever possible.
318
After the lecture

Label and file your lecture notes and any hand-outs.

Read through your notes. Fill in details from your reading or research.

Link new information to what you already know.

Discuss the lecture with others. Compare your notes and fill in any gaps

Follow the inquiry technique. Turn headings, sub-headings, key words and
main-idea sentences into questions
(4-4)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Write down two things you should do before a lecture to improve your note
taking skill?
..........................................................................................................................
Q.2.
Write down two things you should do during a lecture to improve your note
taking skill?
..........................................................................................................................
Q.3.
Write down two things you should do after a lecture to improve your note
taking skill?
..........................................................................................................................
Next, let us learn some techniques which may help us in taking notes quickly.
(a)
Some commonly used abbreviations
When taking notes during lectures, it is important to write quickly so that you can
include all the important information. A good way to increase your note taking
speed is to use abbreviations. Abbreviations are shortened versions of words.
Here are some standard abbreviations:
Word
Abbreviation
Word
Abbreviation
for example
e.g.
before
b/f
morning
AM
namely
viz.
afternoon
PM
That is
i.e.
And so on
etc.
Per annum
p.a.
Note well
N.B.
And others
et al.
319
(b)
Forming abbreviations
Besides standard abbreviations given above, you can make your own ones. Only,
keep these rules in mind:
(i)
develop your system and stick to it; do not change,
(ii)
do not use abbreviations in material other people will have to read.
You can form your own abbreviation for just about any word. Here are three ways
you can do this.
1. Write just the beginning of a long word. For long words whose beginning is
easy to pronounce, write just the beginning of the word. Here are some examples.
Word
Abbreviation
Word
Abbreviation
different
diff
feminine
fem
incorporated
inc
population
pop
elementary
elem
ambiguous
ambig
molecular
molec
separate
sep
division
div
hippopotamus
hippo
2. Leave out the vowels when writing a word. For shorter words that do not begin
with a vowel, leave out the vowel or vowels. Here are some examples.
Word
Abbreviation
Word
Abbreviation
century
cntry
point
pnt
mountain
mntn
school
schl
reason
rsn
clean
cln
popular
pplr
teacher
tchr
quality
qlty
progress
prgrss
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3. For words that have just one syllable and do not end with a vowel, write just
the first and last letter of the word. Here are some examples.
Word
Abbreviation
Word
Abbreviation
quart
qt
land
ld
tick
tk
round
rd
girl
gl
pack
pk
night
nt
field
fd
link
lk
heart
ht
Use common abbreviations of words whenever you recognize them. For other
words, form abbreviations by using one of the three ways you just learned. Use the
way that best fits the word for which you are writing an abbreviation. Do not try to
abbreviate every word you write in your notes. Abbreviate those words that are
important and for which you can quickly form an abbreviation. REMEMBER:
YOU MUST BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE THE COMPLETE WORD FROM
ITS ABBREVIATION. Knowing the context in which you wrote the word will
help you recognize the complete word from its abbreviation.
Activity
Write an abbreviation for each of the following words. Use the way of abbreviating
that you think best suits the word.
5. larva
----------------------------------------------------------------
6. model
------------------------------------------------------------------
7. quark
------------------------------------------------------------------
8. gulf
-------------------------------------------------------------------
9. scavenger
---------------------------------------------------------
10. temperature ---------------------------------------------------------
321
(c)
Using symbols
You can also increase your note taking speed by replacing words or terms with
symbols. Here are some common symbols and the words or term they represent.
Word
Symbols
Word
Therefore
Is less than
Because
18th century
Equal to
without
Not the same as
An increase
Is greater than
A decrease
Symbols
w/o
Activity
Read each sentence that follows and rewrite them using symbols. You can use the
same symbol more than once.
2. I am sure that ten plus five equals seven plus eight.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. I still have difficulty doing a division and finding out a percent.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Going to a college is not the same as going to a school.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. Learning to learn skills are very important for the twenty-first century
student.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. With an increase in pressure there is a decrease in the volume of air in a
vessel.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4-5)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
What is an abbreviation?
..........................................................................................................................
Q.2.
What do the following abbreviations stand for - etc., et al., viz., p.m.
..........................................................................................................................
Q.3.
Write down three ways in which you can form your own abbreviation?
..........................................................................................................................
322
Since the most important skill required during a lecture is listening skill, let us try to
understand how we can become a better listener.
(d)
Suggestions for better listening
Listening, like reading, is a way of learning both in and out of classroom situation.
Good listening like good reading is an active process. The good listener is constantly
thinking, evaluating and making connections.
Here are some useful suggestions to help you listen better…

Get ready to listen as soon as the bell has rung. Usually important information is
given at the very beginning. If you practice listening attentively the first ten
minutes of the period, it is likely that you will develop the power to listen well
for the rest of the period.

You must learn to listen purposefully. Direct your attention to what the speaker
is saying. Do not let other sounds distract you.

Poor students generally have the tendency to let their minds wander. This defect
must be checked by serious effort, because it diminishes your power to
concentrate. Besides, it may give occasion for embarrassment or humiliation in
class if you are suddenly asked a question while your mind is on a different
track!

Listen critically, thoughtfully and with understanding rather than merely
mechanically. Your brain, your eyes, and your ears must be active together if
you are to hear intelligently. If you do not understand a point, ask for
explanation then or after class.
Now let us learn a new way of taking notes while attending a lecture.
4.6
The Cornell system of note taking in classroom situation
You may use the Cornell system of notes taking during lectures, which also offers an
easy way to review your lecture.
How to use the method?
1. Divide the record sheet into two columns as shown below.
2. Fill up the preliminary entries like date, Unit, Lecturer, etc on the top of the
record sheet.
3. Take your notes on the right hand column of the page during class. Leave the left
hand column empty.
4. Review your notes within 24 hrs of its original creation.
323
5. Re-read your lecture notes and pull out the key ideas and themes from the lecture
and jot them down on the left hand column of the record sheet.
In the Cornell system of notes taking you use the following record sheet while
attending a lecture.
RECORD SHEET
Subject:
Unit:
Date:
time:
Topic:
Lecturer:
REVIEW
LECTURE NOTES
The beauty of Cornell system is that it does not require you to re-write your notes,
thus saving time. You do need to review your notes, however within 24 hrs of
their original creation.
(2-6) TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Note down two ways of improving your listening skill during lectures.
..........................................................................................................................
Q.2.
What is the advantage of using the Cornell system of note taking?
..........................................................................................................................
4.7
MIND MAPPING
Mind mapping is a way of linking key concepts using images, lines and links. A
central concept is linked via lines to other concepts which in turn are linked with
other associated ideas.
Mind mapping offers an alternative method for notes taking and notes making by
using the powers of visualization and association, and thereby improving both
memory and creative thinking. It makes use of both the left and the right brain. It
uses the concept of ―radiant thinking‖ – that is, thoughts radiate out from a single
324
idea, often expressed as an image. Branches flow backwards and forwards from and
to the central idea.
It is similar as a technique to concept mapping and spider diagrams, the difference
being that true mind mapping involves constructing a hierarchy of ideas instead of
pure random association.
Following is an example of a mind map which explains the uses and advantages of
mind mapping.
Source: www.illumine.co.uk
Uses of mind maps:
Mind maps can be used in a wide range of situations. Most useful to you as students
are:

Making notes from books and other secondary sources

Making notes from lectures

Making notes for essays or presentations
Making notes from books and other secondary sources
As a student you will need to browse a large number of secondary sources textbooks, journal articles, web sites. Sometime, the amount of material can seem
daunting. The benefits of mind maps, however, is that rather than working through
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the material from beginning to end in a chronological sequence, you proceed in a
more "spiral" fashion from firstly having an overview to looking in greater and
greater depth.
Making notes from lectures
Lectures lend themselves less easily to the mind mapping technique because their
structure is inherently linear. However, you should be able to get a good idea of the
"basic organizing ideas" from the scheme of work for the course, or from the notes
which the lecturer gives out at the beginning of the lecture. Try and search for the
BOIs as the lecture progresses.
Making notes for essays or presentations
The basic difference here is in the preposition: you are making notes for something
rather than from something, so you will need to draw together your existing mind
map notes and prepare a new mind map covering what you are going to write or
present.
How to mind map
Steps involved in creating a mind map may be summarized as follows:
Step 1 - Determine your central image or concept.
Step 2 - Create the basic structure for organizing your ideas: these are the main
branches and are known as the Basic Organizing Ideas (BOIs), and are represented
by branches radiating outwards from the main concept.
Step 3 - Put down keywords associated with the BOIs, which should sit on smaller
branches connected to the main branch.
Step 4 - Revisit your mind map, putting things in order, and numbering the
branches. If necessary, revise it on another piece of paper.
Your completed mind - map or diagram should be:

Bright

Colourful

Visually bold

Aesthetically pleasing

Ordered

Meaningful to you
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Example
Following is an example of a mind map showing the energy saving tips you may use
in your school.
Source:www.gyanpedia.in
Activity
Select a topic of your choice and use the following steps to mind map.
1.
Take a blank piece of paper, A4 or larger.
2.
Use the paper in landscape orientation so that we have more space to add
words and images.
3.
Make an image at the centre of the page which represents the topic. Keep the
height and width of the central image to approx. 2‖ or 5cm. Write the topic at
the centre of the image. E.G.
MIND MAPS
4.
The next stage involves adding main branches to your diagram that represent
each of the areas of the topic being studied, or its related topics. The
branches should extend far enough from your central image to avoid overcrowding the page and confusing information. Ideally, pictures should be
327
used to represent themes and concepts. It helps if the branches are different
colours and/or shapes. The branches should be: bold, bright and colourful.
5.
The next stage involves adding sub-branches to your hierarchical diagram.
These branches are also coloured. You may find it helpful to use different
shades of the colour used for the main branches. Continue to label in bold,
colourful lettering. Continue using simple images to represent concepts and
to make sense of your mind map.
6.
Revisit your mind map, putting things in order, and numbering the branches.
If necessary, revise it on another piece of paper.
How to Read A Mind Map
1.
Start in the centre - that is the FOCUS of the Mind Map.
2.
Words/Images closest to the central image show the MAIN THEMES of the
Mind Map. This is the start of the radiant hierarchical structure.
328
3.
Select one main theme and read out from the centre along the branch. This
provides greater levels of associated detail. Proceed around the Mind Map,
either in the order of your choice or as suggested by the author.
Activity
Following mind map gives some tips to make your mind map more effective. Read
the Mind Map and answer the following questions.
Q.1.
What kind of paper should you use for mind mapping?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Q.2.
From where should you start to draw your mind map on the paper?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
329
Q.3.
What should you use to make your mind map more attractive and meaningful
to you?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Q.4.
How should the lines or branches in a mind map be drawn ?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Q.5.
What kind of a structure will develop as a result of mind mapping ?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
(4-7)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
What is mind mapping?
..........................................................................................................................
Q.2.
Write down the uses of a mind map
..........................................................................................................................
4.8
SUMMING UP
Information storing skill mainly involves note taking and note making.
Note taking implies taking notes during a lecture sometimes copying down what is
written on the blackboard or dictated. One may also take notes from books, copying
chunks of important matter or summarizing. These notes are usually unorganized.
Note making implies organizing your rough notes, by combining notes taken during
lectures with those taken during study from various reference books. You put
together all related ideas in a particular order, and in an easy to read format.
Once you become efficient at note taking and note making your notes will be easy to
read from, brief to the point, well organized, easy to learn from, well abbreviated,
important ideas stand out clearly and will be in your own words. These are some of
the characteristics of a good note.
A good way to increase your note taking speed is to use abbreviations and symbols.
Use common abbreviations and symbols of words whenever you recognize them.
For other words, form abbreviations by using one of the following three ways:
330
1. Writing just the beginning of long words
2. Leaving out the vowels and
3. Writing just the first and last letter of the word
Another interesting technique for note taking and note making involves the use of
Mind mapping which uses the powers of visualization and association, and thereby
improves both memory and creative thinking.
REFLECTIONS:
1.
Think about what you have learned in this unit. Write about it here.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
2.
How will this make you a better student?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
3.
How will this make you a better teacher ?
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
331
ANSWER KEY
4-3.
Ans.1. Note taking implies taking notes during a lecture sometimes copying down
what is written on the blackboard or dictated. One may also take notes from books,
copying chunks of important matter or summarizing.
Note making implies organizing your rough notes, by combining notes taken during
lectures with those taken during study from various reference books. You put
together all related ideas in a particular order, and in an easy to read format.
Ans.2. Good notes are easy to read, easy to understand, to the point, well organized
and well abbreviated.
Ans.3. Lecture notes constitute a permanent record for revision and subsequent
study. Also preparing lecture notes keeps one alert in class and increases his/her
participation.
4-4.
Ans.1. Refer pg.5
Ans.2. Refer pg.6
Ans.3. Refer pg.7
4-5
Ans.1. Abbreviations are shortened versions of words.
Ans.2. symbols:
,
,
.
Ans.3. Abbreviations can be formed by writing just the beginning of the word,
leaving out the vowels when writing a word and by writing just the first and last
letter of a word.
4-6.
Ans.1. Get ready to listen as soon as the bell has rung and listen purposefully,
thoughtfully and critically.
Ans.2. The Cornell system of note taking offers an easy way to review lecture. It
does not require to re-write notes thus saving time.
4-7.
Ans.1. Mind mapping is a way of linking key concepts using images, lines and links.
Ans.2. Refer pg.14
332
REFERENCES:
1.
Buzan, T. (2006) Use Your Head. BBC Active, England.
2.
Cottrell, S. (1999) The Study Skills Handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan
3.
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/listening/notetaking/5.xml
4.
http://www.how-to-study.com/study-skills/
5.
http://www.english-zone.com/study/symbols.html
6.
http://libweb.surrey.ac.uk/library/skills/note%20taking/1/index.htm
7.
http://www.gyanpedia.in
8.
www.illumine.co.uk
333
Module 5
INFORMATION RETENTION SKILL
Contents
5-1
Learning Objectives
5-2
Introduction
5-3
The structure of the human brain
5-4
The left brain and the right brain
5-5
Nutrition and Memory improvement
5-6
Exercise and memory improvement
5-7
Techniques to improve your information retention skill while learning
5-8
Systematic revision to improve memory after learning
5-9
Using chunking to enhance retention
5-10
Summing Up
5-11
Reflections
5-12
References
334
5
5.1
INFORMATION RETENTION SKILL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
As you learn through this module, you will be able to:

Understand the structure of the human brain

Learn about the specializations of the left brain and right brain

Know about certain nutrients which nurture and stimulate brain function

Understand the importance of exercise for improving the efficiency of brain

Learn some techniques for improving your memory while you learn

Learn the technique of systematic revision

Use the principle of chunking to enhance your information retention skill
5.2
INTRODUCTION
Learning and retention are different. Learning involves the brain, the nervous
system, and the environment, and the process by which their interplay acquires
information and skills. Sometimes, we need information for just a short period of
time, like the telephone number for a pizza delivery, and then the information decays
in just a few seconds. Thus, learning does not always involve long-term retention.
Retention refers to the process whereby long-term memory preserves a learning in
such a way that it can locate, identify, and retrieve it accurately in the future. The
following chapter will throw some light on techniques to improve information
retention. Further, in this chapter you will learn about some interesting facts about
the new research in the science of brain. Scientists have learnt more about
brain/mind in the last 25 years than in the whole history of humanity. According to
them, most people use less than 10% of their brain. More than 90% of each person‘s
brain is apparently unused. This chapter will show you some surprisingly easy ways
to increase the capacity of your brain using various techniques which will directly or
indirectly improve memory, concentration and intelligence.
335
5.3
THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BRAIN
It is important to understand the physical or biological brain since it gives us an
insight into its working and thus means to improve them. The human brain has two
parts : a left part and a right part. These two parts are connected by a corpus
callosum ( millions of brain fibers). The convoluted outer surface of the brain is
called cerebral cortex. This is so much convoluted in human beings only and it is the
basis of human intelligence.
Human Brain
The brain cells are called neurons. An average brain contains 1500 crore neurons.
Neuron or Brain cell
A neuron has a centre called nucleus and branches called dendrites. Each neuron is
connected with many other neurons. Current scientific knowledge is that these
connections are the basis for all learning and memory. Some scientists have
calculated that the total possible connections among neurons are more than the total
number of atoms in the whole universe!
336
(5-3)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
The process which involves the interplay between the brain, the nervous
system and the environment and which results into acquisition of
information and skills is known as _________________.
Q.2.
____________ refers to the process whereby long-term memory preserves a
learning in such a way that it can locate, identify, and retrieve it accurately
in the future.
Q.3.
A neuron has a centre called ________ and branches called ___________.
5.4
THE LEFT BRAIN AND THE RIGHT BRAIN
In the 1960‘s a scientist named Roger Sperry discovered that the brain can be split
into two parts – left brain and right brain and that the two parts perform different
functions. The left brain is the logical part. It specializes in the ‗academic‘ aspects of
learning. It is responsible for (a) logic, (b) math, (c) language, (d) linear thinking,
and (e) rational thinking. It is methodical and tends to think in step-by-step logical
fashion.
The right brain is the creative part. It is responsible for (a) creativity, (b) intuition,
(c) music, (d) imagination, (e) lateral thinking, and (f) artistic sense. It thinks in
images and colours and it can remember complex pictures and songs. It thinks in
intuitive way rather than logical way.
The Left and Right hemisphere of the human brain
These two half brains do not work like separate departments but in an interconnected
and collaborating way. The right brain and left brain exchange information through
337
the corpus callosum. The left brain controls the right part of the body and the right
brain controls the left part of the body.
Children use both the left brain and the right brain. As a result of the emphasis on
left brain activities in our schools, our ability to use the right brain is reduced.
This module will help you use both parts of your brains and thus improve your brain
power. But before that let us try to understand some basic necessisities for memory
improvement.
5.5
NUTRITION AND MEMORY IMPROVEMENT
You probably know already that a diet based on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and
―healthy‖ fats will provide lots of health benefits, but such a diet can also improve
memory. Research indicates that certain nutrients nurture and stimulate brain
function.

B vitamins, especially B6, B12, and folic acid. (Best sources: spinach and
other dark leafy greens, broccoli, asparagus, strawberries, melons, black
beans and other legumes, citrus fruits, soybeans.)

Antioxidants like vitamins C and E, and beta carotene improve the flow
of oxygen through the body and brain. (Best sources: blueberries and other
berries, sweet potatoes, red tomatoes, spinach, broccoli, green tea, nuts and
seeds, citrus fruits, liver.)

Omega-3 fatty acids are concentrated in the brain and are associated with
cognitive function. (Best sources: cold-water fish such as salmon, herring,
tuna, halibut, and mackerel; walnuts and walnut oil; flaxseed and flaxseed
oil). Because older adults are more prone to B12 and folic acid deficiencies,
a supplement may be a good idea for seniors. An omega-3 supplement (at
any age) if you don‘t like eating fish. But nutrients work best when they‘re
consumed in foods.
5.6
EXERCISE AND MEMORY IMPROVEMENT
Doing regular physical exercise based on your age, health and physical abilities is
important to your mental functioning. Exercise brings more oxygen to the brain
through improved blood circulation. This additional oxygen improves the
functioning of your brain. Daily physical activities like walking, jogging, running,
cycling and swimming not only help in weight control but also improve the capacity
of your brain. Two important things to remember is that you should be regular in
338
your exercise and not to over exert yourself. Another important way of increasing
the amount of oxygen to your brain is to do deep breathing exercises like pranayam.
(5-4)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
The scientist who discovered that the human brain can be divided into two
parts was _______________.
Q.2.
The left brain is the ___________ part while the right brain is the ________
part.
Q.3.
The nutrients that stimulate and nurture the functions of the brain are
____________, ____________, ____________ and ____________.
5.7
TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE YOUR INFORMATION
RETENTION SKILL WHILE LEARNING
Activity
Read the list of words given below quickly. Then cover the list and write the words
you remember on the lines to the right in the order that they are presented. Thus, if
you cannot remember the eighth word, but remember the ninth one write it on line
number nine. Do not worry if you did not remember all the words.
1.
Plum
1. -------------------
2.
Hen
2. -------------------
3.
Book
3. -------------------
4.
Good
4. --------------------
5.
Why
5. -------------------
6.
Done
6. --------------------
7.
Rahul Gandhi
7. ---------------------
8.
Niece
8. ---------------------
9.
Well
9. --------------------
10.
Buy
10. --------------------
11.
Sweet
11. ---------------------
12.
Sachin Tendulkar
12. ----------------------
13.
Clock
13. ---------------------
14.
Good
14. ---------------------339
15.
Bell
15. ----------------------
16.
Shop
16. ----------------------
You must have noticed that you remembered better the words at the beginning and
end of the list. Also you must have not missed the two words which are of special
interest to you viz. Rahul Gandhi and Sachin Tendulkar.
The following graph depicts memory recall during learning.
0
1 hour
2 hour
Time in hours
Memory recall during learning
From the above activity it is clear that we remember better at the beginning and at
the end of a learning period. This implies that we remember less during the middle
of a learning period except that there are topics of special interest to us. Thus, in
order to maintain our ability to remember high enough, we should take rest in
between.
Follow the following tip to improve your information retention skill
Take a break from your studies after 20 to 40 minutes
If you are planning to study for 2 hours at stretch, take a break of about 5 minutes
after every half an hour. Thus you have four learning periods each of 30 minutes in a
2 hour session
If you have four learning periods ( learning periods of 30 minutes each) in a 2 hour
session, then there are four beginnings and four ends which correspond to high
learning and high memory. Since there are 4 learning periods, the middle drop will
also be smaller than the drop for one 2-hour learning period without any rest.
340
The following graph depicts that memory improves during learning if frequent
breaks are taken in between.
Source: http://www.manal-jz.com/2011/brilliant-memory-by-tony-buzan/
Next let us see how our information retention skill (memory) changes after hours
and days of learning a content and how we can use this knowledge to improve our
learning.
5.8
SYSTEMATIC REVISION TO IMPROVE MEMORY AFTER
LEARNING
The following graph is a result of research in psychology. The graph shows how
much we remember after learning something.
Memory after a learning period
Source: http://austal.net.au/Accelerated_Learning.htm
341
The graph begins at 75% because normal learning does not result in 100% memory.
The graph shows that we remember better at about 10 minutes after learning
finishes. The reason for this strange memory phenomenon is simple: at the moment
learning period finishes, the brain has not had enough time to organize and store the
last items. It needs a few minutes to store, organize, integrate the last items. Further
we can see that memory decreases sharply after initial learning. We remember only
18% after 24 hours. This is very important fact for you to remember. This loss of
memory can be prevented by using the technique of systematic revision.
Systematic revision is an extremely powerful scientific technique for transferring
information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
According to this technique you should revise shortly after learning period as
follows:
Systematic Revision
about 10 minutes after learning finishes
revise again within 24 hours
then after 1 week
then after 1 month and 6 months.
The above technique suggests that you revise two times in one day after you learn
something new. To make this task easy you may use the following techniques about
which you have already learnt in the previous modules.

Speed reading (module 3)

Spend only about 5 seconds per page while revising by writing notes in a special
style that help memory and quick revision viz. mind maps. (module 4)
(5-5)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
We remember only ____% of information after 24 hrs of learning.
Q.2.
Dividing a 2 hr learning session into four learning session results in better
learning. (True/False).
Q.3.
Systematic revision is an extremely powerful scientific technique for
transferring information from _____________ to _______________.
342
5.9
USING CHUNKING TO ENHANCE RETENTION
Another method by which you can improve your information retention skill is to use
the principle of chunking. Chunking is the process whereby the brain perceives
several items of information as a single item. Words are common examples of
chunks. Umbrella is composed of eight letters, but the brain perceives them as one
item of information, i.e. one chunk. Nobel-prize winner Herbert Simon (1974) found
that we can generally hold 7 ± 2 ‗chunks‘ of information in short-term memory.
However, the ‗chunk‘ can vary enormously in size: it could be a single word or
number, or a phrase, or a whole story, or how to count up to a million.
Activity
Try this out for yourself.

Read the list under ‗small chunks‘

Cover the list, and then try to remember each phrase exactly.
You should be able to remember roughly the same number of chunks, irrespective of
their size – for example, five sets of two words and five sets of longer sentences.
Small chunks (2 words)
Happy birthday
No way
Mouth-watering
New Year
Activity

Read the list under ‗bigger chunks‘

Cover the list, then try to remember each phrase exactly.
Bigger chunks (7-10 word sentences)
The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain.
..........................................................................................................................
There is no business like show business.
..........................................................................................................................
Once upon a time there were three little pigs.
..........................................................................................................................
343
Postman Pradeep has a very nice hat.
..........................................................................................................................
„Chunking‟ helps long-term memory
The same principle can be used to help organize information in your long-memory.
This is especially useful for exam revision. This is a useful tactic to use whenever
you have to remember information that does not link up easily.
How to use the technique?
Here are the steps on how to use the principle of chunking:
1. Write each piece of information you need to remember.
2. Arrange them in the order in which you are likely to use them.
3. Then make up a story to link them together into one chunk.
4. Give the story a simple name.
5. The crazier the story, the easier it is to remember.
Example
String of words to revise
Cow
grass
field
Tennis
net
soda
Dog
lake
fish
Picnic story
We can chunk the sequence of items by using a simple story. First, we see a cow
eating grass in a field. Also in the fields are two people playing tennis. One player
hits the ball way over the net. They are drinking soda while their dog runs after the
ball that went into the lake. The dog‘s splashing frightens the fish.
Example
You can use chunking to remember the following list of words as follows.

Eggs
Butter

Syrup
Flour

Cereal
Milk

Blueberries
Bacon

Baking powder
344
Think of these items as three different breakfast lists:
Eggs and bacon for day one.
Pancakes for day two, requiring flour, baking powder, and milk. We'll also need
syrup and butter!
Cereal for day three: cereal, milk, blueberries (it doesn't hurt anything to repeat
milk).
Activity
1. Now, locate in a textbook or your class notes some information for which
chunking is a good remembering strategy. Write the pieces of information to be
remembered here.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
2.
Write a linking story to remember this information.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
(5-6)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
___________ is the process whereby the brain perceives several items of
information as a single item.
Q.2.
Nobel-prize winner Herbert Simon (1974) found that we can generally
hold ______ ‗chunks‘ of information in short-term memory.
345
5.10 SUMMING UP:
The human brain has two parts : a left part and a right part. These two parts are
connected by a corpus callosum ( millions of brain fibers). The convoluted outer
surface of the brain is called cerebral cortex. This is so much convoluted in human
beings only and it is the basis of human intelligence. The brain cells are called
neurons. An average brain contains 1500 crore neurons. The brain can be split into
two parts – left brain and right brain and that the two parts perform different
functions. The left brain is the logical part. It specializes in the ‗academic‘ aspects of
learning. It is responsible for (a) logic, (b) math, (c) language, (d) linear thinking,
and (e) rational thinking. It is methodical and tends to think in step-by-step logical
fashion. The right brain is the creative part. It is responsible for (a) creativity, (b)
intuition, (c) music, (d) imagination, (e) lateral thinking, and (f) artistic sense. It
thinks in images and colours and it can remember complex pictures and songs. It
thinks in intuitive way rather than logical way.
Certain nutrients like B vitamins (especially B6, B12), folic acid, Antioxidants
(vitamins C and E), beta carotene and Omega-3 fatty acids nurture and stimulate
brain function. Doing regular physical exercise based on your age, health and
physical abilities is another important means to improve your mental functioning
since exercise brings more oxygen to the brain through improved blood circulation.
In order to maintain our ability to remember high enough, we should take rest in
between.
Take a break from your studies after every 20 to 40 minutes. Systematic revision is
another extremely powerful scientific technique for transferring information from
short-term memory to long-term memory. According to this technique you should
revise shortly after learning period as follows :about 10 minutes after learning
finishes, revise again within 24 hours, then after 1 week and then after 1month and
6months. To make the task of revision easy you may use the technique of speed
reading and mind mapping.
Chunking is the process whereby the brain perceives several items of information as
a single item. Herbert Simon found that we can generally hold 7 ± 2 ‗chunks‘ of
information in short-term memory (1974). This principle of chunking can be used to
improve your long term memory.
346
5.11 REFLECTIONS
1.
Think about what you have learned in this unit. Write about it here.
2.
How will this make you a better student?
3.
How will this make you a better teacher ?
347
ANSWER KEY
5-3.
Ans.1. Learning
Ans.2. Retention
Ans.3. nucleus, dendrites
5-4.
Ans.1. Roger Sperry
Ans.2. logical, creative
Ans.3. vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin E and Omega-3-fatty acid
5-5
Ans.1. 18%
Ans.2. True.
Ans.3. short term memory to long term memory
5-6.
Ans.1. Chunking
Ans.2. 7 ± 2
348
REFERENCE:
Sousa, D.A.(2006). How the brain learns. Corwin Press, California.
http://media.photobucket.com/image/human%20brain/ucscpublicart/Human_brain
http://www.saskschools.ca/curr_content/adapthandbook/learner/cdbrain.html
http://austal.net.au/Accelerated_Learning.htm
http://www.manal-jz.com/2011/brilliant-memory-by-tony-buzan/
http://coffeewithkarna.blogspot.com/2011/04/human-brain.html
349
Module 6
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SKILL
Contents
6-1
Learning Objectives
6-2
Introduction
6-3
Acronym
6-4
Abbreviation
6-5
Acronymic sentence
6-6
Keywords
6-7
Peg words
6-8
Summing up
6-9
Reflections
6-10
References
350
6
6.1
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SKILL
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
As you learn through this module, you will be able to use the following techniques
to retrieve information:

Acronym

Abbreviation

Acronymic sentence

Peg words

Keyword
6.2
INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter you learned some skills to retain information. But simply
retaining information is not enough. We need to retrieve it as and when required.
Retrieval skills come into picture when we need to give exams, give talks,
participate in seminars or debate, solve problems, etc. Without gaining retrieval
skills, what ever has been learnt has no value. In this chapter you learn a number of
techniques to retrieve information. Do not try to learn all these techniques in one
day. Learn one technique each day and practice using that technique the whole day.
6.3
ACRONYM
Acronym is a strategy for remembering information in which you form a word using
the first letter of each piece of information to be remembered. The acronym you
form can be a real word or a non sense word you are able to pronounce. Acronym is
a good strategy to use when the information to be remembered does not have to be
remembered in a certain order. It is often difficult to form an acronym when you
have to remember information in a certain order.
How to use the technique?
Here are the steps on how to form an acronym:
351
6. Write each piece of information you need to remember.
7. Underline the first letter of each piece of information to be remembered. If there
is more than one word in a piece of information, underline the first letter of only
the first word.
8. Arrange the underlined letters to form an acronym that is a real word or a non
sense word you can pronounce.
Example:
―CAGED‖ is an example of an acronym that is a real word you can use to remember
the names of the following five famous scientists in any order:
Einstein, Copernicus, Galileo, Archimedes and Darwin.
In CAGED, C is the first letter of Copernicus; A is the first letter of Archimedes,
and so on.
―SCATE‖ is an acronym that can be used to remember the names of the following
five inventions that have improved our quality of life in any order:
Computer, sewing machine, elevator, television, automobile.
SCATE is not a real word but you can easily pronounce it.
Activity:
Write an acronym for each of the following sets of information. The pieces of
information in each set can be remembered in any order: (answers have been given
at the end of the activity)
1. Elements: radium, aluminum , lithium, oxygen, phosphorus
2. Languages : English, Sanskrit, Gujarati, Malayalam
3. Birds: eagle, swift, parrot, peacock, owl
4. Countries: Hong Kong, America, Canada, Thailand
5. Now, locate in a textbook or your class notes some information for which
acronym is a good remembering strategy. Write the pieces of information to
be remembered here.
6. Write an acronym to remember this information.
Ans.1. POLAR, Ans.2. GEMS, Ans.3. POPES, Ans.4. CHAT (You may form any
word of your choice)
352
(6-3)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
__________ is a strategy for remembering information in which you form
a word using the first letter of each piece of information to be remembered.
Q.2.
The acronym you form can be a _________ word or a _________ word
you are able to pronounce.
Q.3.
Acronym is a good strategy to use when the information has to be
remembered in a certain order. (T/F)
6.4
ABBREVIATION
Abbreviation strategy can be used when you have to remember information in a
certain order.
How to use the technique?
Here are the steps on how to form an abbreviation:
1.
Write the pieces of information in the order in which you must remember
them.
2.
Underline the first letter of each piece of information; underline the first
letter of only the first word.
3.
Write the underlined letters in their order to form the abbreviation.
Example:
The abbreviation KCA2SE can be used to remember the taxonomy of educational
objectives of the cognitive domain in the order of their difficulty level:
Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation
Similarly, the abbreviation VIBGYOR can be used to remember the seven colours
in sunlight or colours of rainbow and their order in the spectrum : Violet, Indigo,
Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.
Activity:
Write an abbreviation for each of the following sets of information. The pieces of
information in each set should be remembered in order:
1. Here are the objectives of the psychomotor domain. Write an abbreviation to
remember them in order from the most difficult to the least difficult objective to be
achieved.
Imitation
353
Manipulation
Precision
Articulation
Naturalization
2.
Here is the order of periodic properties of elements in the periodic table.
Write an abbreviation to remember them in the following order.
Atomic radius
Ionization potential
Electron affinity
Electro negativity
Non-metallic
Metallic characters
3.
Here are six important scientific discoveries. Write an abbreviation to
remember these discoveries in descending order.
Oxygen
1774
Electric waves
1888
Penicillin
1928
Aspirin
1853
Radium
1898
Relativity theory
1905
4.
Here are the educational policies in India after independence. Write an
abbreviation to remember these discoveries in descending order.
University Education Commission
1949
Mudalier Secondary Education Commission
1952
Kothari Commission
1965
National Education Policy
1986
5.
Now, locate in a textbook or your class notes some information for which
abbreviation is a good remembering strategy. Write the pieces of information to be
remembered here.
6.
Write an abbreviation to remember this information.
Ans.1. IMPAN, Ans.2. AIEENM, Ans.3. PR2EAO, Ans.4. NKMU
354
(6-4)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Abbreviation strategy can be used when you have to remember information
in a certain order. (T/F)
Q.2.
The abbreviation which can be used to remember the colours of rainbow is
_________.
Q.3.
The standard abbreviation UNO stands for ______________.
6.5
ACRONYMIC SENTENCE
Acronymic sentence is a strategy that is equally useful for remembering information
in any order or remembering information in a certain order. It is similar to the
acronym strategy. The difference is that the first letter of each piece of information
to be remembered is used to form a sentence rather than a word.
How to use the technique?
Here are the steps on how to form an acronymic sentence:
1. Write each piece of information you need to remember. Write these in any order
or in a certain order if required.
2. Underline the first letter of each piece of information.
3. Write a sentence using words that begin with the underlined letters.
Note: Try to form a sentence that is funny or is personal to you. You will find it
easier to remember the sentence if you do this.
Example:
Here is an example of an acronymic sentence to remember the five categories of
Nobel Prize awards in any order: physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, peace.
Prashant met Prakash last Christmas.
Here is an example of an acronymic sentence to remember information in a certain
order. In this example the information to be remembered is about history of primary
education in pre-independent India.
1. Woods Dispatch of 1854
2. Lord Stanley‘s Dispatch of 1859
3. Hunter Commission
4. Curzon‘s Resolution of 1904
355
5. Gopal Krishna Gokhle‘s Efforts
6. Hartog Committee Report (1929)
7. Sargent Plan (1945)
In this example, the order cannot be changed from that shown. An acronymic
sentence you could write to remember this information is:
Want Long Hair Cosmetic Get. Hair Shampoo.
Since two of the commissions to be remembered each begin with the letter ―h‖ you
will have to later recall that the first ―Hair‖ stands for Hunter Commission and
second for Hartog committee.
For recalling the pairing of nuclear bases in DNA, ―At the Girls Club‖ which refers
to Adenine pairs Thymine, and Guanine pairs Cytosine.
Activity:
Write an acronymic sentence for each of the following sets of information.
1.
Five Indian states in any order : Chennai, Delhi, West Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat
..........................................................................................................................
2.
Five methods of acquiring Indian citizenship:
Birth
Descent
Registration
Naturalisation
Incorporation of territory
..........................................................................................................................
3.
Biological classification of organisms in the order:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
..........................................................................................................................
356
4.
Six types of psychological tests used in educational research:
Achievement Test
Intelligence Test
Aptitude Test
Interest Inventories
Attitude Scales
Personality Inventories
..........................................................................................................................
5.
Now, locate in your textbook or your class notes some information that can
be remembered in an order and for which acronymic sentence is a good
remembering strategy. Write the pieces of information here.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
6.
Write an acronymic sentence to remember this information.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
7.
Now, locate in your textbook or your class notes some information that must
be remembered in a certain order and for which acronymic sentence is a
good remembering strategy. Write the pieces of information here.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
8.
Write an acronymic sentence to remember this information.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
Ans.1. We met Gandhiji duplicate currently, Ans.2. Delhi boy ran near Iceland,
Ans.3. King prince Chandragupta offers fresh grass soup, Ans.4. Partying in
America is always awesome. (you may form sentences of your choice.)
357
(6-5)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
_________________ is a strategy that is equally useful for remembering
information in any order or remembering information in a certain order.
Q.2.
The difference between acronym and acronymic sentence strategy is that
the first letter of each piece of information to be remembered is used to
form a __________ rather than a word.
Q.3.
For recalling the pairing of nuclear bases in DNA, the acronymic sentence
__________________can be used.
6.6
KEYWORD
Keyword is a strategy in which you learn a new word or concept by linking it with a
word that sounds like it and whose meaning you already know. You may also
connect the keyword with a visual cue by either using a picture or just visualizing an
image.
How to use the technique?
Here are the steps on how to form a keyword:
1.
Change the word whose meaning you need to remember into a keyword.
Your keyword should be a word whose meaning you know and that sounds
like the entire word or a major part of the word whose meaning you must
remember.
2.
Create a picture in your mind that relates your keyword to the meaning of
the word whose meaning you must remember.
3.
Think of your keyword for the word whose meaning you must remember and
then recall the picture you created in your mind.
Example:
Here is an example of how the keyword strategy is used to remember the concept of
artery and vein.
First, change the word ―vein‖ and ―artery‖ into the Keyword ―in‖ and ―A‖
respectively.
Secondly, create a picture in your mind of impure blood (blue colour) flowing into
the heart through vein and pure blood (red colour) flowing ‗away‘ from the heart
through the artery.
358
Word
keyword
Strategy
Vein
In
The blood flow into the heart
Artery
A
The blood flows away from the Heart
Use the keyword strategy to remember the meaning of each of the following words.
The meaning for each word is provided.
Activity
For each word, write your keyword and describe the picture you would create in
your mind.
1.
Centurion : a commander in the army of ancient Rome.
Keyword: ..........................................................................................................
Picture: ..........................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2.
Heuristic : A commonsense rule (or set of rules) intended to increase the
probability of solving some problem
Keyword: ..........................................................................................................
Picture: ..........................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.
Matrix : a rectangular array of quantities or expressions set out by rows and
columns
Keyword: ..........................................................................................................
Picture: ..........................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4.
Taxonomy: A classification of organisms into groups based on similarities of
structure or origin etc
Keyword: ..........................................................................................................
Picture: ..........................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
5.
Now, locate in a textbook or your class notes a word whose meaning you
have to remember. Write the word here.
Keyword: ..........................................................................................................
Picture: ..........................................................................................................
359
6.
Write the meaning of the word.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
7.
Write the keyword you would use to remember the meaning of the word.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
8.
Describe the picture you would create in your mind.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Ans.1. keyword : century ,commander
Picture: You may visualize the commander in Roman army hitting a century.
Ans.2. Keyword: hero, problem
Picture: You may visualize your hero telling you the set of rules for solving your
maths problems.
Ans.3. Keyword: mat, rows and columns
Picture: You may visualize yourself sitting on a rectangular mat containing infinite
number of rows and columns.
Ans.4. Keywords: Tax, classify
Picture: You may visualize a Tax collector collecting tax by classifying organisms
according to their structure and origin.
(6-6)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
_________________ is a strategy in which you learn a new word or
concept by linking it with a word that sounds like it and whose meaning
you already know.
Q.2.
The first step in the keyword strategy is to change the word whose meaning
you want to remember into a keyword. (T/F)
360
6.7
PEG WORD
Peg word is a strategy that is useful for remembering numbered information or
information in a particular order. Pegwords refer to a set of rhyming words that are
used to represent numbers. Each pegword is substituted for a number word and is
then associated with the information to be remembered.
For most purposes, ten pegwords are sufficient. The suggested pegwords for the
numbers one to ten are as follows. You can substitute your own pegword if you
wish.
Number word
Peg word
One
bun
Two
shoe
Three
tree
Four
door
Five
hive
Six
sticks
Seven
heaven
Eight
gate
Nine
sign
Ten
pen
How to use the technique?
Here are the steps on how to use the peg word strategy:
1.
Think of the first piece of information you must remember.
2.
Think of the pegword for the number word one. The peg word for one is bun.
3.
Form an association in your mind between the peg word run and the first
piece of information you must remember. Create a picture in your mind of
this association.
4.
Repeat steps 1-3 for each additional piece of information you must
remember. Substitute the peg word shoe for the second piece of information,
tree for the third piece of information, and so on.
361
Example
Here is an example of how the peg words strategy is used to remember the number
one cause of death in women, which is heart disease. To remember this, associate
heart disease with the peg word bun. For example, create a picture in your mind of a
woman eating a bun with a symbol of heart enlarged over her chest.
PICTURE --------------------Example
To remember that insects have six legs, first associate insects with peg word sticks.
Then create a picture in your mind of an insect sitting on your ice cream stick.
Activity
The three major acts that led to the American Revolutionary War : The Sugar Act of
1764, the Stamp Act of 1765, and the Boston Tea Party 1767.
Now, describe the pictures you would create in your mind using the peg word
strategy to remember the above information : (Answer has been given below.
However, you may use your own imagination to remember the following
information)
1
First Cause: The Sugar Act
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2.
Second Cause : The Stamp Act
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
362
3.
Third Cause : Boston Tea Party
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4.
Now locate in a textbook or your class notes some information for which peg
words is a good remembering. Write the information here.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
5.
Describe the picture you would create in your mind to remember this
information.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Ans.1. to remember the first cause i.e. sugar act associate pegword for one which is
a bun to sugar. You may picture a bun sprinkled with crystals of sugar.
Ans.2. to remember the second cause i.e. stamp act associate pegword for two which
is a shoe to stamp. You may picture your shoes covered with stamps from various
countries.
Ans.3. to remember the third cause i.e. Boston tea party associate pegword for three
which is a tree to a tea party. You may picture yourself having a tea party on a tree
with your friends.
(6-7)
TEST YOURSELF
Q.1.
Peg
word
is
a
strategy
that
is
useful
for
remembering
_____________information.
Q.2
____________ refer to a set of rhyming words that are used to represent
numbers.
Q.3.
Write down the peg words for the numbers one to ten.
..........................................................................................................................
363
6.8
SUMMING UP
Information retrieval skills come into picture when we need to give exams, give
talks, participate in seminars or debate, solve problems, etc. The following
techniques may be used to improve your information retrieval skill:

Acronym
Acronym is a strategy for remembering information in which you form a word using
the first letter of each piece of information to be remembered.

Abbreviation
Abbreviation strategy can be used when you have to remember information in a
certain order.

Acronymic sentence
In this strategy the first letter of each piece of information to be remembered is used
to form a sentence rather than a word.

Peg words
Peg words is a strategy that is useful for remembering numbered information or
information in a particular order. Peg words refer to a set of rhyming words that are
used to represent numbers. Each peg word is substituted for a number word and is
then associated with the information to be remembered.

Keyword
Keyword is a strategy in which you learn a new word or concept by linking it with a
word that sounds like it and whose meaning you already know. You may also
connect the keyword with a visual cue by either using a picture or just visualizing an
image.
6.9
REFLECTIONS
1.
Think about what you have learned in this unit. Write about it here.
364
2.
How will this make you a better student?
3.
How will this make you a better teacher ?
ANSWER KEY
6-3.
Ans.1. Acronym
Ans.2. real, non sense
Ans.3. False
6-4.
Ans.1. True
Ans.2. VIBGYOR
Ans.3. United Nation Organisation
6-5
Ans.1. Acronymic sentence
Ans.2. sentence
Ans.3. At the girls club
365
6-6.
Ans.1.Keyword
Ans.2. True
6-7
Ans.1. numbered
Ans.2. peg words
Ans.3. refer pg.13
366
REFERENCES:
Richmond, A.S. et al. (2008). Transfer of method of loci, peg word, and keyword
mnemonics in the eight grade classroom. Researcher, 21(2), 1-13.
Sousa, D.A.(2006). How the brain learns. Corwin Press, California.
http://www.mindpowerindia.com
http://www.learningassistance.com
http://www.flocabulary.com
http://www.eudesign.com/mnem
367