The War of 1812: Still a Forgotten Conflict?
Author(s): Donald R. Hickey
Source: The Journal of Military History, Vol. 65, No. 3 (Jul., 2001), pp. 741-769
Published by: Society for Military History
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http://www.jstor.org
Historiographical
Essay
The Warof 1812:
Still a ForgottenConflict?
Donald R. Hickey*
IN
1999 David Curtis Skaggs published a review in the William and
of 1812. In that review,
Mary Quarterlyof two new books on the WVar
Skaggs said: "Since the publication of Donald R. Hickey's The War of
1812: A ForgottenConflict(Urbana, Ill., 1989), therehas been a veritable floodofbooks tryingto disprovehis subtitle."'Skaggs'sassessmentis
certainlycorrect, at least on the war's militaryhistory.In the 1990s
books bearingon the militaryhistoryofthe
alone more than seventy-five
conflictwere published, making this the most prolificdecade ever for
1812 studies. And judging fromadditional projects known to be under
way,there appears to be no letup in sight.
In the mid-1980s,when I began in earnest to workon my book, the
historiographicallandscape was very different.Two source guides had
* This articleis limitedto secondarysourcesand,witha fewnotableexceptions,
does not includerecentworksthatreproducememoirsor otherdocuments.An earlierdraftwas presentedat theannual conventionoftheSocietyforHistoriansofthe
N.Y.,on 21 July2000. I am indebtedto
EarlyAmericanRepublic(SHEAR) in Buffalo,
a hostofpeopleforassistance.Don Gravesand Gene Smithhave been especiallygenerous in sharingtheirknowledgeof the literatureon the war.I am also indebtedto
BillDudleyand ChristineHughesand theirassociatesat theNavalHistoricalCenter;
McKee,Bob Maland to KevinCrisman,Dave Edmunds,Annavon Lunz,Christopher
comson,FrankPytko,David Skaggs,and JohnStagg.Finally,I wantto thanktwostaff
membersat the U. S. Conn Libraryat XVTayne
State College:JuneDavidsonat the
loan desk showedher customaryefficiency
in trackingdownitemsand
interlibrary
web
documentsdeskbroughta numberofpertinent
GaylePoirierat thegovernment
sitesto myattention.
1. Williamand MaryQuarterly,3d ser.,56 (January1999): 228. The twobooks
wereJosephWhitehorne's
TheBattleforBaltimoreand AnthonyPitch'sTheBurning
of Wtashington,bothofwhichare discussedbelow.
The .Jouwnl of Military Hlistor, 65 (July2001): 741-69
(C Society forAlilitaryhIistorv
*
741
DONALD R. IIICKEY
just been published:JohnFredriksen'sbibliography,which lists over six
thousand works, and Dwight Smith's annotated bibliography,which
describes almost fourteen hundred.2 Although Fredriksen's work is
marredby a greatmany transcriptionerrors,it is stillthe most complete
bibliographyon the war.
We also had a numberof good general militaryhistoriesof the war.
HarryColes's studywas the liveliest;ReginaldHorsman's was the most
accurate; and John Mahon's was the most detailed. In addition, Glenn
Tucker had writtena two-volumestudywhich offeredthe best context
forthe war; and Tuckerhad collaboratedwithJamesR. Jacobs on a short
volume thatprovidedthe best explanationof militarypolicy and equipment.3Two Canadian scholars,J. Mackay Hitsman and George Stanley,
had writtenfineaccounts of the fightingalong the Canadian-American
border.4Hitsman'sworkwas a solid militaryhistorypresentingthe Canadian perspective,while Stanley'sstudyprovidedgood detail and balance
and showed a finegrasp of the importanceof logistics.Althoughthere
were recent studies of the fighting
on the GulfCoast and in the Champlain Valley,fewotherbattlesor campaignshad been subjected to modern analysis.5
The state of historiographyon the war at sea was much the same.
Theodore Roosevelt's nineteenth-century
study was still the best work
on the naval war,and AlfredThayerMahan's 1905 studystillofferedthe
2. JohnC. Fredriksen,
Free Trade and Sailors' Rights:A Bibliographly
of the
Warof1812 (WNTestport,
Conn.: GreenwoodPress,1985); DwightL. Smith,ThleWarof
1812: An AnnotatedBibliographly
(New York:GarlandPublishing,1985).
3. HarryL. Coles,ThleWarof1812 (Chicago:University
ofChicagoPress,1965);
ReginaldHorsman,The War of1812 (New York:Knopf,1969); JohnK. Mahon,The
Warof1812 (Gainesville:University
ofFloridaPress,1972); GlennTucker,Poltroons
and Patriots:A PopularAccountoftheWarof1812, 2 vols.(Indianapolis:Bobbs-MerrillCompany,1954); JamesRipleyJacobs and Glenn Tucker,ThleWar of 1812: A
CompactHistory(New York:HawthornBooks,1969). Horsman,Mahon,and Tucker
documentedtheirwork;Coles and Jacobs-Tucker
did not.
4. J.MackayHitsman,ThleIncredibleWarof1812: A MilitaryHistory(Toronto:
of TorontoPress, 1965); GeorgeF. G. Stanley,ThleWtarof 1812: Land
University
Operations(Toronto:MacmillanofCanada and NationalMuseumsofCanada, 1983).
Hitsmandid not documenthis work;Stanleyprovidedonlylightdocumentation.
5. For theGulfCoast,see CharlesB. Brooks,TheSiege ofNew Orleans (Seattle:
ofWVashington
University
Press,1961); WilburtS. Brown,TheAmphibiousCampaign
for WestFlorida and Louisiana, 1814-1815: A CriticalReview ofStrategyand Tactics at New Orleans (University:
ofAlabama Press, 1969); and FrankL.
University
theGulfBorderlands:The CreekWarand theBattleofNew
Owsley,Jr.,StruggleJfor
PressesofFlorida,1981). FortheChamOrleans,1812-1815 (Gainesville:University
plain Valley,see Allan S. Everest,The Warof 1812 in the Champlain Valley(Syracuse, N.Y.:SyracuseUniversity
Press,1981).
742
*
THE JOUTRNALOF
____
The War of 1812
best analysis of naval strategy.6
Beyond this,we had only a fewmodern
naval biographiesand ship studies.7
General Works
Today,the literatureon the militaryhistoryof the war is farricher.
JohnFredriksen,who has emergedas the war's unofficialbibliographer
(at least ofAmericansources), has publishedan annotatedworkdescribing 870 eyewitnessaccounts and is now workingon an annotatedlist of
all the manuscriptcollectionsbearingon the conflict.8We also have two
new encyclopedias. One, prepared by David and Jeanne Heidler, is
devoted exclusivelyto the war.9Perhaps out of necessity,the Heidlers
wrote a large number of the entries themselves,and the other essays
were not alwaysassigned to the leadingauthorityon the subject. In addition, the focus of the work is clearly American. Even so, the Heidlers
managed to secure essays froma finegroup of scholars, and the resulting work,repletewithmaps, illustrations,documents,a chronology,and
a bibliography,is a splendid accomplishment. Equally impressive is
RobertRutland'sencyclopedia of JamesMadison, which includes a host
of essays on 1812 subjects, many writtenby distinguishedscholars."''
In the 1990s several general militaryhistoriesof the war were published. In both my originalworkand in an abridgededitionpublishedin
1995, I had arguedthatthe UnitedStates lost the war because it had initiated the contest and yet had not achieved the aims forwhich it was
In a shortaccount publishedin 1990, Canadian WesleyTurner
fighting."1
6. TheodoreRoosevelt,ThteNaval Warof1812 (NewYork:G. P. Putnam'sSons,
1882); A. T. Mahan,Sea Power and Its Relationto theWarof1812, 2 vols. (Boston:
Little,Brown,and Company,1905). BeforeRoosevelt'swork,thebest accountofthe
naval war,and it is also verygood,was JamesFenimoreCooper'sHistoryoftheNavy
of the UnitedStates ofAmerica,2d ed., 2 vols. (Philadelphia:Lea and Blanchard,
1840).
Lifeand
7. Mostnotably,LindaM. Maloney,The CaptainfromConnecticut:Thte
University
Press,1986); and Tyrone
Naval TimesofIsaac Hull (Boston:Northeastern
G. Martin,A MostFortunateShip: A NarrativeHistoryof "Old Ironsides"(Chester,
Conn.: Globe PequotPress,1980).
8. JohnC. Fredriksen,
Warof1812 EyewitnessAccounts:An AnnotatedBibliographly
(WVestport,
Conn.: GreenwoodPress,1997).
of1812
9. David S. Heidlerand JeanneT. Heidler,eds.,EncyclopediaoftheWVar
(Santa Barbara,Calif.:ABC-CLIO, 1997).
10. Robert A. Rutland, ed., James Madison and the American Nation,
1751-1836: An Encyclopedia(New York:Simonand Schuster,1994).
11. The abridgededitionis The Warof1812: A ShortHistory(Urbana:Universityof IllinoisPress,1995). Canadian historianGeorgeStanleyalso arguedthatthe
UnitedStateslostthewar.See Stanley,Warof1812, 407.
MILITARY IIISTORY
*
743
DONALD R. IIICKEY
arguedthatboth sides won.12 The United States had won because it had
eliminated the Britishand Indians as a threat,and Canada had won
because it had fended offinvasion and vindicated its existence as a
nation. Anothermilitaryhistory,writtenby the late John Elting,is a
livelyworkthatshows a good commandofgeographyand ofarmyorganization and proceduresbut illustratesthe dangersofwritinghistoryfrom
secondary sources.13 AlthoughEltingwas an accomplished historianof
the Napoleonic Wars, his treatmentof the War of 1812 is filledwith
errorsand misconceptions.
By contrast,Canadian Donald E. Graves has done a finejob ofupdating J. Mackay Hitsman's1965 work.14Except formakingsome cosmetic
changes and correctinga few errors,Graves has reproducedHitsman's
chapterthat traces
originaltext.However,he has added an introductory
the historyof the myththat the militiawon the war forCanada. He also
has incorporatednew illustrationsand maps and appended a splendid
bibliographythat focuses on Britishand Canadian sources. Even more
impressive,Graves and severalCanadian colleagues have undertakenthe
Hitsman'sworkwithendnotes.Gravesalso
painstakingtaskofretrofitting
has writtenan essay presentinghis own view of the war, emphasizing
internaldissentin Canada.15 The late RobertQuimby'stwo-volumework
on the American army's role is yet another recent militaryhistory.16
Based mainlyon governmentdocuments,thisworkreads like a semiofficial account. Althoughthe numbingdetail and ponderous stylemay put
some readers off,foreveryone this study should be a useful reference
work.Moreover,Quimbydoes a good job ofcomparingwhatthe principal
participantsactuallydid withwhattheylaterclaimed in theirmemoirs.17
Philip Katcher and Bryan Fosten have prepared another general
series.',8This brief
workon the war,a volume in the OspreyMen-at-Arms
thatBothSides Won(Toronto:
12. WesleyB. Turner,The Warof1812: The Wtar
DundurnPress,1990).
13. JohnR. Elting,Amateursto Arms!A MilitaryHistoryof the War of 1812
(Chapel Hill,N.C.: AlgonquinBooks,1991).
14. J.MackayHlitsman,
ThteIncredibleWarof1812: A Milita?rHisto?, updated
by Donald E. Graves(Toronto:RobinBrass Studio,1999).
15. Donald E. Graves,"The Warof1812 alongtheSt. LawrenceBorderand the
inA Shared Heritage:ThteHistorical
Lake OntarioLittoral:A CanadianPerspective,"
LegacyofSacketsHarborand MadisonBarracks,ed. JanM. Saltzgaber(Ithaca,N.Y.:
Ithaca College,1993), 15-31.
16. RobertS. Quimby,The U.S. Armyin theWarof1812: An Operationaland
Press,1997).
CommandStudy,2 vols. (East Lansing:MichiganStateUniversity
out humbugis in
17. The onlytimethatQuimbyshowsa blindspotin ferreting
Detroitin 1812. UnaccountofGeneralWilliamHull,who surrendered
his treatment
QuimbydefendsHull even thoughhis memoirsare
ably and uncharacteristically,
manifestly
at odds withthehistoricalrecord.See ibid.,1: 46-48.
18. PhilipKatcherand BryanFosten,TheAmericanWar,1812-1814 (London:
Osprey,1990).
744
*
THE JOURNAL OF
-- Thze
War of1812
book contains photographsand paintingsof the uniformsof the armies
on both sides. Rene Chartrand has written a more comprehensive
account ofthe uniforms,arms,and equipmentofall the Americanforces
in the war-regulars, militia,marines,naval personnel,and even some
privateersmen.19
This study is richlyillustratedand loaded with information. Chartrand also has completed two volumes in a large-format
three-volumeworkon Canada's militaryheritage.2"1This workhas a distinctFrancophone bias, and its treatmentof the War of 1812 is pedestrian,but it is well illustratedand presentsa good descriptionof British
armylifein nineteenth-century
Canada. Chartrandalso has collaborated
with Gerry Embleton on a short volume in the Osprey Men-at-Arms
series on the uniformsof the Britishand Canadian forcesof the era.2' In
anotherstudyofuniforms,Brian Dunniganhas examined the difficulties
thatboth sides had outfitting
troopson the westernfrontier.22
Gerard Altoffdescribes the neglected role of AfricanAmericans in
the conflict.23
Altoffsuggests that because of growingAmerican manpowerneeds, AfricanAmericansplayed an increasinglyimportantrole in
the war on land, at sea, and on the lakes. David Skaggsand LarryNelson
have an anthologyin press that will examine a broad range of topics
bearingon the War of 1812 on the Great Lakes.24FrederickDrake has
writtena finearticlegivingan overviewof the war on the lakes.25Donald E. Graves has writtenseveralwell-researchedarticleson the artillery
and ordnance used duringthe war and on the trainingand drillmanuals
employed by the American army.26Robert Henderson has given us a
good description of the diet and eating habits of British regulars in
19. Rene Chartrand,Uniformsand Equipmentof the UnitedStates Forces in
thelWarof1812 (Youngstown,
N.Y.:Old FortNiagaraAssociation,1992).
20. Rene Chartrand,
Canadian MilitaryHeritage,3 vols. (Montreal:ArtGlobal,
1993- ).
21. Rene Chartrandand GerryEmbleton,BritishForces in NorthAmerica,
1793-1815 (London:OspreyPublishing,1998).
22. BrianLeighDunnigan,"To Make a MilitaryAppearance:Uniforming
Michigan'sMilitiaand Fencibles,"MichiganHistoricalReview 15 (Spring1989): 29-43.
and thelWarof
23. GerardT. Altoff,
AmongstMyBestMen:African-Americans
1812 (Put-in-Bay,
Ohio: PerryGroup,1996).
24. David CurtisSkaggsand LarryL. Nelson,eds., The SixtyYears'Warforthe
GreatLakes, 1754-1814, MichiganStateUniversity
Press,forthcoming.
of
25. FrederickC. Drake,"The NiagaraPeninsulaand NavalAspectsoftheWVar
1812,' in The Military in the Niagara Peninsula, ed. Wesley B. Turner (St.
Catharines,Ont.: VanwellPublishing,1990), 15-37.
oftheWVar
of1812: Equipment,Organiza26. Donald E. Graves,"FieldArtillery
ArmsCollecting30 (May 1992): 39-48; "American
tion,Tacticsand Effectiveness,"
of 1812: A PreliminaryInvestigation,"
Ordnance of the WVar
ArmnsCollecting31
(November1993): 111-20; and "From Steuben to Scott: The Adoptionof French
Tacticsby the U.S. Army,1807-1816,"Acta (InternationalCommissionof
Infantry
MilitaryHistoryHeld in Helsinkiin 1988) 13 (1991): 223-33.
MILITARY HISTORY
*
745
DONALDR. IIICKEY
Canada.27FrankWinterhas writtenan informativeaccount of the Congreve rocket system,which the Britishused extensivelyin the Chesapeake campaign of 1814 and which various Americaninventorstriedto
duplicate.28And for those who wish to tour the battlefields,Gilbert
Collins's recent handbook covers most known sites and supersedes all
earlierguides.29
The Officersand Men
We have a number of new works on the officersand men of the
opposingarmies. WilliamSkelton'ssuperb workon the Americanofficer
corps examines the evolutionofthe Americanarmyfromthe Revolution
to the Civil War.3"1Althoughfocusingon the antebellum period, when
Skelton believes a trulyprofessionalofficercorps emerged,the War of
1812 clearly sowed the seeds. In a recent article,Skelton has detailed
how the army's high command (field and general grade officers)was
graduallytransformed
between 1808 and 1815.3l In this article,Skelton
attributesearly failuresin the War of 1812 less to the incompetenceof
the officersthan to institutionalweaknesses in the army.
Anotherbook on the Americanofficercorps is JohnFredriksen'scollection of biographicalsketches of thirtyAmericanofficerswho served
on the Niagara frontierin the so-called LeftDivision of the army.32Evidentlyaimed at a popular audience, this workis too superficialto be of
much use to scholars. Fredriksenalso has writtena usefulworkon the
historyof the army's regimentof riflemen,which he calls "the most
effectiveinfantryformationfieldedby the United States in the War of
1812."33 This is the firstdetailed regimentalhistorythatwe have forthe
27. RobertHenderson,"Diet and MessingArrangements
of the BritishArmyin
UpperCanada at the OpeningoftheWarof 1812,"MilitaryCollectorand Historian
49 (Winter1997): 175-82.
28. FrankH. Winter,The First Golden Age of Rocketry:Congreveand Hale
RocketsoftheNineteenth
Smithsonian
Century(Washington:
Institution
Press,1990).
29. GilbertCollins,GuidebooktotheHistoricSites oftheWarof1812 (Toronto:
DundurnPress,1998).
30. WilliamB. Skelton,An AmericanProfessionof Arms: The ArmyOfficer
PressofKansas,1993).
Corps,1784-1861 (Lawrence:University
31. WilliamB. Skelton,"HighArmyLeadershipin the Era of the W\ar
of 1812:
The Makingand Remakingof the OfficerCorps,"Williamand Mary Quarterly,3d
ser.,51 (April1994): 253-74.
32. JohnC. Fredriksen,
Officersof the War of 1812 withPortraitsand Anecdotes:The UnitedStatesArmny
LeftDivision GalleryofHonor(Lewiston,NY: Edwin
MellenPress,1989).
33. JohnC. Fredriksen,
GreenCoats and Glory:The UnitedStatesRegimentof
N.Y.:Old FortNiagaraAssociation,2000). Quota1808-1821 (Youngstown,
Riflemen,
tionfromp. 72. Althoughonlyone rifleregimentservedforthe durationofthewar,
Congresscreatedthreeothersin 1814.
746
*
THE JOURNAL OF
-__ ___ ___ ___ __ ______ ___ __ ___ ___ __
_
-- The War of 1812
war. Finally,in an importantrecent article, John Stagg compares the
peacetime and wartimearmies in the United States between 1802 and
1815 and concludes thattheyattractedverydifferent
kindsofrecruits.34
Anotherusefulstudyis Edward Skeen's detailed account of the role
of the American militia.35AlthoughSkeen never solved the organizationalproblemof tellinga storythatinvolvedmilitiafromthirteenstates
servingin theaters all over the United States, his work is loaded with
informationand thenceforthshould be the startingpoint for anyone
interestedin the militia'srole. Mark Pitcavagehas added a pair of informative articles on the militia,one showingthat a small population and
tax base in strategicallyimportantfrontierareas doomed the territorial
militiato ineffectiveness,
and the othershowinghow growingopposition
to militiaservice virtuallykilled the system in Ohio by the end of the
war.36Michael Belleslles's recent work on American gun culture also
bears on the militia,since he claims thatthe ownershipofguns and proficiencyin theiruse was farless widespread in the early national period
than previouslyhad been thought.37Bellesiles's research is impressive
and his case appears compelling,but his work should be read in conjunction with that of Clayton Cramer, who argues persuasively that
Bellesiles misused some sources and ignored evidence indicatingthat
the ownershipand use ofguns was actuallycommonplace.38
Several recent biographies of American generals should be noted.
John Eisenhower'sstudy of WinfieldScott presents a good narrativeof
Scott'smilitarycareer but is too uncriticaland especiallyweak whenever
34. J.C. A. Stagg,"Soldiersin Peace and War:ComparativePerspectiveson the
Recruitment
of the UnitedStatesArmy,1802-1815," Williamand MaryQuarterly,
3d ser.,57 (January2000): 79-120.
35. C. EdwardSkeen,CitizenSoldiers in theWarof 1812 (Lexington:UniversityPressofKentucky,
1999).
36. MarkPitcavage,"Ropes ofSand: Territorial
Militia,1801-1812,"Journalof
theEarly Republic 13 (Winter1993): 481-500; and "'Burthenedin Defenceof Our
of1812,"Ohio History
Servicein Ohio duringtheWVar
Rights':Oppositionto Military
104 (Summer-Autumn
1995): 142-62.
37. Michael A. Bellesiles,"The Originsof Gun Culturein the UnitedStates,
1760-1865,"JournalofAmericanHistoy 83 (September1996): 425-55, andArming
America:The Originsofa National Gun Culture(New York:AlfredA. Knopf,2000).
For additionalcriticismsof Bellesiles'swork,see Kimberley
A. Strassel,"Arm-Twisting,"5 April2001,at <http://wwxv.OpinionJournal.com>.
According
to Strassel,Bellesiles
bya flood.
sayshe cannotrespondto hiscriticsbecausehis notesweredestroyed
38. See Clayton E. Cramer "The Truthabout Bellesiles'ArmingAmerica,"
America's1stFreedom, November-December
2000, 55-57, 68. See also thematerial
that Cramer has presentedon several web sites: <http://www.ggnra.org/cramer/
ArmingAmericaLong.pdf>,
<http://ww-w.ggnra.org/cramer/ArmingAmericaFraud.pdf
and <http://www.ggnra.org/cramner/GunScarcity.pdf>.
MIILITARY HISTORY
*
747
DONALD R. IIICKEY
the authorstraysfromstrictlymilitarymatters.39
More usefulis Timothy
Johnson'sstudy of Scott, which shows a better grasp of his subject's
weaknesses-his oversized ego and other "fatalcharacter flaws."4"1Also
valuable is JohnMorris'snew biographyof long-neglectedJacob Brown,
which has burnishedthe reputationof a general who had a remarkably
successfulwartimeand postwar militarycareer.4'Morriscredits Brown
withwinningfourof the nine major Americanvictoriesin the war, and
withplayinga centralrole in the postwarreformof the army.42
For the Britishofficercorps,we have WesleyTurner'sthoughtful
and
innovativestudy of the leadership, civilian and military,of fivegenerals-George Prevost,Isaac Brock,RogerSheaffe,Francis de Rottenburg,
and Gordon Drummond.43
Turnerranks Brockand Drummondthe highest, followedby Sheaffeand Prevostand then Rottenburg.This ranking
gives Drummondmore creditand Brock less than conventionalwisdom
suggests.AnotherCanadian, StuartSutherland,has preparedan impressive biographicalregisterof the Britishofficerswho served in Canada
duringthe war.44In an illuminatingintroduction,Sutherlandprovidesan
overviewof Britisharmyadministration,includingmuch-neededexplanations of the chain of command in Canada and how the complicated
systemof promotionin the Britisharmyworked.
We also have new worksthat shed lighton the Canadian militia.In
a social historyof Upper Canada, George Sheppard (like several others
beforehim) has takendirectaim at the hoarymyththatthe militiasaved
Canada duringthe war.45Anotherscholar,WilliamGray,has prepareda
39. JohnS. D. Eisenhower,Agentof Destiny:The Life and Times of General
Scott(New York:Free Press,1997).
Winfield
40. Timothy D. Johnson, WinfieldScott: The Quest for Military Glory
PressofKansas,1998). Quotationfromp. 64.
(Lawrence:University
41. JohnMorris,Sword oftheBorder:Major GeneralJacobBrown,1775-1828
(Kent,Ohio: KentStateUniversity
Press,2000).
42. AccordingtoMorris,Brown'sfourvictorieswereSackett'sHarbor,Chippewa,
Lundy'sLane, and thesortiefromFortErie. The otherfiveAmericanvictorieswere
theThames,FortGeorge,thedefenseofFortErie,Plattsburgh,
andNewOrleans.Ibid.,
302n38. Plattsburgh,
whichwas wonon Lake Champlain,and Lundy'sLane, whichis
probablybestseen as a draw,mightwellbe excludedfromthislist.Thatwouldmean
thatBrowvn
won threeoutofsevenmajorAmericanvictorieson land.
43. WesleyB. Turner,BritishGenerals in theWarof1812: HiglhCommand in
theCanadas (Montreal:McGill-Queen'sUniversity
Press,1999).
44. StuartSutherland,
His Majesty'sGentlemen:A DirectoryofBritishRegular
ArmyOjficersoftheWarof1812 (QToronto]:
Iser Publications,2000). This workhas
been privately
printedand is notwidelyavailable.It deservesa commercialpressand
muchwiderdistribution.
In themeantime,interestedpartiescan acquirea copyonly
to Iser Publicationsat 63 MadisonAve.,Toronto,ON, Canada M5R 2S3.
by writing
45. GeorgeSheppard,Plunder,Profits,
and Paroles:A Social HistoryoftheWVar
of1812 in UpperCanada (Montreal:McGill-Queen'sUniversity
Press,1994). Some
Canadian scholarshave challengedSheppard'suse ofevidencein thiswork.See, for
BritishGeneralsin theWarof1812, 120, 140, 194n30,197-98n55.
example,Turner,
748
*
THE JOURNAL OF
Thle War ?f 1812
guide to the militia fromUpper Canada who served in the conflict.46
Althoughundocumented,his workprovidesa particularlygood overview
of the militia.In contrastto Sheppard,Gray argues that citizen soldiers
in Canada made a significantcontribution(particularlyin supporting
roles) and thatmanyofthose who refusedto serve did so simplybecause
the pay was so pitiful-especiallycompared to wages in the labor-starved
private sector. Yet another scholar, Luc Lepine, has prepared a biographical directoryof the 2,700 militia officerswho served in the war
from Lower Canada.47 In still another study, David Facey-Crowther
argues that the main purpose of the New Brunswickmilitiawas to provide a pool of recruitsfromwhich volunteerprovincialcorps could be
raised in time of crisis.48Two such corps, enrolling1,300 men, were
raised duringthe War of 1812. Finally,in a briefarticle Rene Chartrand
the Canadian voyageurs (furtraders)
describes the attemptto transform
into a militarysupplycorps.4"
The Old Northwest
In addition to these general studies, there have been many specialized studies of battlesand campaigns.Of the fivemajor theatersof operations, the Old Northwestwas probablythe least importantbecause it
was so far removed fromthe centers of power, population, and commerce furthereast. Nevertheless,it was fiercelycontested. In a studyof
Britishgeneral Henry Procter'srole, Sandy Antal has given us a new
Antal seeks
account of the campaigningon the DetroitRiverfrontier.50
to rehabilitateProcter'sreputation.Althoughnot entirelysuccessfulafterall, Procter lost an army at the Thames and was severely condemned by a militarycourt-Antal remindsus thatProcterplayed a role
in earlier Britishvictories.51In addition,Antal providesa good analysis
46. WilliamGray,SoldiersoftheKing:The UpperCanadian Militia,1812-1815
(Erin,Ont.: BostonMillsPress,1995).
47. Luc Lepine, Les officiersde milice du Bas-Canada, 1812-1815/Lower
Canada's Militia Officers,1812-1815 (Montreal:Societe genealogiquecanadiennefrangaise,1996). The introductionto this workis in Frenchand English;the biographicalsketches(mostofwhichare verybrief)are in French.
48. David Facey-Crowther,
The New BrunswickMilitia,1787-1867 (FredericNewIrelandPressand NewBrunswickHistoricalSociety,1990).
ton,NewBrunswick:
duringtheWNar
of 1812,"Journalof
49. Rene Chartrand,"Canadian\Toyageurs
theSocietyforArmyHistoricalResearch72 (Autumn1994): 184-86.
50. SandyAntal,A WampumDenied: Procter'sWarof 1812 (Ottawa:Carleton
Press,1997).
University
51. For a more concise and focused defenseof Procter,see Antal's article,
"Mythsand Facts ConcerningGeneral Procter,"Ontario History79 (September
1987): 251-62.
MNILITARYHISTORY
*
749
DONALD R. IIICKEY
of Britishpolicy and strategyand of warfareon the Detroit and Ohio
frontiers.In another study bearing on this theater, Bruce Bowlus
describes the Britishassault on Fort Stephenson in Lower Sandusky
(now Fremont),Ohio, in 1813.52In still anotherwork,Stuart Rammage
examines the little-knownBattle of Malcom's Mills in western Upper
Canada in 1814.33 Finally,Donald Melhornseeks to determinethe accuracy of one of John Richardson'stales of Indian nobilityat the siege of
FortMeigs.54
There also are a number of new studies of the war on Lake Erie, a
waterwaycrucial to the land war in the Old Northwest.In 1988 a special
issue of the Journal of Erie Studies was published commemoratingthe
175th anniversaryof Oliver H. Perry'svictoryon Lake Erie. This contains a number of informativeessays, most notably Michael Palmer's
compellingindictmentof Perry.55About the same time, Gerard Altoff
published an equally compelling indictmentof Perry'snemesis, Jesse
Duncan Elliott.56Shortly thereafter,William Welsh and David Skaggs
publishedanotheranthology,which has an especially illuminatingessay
on the murkysubject of naval tactics and artilleryby FrederickDrake.57
Less useful is Robert Ilisevich's briefand undocumented biographyof
Daniel Dobbins, the man who oversaw the constructionof Perry'sfleet
on Lake Erie.58
We also have several new workson the Battleof Lake Erie. Canadians Robertand Thomas Malcomson have produced a large-format,
heavily illustratedbook aimed at a general audience.59 Their account gives
52. Bruce Bowlus,"A 'Signal Victory':The BattleforFortStephenson,August
1991): 43-57.
1-2, 1813,"NorthwestOhio Quarterly63 (Summer-Autumn
53. StuartA. Rammage,ThteMilitia Stood Alone:Malcom'sMills, 6 November
2000).
1814 (Summerland,BritishColumbia:ValleyPublishing,
54. Donald F. Melhorn,Jr.,"'A SplendidMan': Richardson,Ft. Meigsand the
StoryofMetoss,"NorthwestOhio Quarterly69 (Summer1997): 133-60.
55. MichaelA. Palmer,"A FailureofCommand,Control,and Communications:
OliverHazard Perryand the Battleof Lake Erie,"JournalofErie Studies 17 (Fall
1988): 7-26.
56. Gerard T. Altoff,"The Perry-ElliottControversy,"Northwest Ohio Quarterly
60 (Autumn1988): 135-52. TwoyearslaterLawrenceJ. Friedmanand David Curtis
Skaggsenteredthe debate,claimingthat,contraryto popularbelief,Elliottwas not
mentallyunstable.See "JesseDuncan Elliottand theBattleofLake Erie:The Issue of
MentalStability,"
JournaloftheEarlyRepublic 10 (Winter1990): 493-516.
and Its Influenceon NavalTactics:Reflections
57. FrederickC. Drake,"Artillery
the
on the BattleofLake Erie,"in Waron theGreatLakes: Essays Commemorating
Welshand David
175thAnniversaryof theBattleofLake Erie, ed. WilliamJeffrey
CurtisSkaggs(Kent,Ohio: KentStateUniversity
Press,1991), 17-29.
58. Robert D. Ilisevich,Daniel Dobbins: FrontierMariner (Erie, Pa.: Erie
CountyHistoricalSociety,1993).
Th-eBattlefor
59. RobertMalcomsonand Thomas Malcomson,HMS "Detroit"Lake Erie (Annapolis,Md.: Naval InstitutePress,1990).
750
*
THE JOTRNAL
OF
-
War of1812
Thte
due attentionto the Britishside of the storywithoutsacrificingbalance
or ignoringthe American side. RobertMalcomson also has writtenarticles on HMS Detroit,the Britishflagshipin the battle,and George Inglis,
the officerwho surrenderedthisship.60More recently,David Skaggsand
GerardAltoffhave collaboratedon a finestudyof the battle.6' Although
based mainlyon Americansources, theirworkis likelyto be accepted as
the standard treatmentforsome time to come. In a companion piece,
Skaggs has concluded that Perrydid a good job of fosteringcohesion in
his motleycrew.62
In another work on the battle, Altoffpresents the most complete
descriptionwe have of the 600 Americanswho served in Perry'sfleet,40
percentof whom were regularsor militiawithlittleor no naval experience.63We also have two studies that seek to identifythose engaged on
sources, their
the Britishside of the battle,but since theyuse different
results are different.Using mainly POW and casualty records, Robert
Malcomson has identified451 men who were most likelyinvolved;while
Douglas Hendry,Charles Morrisey,and David Skaggs have used Admiraltyand War Officerecords to come up with 564 names.64RobertMalcomson also has examined British command relationships on Lake
Erie.65 Lastly,Edward McHugh has told the storyof a seaman and two
marinesexecuted fordesertionfromthe Americanfleeton Lake Erie.66
The Niagara Frontier
The second major theater of operations-along the Niagara fronofthe war and has generated
tier-witnessed some ofthe fiercestfighting
60. RobertMalcomson,"H.M.S. Detroit 1813: The BritishFlagshipat Put-in1991): 26-32; and "GeorgeInglis:Insightsabout
Bay,"Seaways 2 (January-February
JournalofErie Studies 24
HauledDown theBritishFlagat Put-in-Bay,"
theMan WVho
(Fall 1995): 71-80.
A Signal Victory:The Lake Erte
61. David CurtisSkaggsand GerardT. Altoff,
Campaign,1812-1813 (Annapolis,Md.:Naval InstitutePress,1997).
62. David CurtisSkaggs,"CreatingSmallUnitCohesion:OliverHazardPerryat
the BattleofLake Erie,"ArmedForces and Society23 (Summer1997): 635-68.
Deep WaterSailors, Shallow WaterSoldiers:Manningthe
63. GerardT. Altoff,
Ohio: PerryGroup,1993).
UnitedStates Fleeton Lake Erie, 1813 (Put-in-Bay,
A
64. RobertMalcomson,"The Crews of the BritishSquadron at Put-in-Bay:
Inland Seas 51 (Summer1995): 16-34, and
CompositeMusterRolland Its Insights,"
and DavidCurtisSkaggs,
(Fall 1995): 43-56; DouglasL. Hendry,CharlesC. Morrisey,
"BritishPersonnelat the Battle of Lake Erie," Inland Seas 54 (Winter1998):
298-314. Even thoughboth of these studiesappearedin the same journal,Hendry,
and Skaggsdo not mentionMalcomson'swork.
Morrisey,
Relationshipsamongthe Britishbeforeand
65. Bob Malcomson,"Controversial
afterthe BattleofLake Erie,"Inland Seas 46 (Fall 1990): 187-97.
66. EdwardJames McHugh,"The Erie Executions,"Inland Seas 48 (Winter
1992): 297-304.
MILITARY HISTORY
*
751
DONALDR. IIICKEY
__
some of the best recentliterature.In 1991 ArthurBowleredited an illustratedanthologyon the Niagara theaterwhich includes a numberofusefulessays, most notablyDonald E. Graves's reassessmentof the training
of WinfieldScott's troops at Buffalo.67Graves also has writtenbooks of
exceptional quality on the battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane.""
These works,which have established Graves as the preeminentmilitary
historianof the war,have everythingone could hope for:a good description of the men and equipment,excellent maps and illustrations,and an
uncommonlylucid account of the unfoldingbattles.69Complementing
Graves's work is Joseph Whitehorne'sconcise operational study of the
battles foughtat Fort Erie in 1814.7'' Supplementingthe worksof both
Graves and Whitehorneis RichardBarbuto'snew book on the entireNiagara campaignof 1814.71 Barbuto'sworkincludes freshinsightsand new
detail thoughits real value lies in establishingthe largercontextforthe
campaign. Barbuto analyzes the war aims and national strategyof both
belligerentsand also discusses the influenceof geographyand logistics
and the role of the militiaand Indians.
RobertMalcomson has writtenan essay thatoffersthe best account
of the Battleof Queenston Heights.72Brian Dunniganhas writtena short
article on the historyof the large garrisonflagat Fort Niagara that was
recentlyrepatriatedfromScotland.73And John Stagg has uncovered a
of
67. Donald E. Graves,"'I have a handsomelittlearmy.. .': A Re-Examination
WinfieldScott'sCamp at Buffaloin 1814," in Waralong theNiagara: Essa,s on the
N.Y.:Old FortNiagara
Warof1812 and ItsLegacy,ed. R. ArthurBowler(Youngstown,
Association,1991), 43-52.
68. Donald E. Graves,Red Coats and GreyJackets:Th-eBattleofChippawa, 5
July1814 (Toronto:DundurnPress,1994) and WhereRightand GloryLead! TheBattle ofLundy'sLane, 1814, rev.ed (Toronto:RobinBrass Studio,1997). Chippewais
on each side oftheborder.Americans
one ofseveralbattlesthatis spelleddifferently
spellit "Chippewa,"whileCanadians spellit "Chippawa."
69. Gravesalso has adoptedCharlesOman's simplebut elegantsolutionfordisbetweenthe numberedunitsof opposingarmies.Numeralsare used for
tinguishing
Britishand Canadian forces(thus, 100thRegimentofFoot), whilewrittennumbers
Infantry).
are employedforAmericanforces(hence, Twenty-Fifth
70. JosephWhitehorne,WhileWashingtonBurned: The Battlefor Fort Erie,
1814 (Baltimore:Nautical and AviationPublishing,1992). Whitehornepresentsa
and suppliedFortErie
morecompactviewofhow the Americanarmystrengthened
ofa Warof1812 Batduringitsoccupationin "The BattleofFortErie:Reconstruction
tle,"Prologue22 (Summer1990): 129-48.
71. RichardV. Barbuto,Niagara 1814: America Invades Canada (Lawrence:
PressofKansas,2000).
University
72. RobertMalcomson,"'It remainsonly to fight':The Battle of Queenston
Heights,13 October 1812," in Fightingfor Canada: Seven Battles,1758-1945, ed.
Donald E. Graves(Toronto:RobinBrass Studio,2000), 89-130.
73. Brian Leigh Dunnigan,"Fort Niagara'sStar-SpangledBanner:A Garrison
Color of the AVarof 1812," MilitaryCollectorand Historian 50 (Summer 1998):
75-80.
752
*
THE JOURNAL OF
Thle
War of1812
plan preparedby PeterB. Porterforan invasionofCanada in 1812 which
he also analyzes.74Staggargues that Porter'sstrategicrecommendations
were designedto supporthis goal ofbuildingan Ontario canal. Although
he presentslittledirect evidence to supportthis contention,the documentis nonethelessimportant,and Stagg'scommentaryremindsus how
oftennational policy and strategyin this era were seen throughlocal
prisms.
Also usefulis a collection of essays-essentially a scientificreportedited by Susan Pfeiffer
and Ronald Williamsondescribingthe excavation and analysis of the remains of twenty-eightAmerican soldiers
discovered at Fort Erie in 1987.75The scientificprose in this workmay
was gleaned from
discouragesome readers,but the way thatinformation
the skeletons is fascinating,and the findings(which are conveniently
summarizedin a well-written
concludingchapter) shed lighton the kind
of men who served in the Americanarmy.For those who preferto avoid
the scientificjargon altogether,there is a fine popular account of this
projectby Paul Litt,Ronald Williamson,and JosephWhitehornethatnot
only is well writtenbut also presentsinformationnot foundin the original report.76
Justas the controlof Lake Erie was crucial to the war in the Northwest, so too did controlof Lake Ontario affectthe war on the Niagara.
Althoughthis lake was an importanttheaterof operations,no decisive
battles were foughtthere. Instead, each side contended formasteryin
what has been called "a shipbuilder'swar."77As a result,studentsof the
War of 1812 have been inclined to slightLake Ontario, preferringto
focusinsteadon the moreglamorousand decisive battlesfoughton Lake
Erie and Lake Champlain. Robert Malcomson has now remedied this
deficiencywith a detailed and balanced account of the war on Lake
Ontario, which includes a series of tables in the appendix givingthe
times in the war.78Malcomson also has
strengthof each side at different
that
writtenarticleson HMS St. Lawrence, the 102-gunship-of-the-line
the Britishhad in service on Lake Ontario in the last months of the
74. J.C. A. Stagg,"BetweenBlack Rockand a HardPlace: PeterB. Porter'sPlan
foran AmericanInvasionofCanada in 1812,"JournaloftheEarlyRepublic19 (Fall
1999): 385-422.
75. Susan Pfeiffer
and RonaldF. Williamson,eds., Snake Hill:An Investigation
theWarof1812 (Toronto:DundurnPress,1991).
ofa MilitaryCemeteryfrom
76. Paul Litt,Ronald F. WNilliamson,
and JosephWV.
A. Whitehorne,
Death at
Snake Hill: Secretsfroma Warof1812 Cemetery(Toronto:DundurnPress,1993).
in Thle
77. See C. Winton-Claire[R. C. Anderson],"A Shipbuilder'sWVar,"
DefendedBorder:UpperCanada and theWarof1812, ed. MorrisZaslow (Toronto:
MacmillanCompanyofCanada, 1964), 165-72.
78. RobertMalcomson,Lords of theLake: Th-eNaval War on Lake Ontario,
1812-1814 (Annapolis,Md.:Naval InstitutePress,1998).
MILITARY IhISTORY
*
753
DONALD R. IIICKEY
conflict,and on Britisheffortsto win controlofthe lakes by sendingprefabricatedwarshipsto Canada.7"
RobertMalcomson'sworkshould be read in conjunctionwithseveral
otherstudies. PatrickWilderoffersan excellent analysis of the Battle of
Sackett's Harbor in 1813.80 Carl Benn has a fine account of the two
American assaults on Fort York in his larger historyof the Canadian
post.81And Tom Malcomson has done a valuable statisticalanalysis of
the seamen who served on the lake and has told the chillingstoryof the
only seaman hanged at Kingstonduringthe war.82
We also have two finestudies ofjoint operations on Lake Ontario.
William Dudley shows how successful such operations were for the
United States at Yorkand Fort George in 1813, althoughhis defense of
Isaac Chauncey's failureto cooperate withthe armyin 1814 is not very
persuasive.8 FrederickDrake presentsa good analysis of the conflicting
tactical and strategicmandates of the two opposing naval commanders
on the lake and concludes that BritishcommanderJames Yeo did a betterjob of achievinghis largeraims than Chauncey.84
The St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain Front
For the thirdmajor theaterofoperations,the St. Lawrence Riverand
Lake Champlain,we also have several new works.Donald E. Graves has
again left his mark with a superb account of the British victory at
Crysler'sFarm and the triumphof the French Canadians at Chateauguay.85Graves points out that the United States employedmore regular
troopsin this campaign than in any other militaryoperationbeforethe
Civil War and that it representedthe most serious attemptto conquer
79. Robert Malcomson, "HMS St Lawrence: The FreshwaterFirst-Rate,"
Mariner'sMirror83 (November1997): 419-33, and "Xebecs forthe Great Lakes
War,"Model Ship Builder 101 (May-June1996): 51-54.
80. PatrickA. Wilder,TlheBattleofSackett'sHarbour:1813 (Baltimore:Nauti1994). Wilderis workingon a revisionofthisstudy.
cal Aviationand Publishing,
His81. CarlBenn,HistoricYork,1793-1993 (Toronto:NaturalHeritage/Natural
tory,1993).
on Lake
82. TomMalcomson,"MusterTable forthe RoyalNavy'sEstablishment
of 1812," NorthernMariner 9 (April 1999): 41-67; and
Ontario duringthe WVar
"HangingSeaman Jones,"Inland Seas 55 (Winter1999): 315-27.
83. WilliamS. Dudley,"CommodoreIsaac Chaunceyand U.S. JointOperations
in Naval History:SelectedPapers
on Lake Erie, 1813-14," in New Interpretations
from theEighthNaval HistorySymposium,ed. WilliamB. Cogar (Annapolis,Md.:
Naval InstitutePress,1989), 139-55.
84. FrederickC. Drake, "CommodoreSir James Yeo and GovernorGeneral
GeorgePrevost:A Studyin CommandRelations,1813-14," ibid.,156-71.
85. Donald E. Graves, Field of Glory: The Battle of Crysler'sField, 1813
(Toronto:RobinBrassStudio,1999).
754
*
TIIE JOUTRNALOF
Thte
Warof1812
____
Canada. Moreover,the American defeat was "so catastrophic"that "it
sweptaway an entirestratumof incompetentsenior officers."876
AndreCharbonneau has writtenan informativebook on Britishfortificationsand defensestrategyin the ChamplainValley.87Russell Bellico
providesa briefbut serviceable account ofthe war on Lake Champlain.88
Donald Alcock has made the dubious and largelyunsupportedclaim that
Vermontersengaged in smugglingto forestalla Britishinvasion.89Norman Ansleyhas identifiedmore than 2,500 Vermonterswho volunteered
forservice at Plattsburgh.9"1
And David Fitz-Enz has a book in press on
the Battle of Plattsburghthat promisesto shed new lighton the fighting
on land as well as on the lake.91
The Chesapeake Bay
The fourthmajor theaterofoperations,the Chesapeake Bay,was virtually withoutany modern work in the mid-1980s other than Walter
Lord's finepopular account.92We now have several good studies, each
approachingthe war froma different
angle. The most comprehensiveis
JosephWhitehorne'smistitledaccount of the entireBritishcampaignin
the Chesapeake from 1812 to 1814.93 Whitehorne apparently relied
heavilyon publishedsources,and he has a weak introductory
chapteron
the causes of the war,but otherwisehis workis thoughtful
and informative. In another work, Anthony Pitch presents a lively and detailed
(thoughat timesconfusing)account ofthe campaignagainstWashington
and Baltimore.94
ChristopherGeorge has published a valuable workthat
86. Ibid.,xvi,320.
87. Andr6Charbonneau,TlheFortifications
of Ile aux Noix: A Portraitof the
DefensiveStrategyon the UpperRichelieuBorderin the18thand 19th Centuries,
trans.Departmentofthe SecretaryofState(Ottawa:ParksCanada, 1994).
88. RussellP. Bellico,Sails and Steam in theMountains:A Maritimeand MilitaryHistoryofLake Georgeand Lake Champlain (Fleischmanns,
N.Y.:PurpleMountainPress,1992).
89. Donald G. Alcock,"The Best Defenceis . . . Smuggling?
Vermonters
During
theXVar
of 1812," Canadian ReviewofAmericanStudies 25 (Winter1995): 73-91.
90. NormanAnsley,Vergennes,Vermontand the War of 1812 (Severna Park,
Md.: BrookeKeeferLimitedEditions,1999).
91. David G. Fitz-Enz,Th-eFinal Invasion: Plattsburgh,
theWarof1812's Most
Decisive Battle,Cooper Square Press,forthcoming.
92. WValter
Lord,TlheDawn's EarlyLight(New York:W. W. Norton,1972).
93. JosephA. WVhitehorne,
Th-eBattleforBaltimore,1814 (Baltimore:Nautical
and AviationPublishing,1997).
94. AnthonyS. Pitch,Th-eBurningofWashintgton:
TlheBritishInvasion of1814
(Annapolis,Md.: Naval InstitutePress,1998).
MILITARY IiISTORY
*
755
DONALD R. IHICKEY
-
examines Britishraidingoperationsin the Chesapeake and a long article
thatdetails the wartimerole of HarfordCounty,Maryland.95
We have several new studies of Britishparticipantsin the Chesapeake campaign.There are two new biographiesof HoratioNelson's bold
and giftedprotege,AdmiralGeorge Cockburn,who spearheaded British
operationsin the Chesapeake, culminatingin the assault on Washington.
JamesPack is primarilyinterestedin Cockburn as an individual,and his
studypresentsa more detailed account of Cockburn'sChesapeake campaign.96Roger Morriss,on the other hand, is more interestedin Cockburn's place in the Royal Navy tradition,and his work shows a firmer
grasp of Britishstrategicconsiderations.')7In a related study,BryanPerrettbrieflyexamines the life of James Gordon, who mastermindedthe
daringwaterborneplunderofAlexandriain 1814.98
Several otherworkson this campaign should be noted. Lonn Taylor
has retoldthe storyof how "The Star-SpangledBanner" was writtenand
has traced the historyof the famousflagfromthe end of the war to the
present.99Scott Sheads has writtena briefhistoryof FortMcHenrythat
includes particularlystrikingcontemporarycolor illustrations.""'Louis
Nortonhas writtenan informativebiographyof Chesapeake naval hero
Joshua Barney,althoughthe workis thinlydocumented,and the author
acknowledgesthathe has taken "some minorlicense by addinga dash of
prose coloration.""1 And Christopher George has penned an article
describingthe role of AfricanAmericansin the campaign.102
95. Christopher
T. George,Terroron th1e
Chesapeake: The Wtarof1812 on the
Pa.: WIhite
Mane Books,2000); and "HarfordCounityin theWar
(Shippensburg,
Ba_y
HistoricalBulletini76 (Spring1998): 3-61.
of 1812,"HarfordI
House: AdmiralSir George
96. JamesPack, The Man WhoBurned the Wh72ite
Cockburn,1772-1853 (Annapolis,Md.:NavzalInstitutePress,1987).
97. Roger Morriss,Cockburn acnd th.eBritish Arav,yin Transitionz: Admiral Sir
ofSouthCarolinaPress,1997).
1772-1853 (Columbia:University
GeorgeCockburtn,
98. BryanPerrett,The Real Hornblower:The Life ofAdmiralof theFleet Sir
AlexanderGordon,GCB (Annapolis,Md.:NavalInstitutePress,1997). Perrett
Jamnes
C. S. Forestermodeledhlisfictionalnav'al
convincingly-that
argues-not altogether
afterGordon.
hero HloratioHornblower
99. Lonn Taylor,The Star-Spangled Bannner:The Flag that Inspired the
and HarryN. Abrams,2000).
NationalAntthemn
(Newv
York:SmithsonianInstitution
Publishing,
100. ScottSheads,FortMcIlenry(Baltimore:Nauticaland Av,iation
1995).
101. Louis ArthurNorton,JoshiuaBarney:Hero of the Revolutionanld 1812
Nortonalso has
(Annapolis,Md.:NavalInstitutePress,2000). Quotationfromp. xv,iii.
includedsome improbablestoriesonlBarney'searlylifebased on familytradition.
102. Christopher
T. George,"MirageofFreedom:AfricanAmericansin theWVar
of 1812,"MarylandHistoricalMagazine 91 (Winter1996): 427-50.
756
*
TIIE JOUIRNAL OF
TheWatrof1812
The Southwest and Gulf Coast
The fifththeater of operations, the Gulf Coast, was much better
served by historiansin the 1980s, largelybecause of the appeal of the
spectacularBattleofNew Orleans.''3 Even so, we have several new works
on this campaign. Gene Smith has put out a new edition of Arsene
Lacarriere Latour's importantcontemporarywork on the war on the
GulfCoast.114 Smithexplains Latour's role in the war in an introductory
chapter, and he has added twentydocuments to the appendix that
Latour planned to include in a futureedition. RobertReminihas drawn
upon his research on AndrewJacksonover the years to produce a lively
account of the BattleofNew Orleans thatis rich in detail but thinlydoc115 Reminicalls this battle "one of the great definingmoments
umented.
in the historyof the republic" because it helped establish American
'16 Tim Pickles has writcharacter and vindicate American nationhood.
ten a breezy,undocumentedaccount of the BattleofNew Orleans thatis
part of the Osprey Campaign Series.'7 This workis usefulmainlyforits
has re-examinedAndrewJacklavish illustrations.Matthew WVarshauer
And RobertVogelhas written
son's rule ofmartiallaw in New Orleans.11'8
a pair of articleson the Lafittebrothersand the Baratarianpirates.''19
The Indians
Furtherenhancing our understandingof the WVar
of 1812 has been
the publicationof a number of books on the Indians."' GregoryDowd
has writtena compellinganalysisofthe spiritually-based
and remarkably
persistentpan-Indian movement, although his treatmentof the war
103. See note 5.
in lWestFlorida
104. ArseneLacarriereLatour,HistoricalMemoirof the hair
Uniand Louisiana in 1814-15, ed. Gene A. Smith,expandededition(Gainesvzille:
versityPressofFlorida,1999).
105. RobertV. Remini,TheBattleofNew Orleans (New York:Viking,1999).
106. Ibid., 199.
107. Tim Pickles,New Orleans, 1815: Andrew Jackson Crushes the British
1993).
(Oxford,Englaind:
OspreyPublishing,
108. MatthewWarshauer,"The Battleof New Orleans Reconsidered:Andrew
Jacksonand MartialLaw," Louisiana History39 (Summer1998): 261-91.
Geogra109. RobertC. Vogel,"JeanLafitte,the Baratarians,and the IHistorical
phyofPiracyin the GulfofMexico,"GulfCoast HistoricalReview 5 (Spring1990):
63-77; and "The Pattersonand Ross Raid on Barataria,September1814,"Louisiana
History33 (Spring1992): 157-70.
knownas "FirstNations,"and Indi110. In Canada, Indian tribesare officiallv
ans are oftenreferred
to as "aboriginalpeople" (the equivalentin the UnlitedStates
of"NativeAmericans").
'MILITARY HISTORY
*
757
DONALD R. IIICKEY
thin.111
years is regrettably
JohnSugden helps fillthisgap in his detailed
biographyofTecumseh,the best-knownleader ofthe Indian unitymovement.'12 Sugden's work is sometimes uncritical and often speculative,
but it is based on extensiveresearch,and the storyhe tells is richlytexturedand remarkablyinformative.The late RobertAllen has writtenan
account of Britain'srelationshipwiththe Indians, emphasizingthe critical role theyplayed in defendingCanada duringthe War of 1812.113
WVe
also have several new worksthat focus on the northernIndians.
RichardWhite's study is a fineexample of the new Indian historythat
"places Indian peoples at the center of the scene and seeks to understand the reasons for their actions."114White calls the Old Northwest
"the middle ground,"a kind of no-man'sland where Indians and whites
interactedin an extraordinaryvarietyof ways, most of which had very
littleto do withimperialor tribalpolicy.Anotherimportantworksheddinglighton the northernIndians is Carl Benn's superb studyof the Iroquois.115 Like RobertAllen,Benn argues thatthe Indians played a crucial
role in the defenseof Canada, and he has a particularlygood chapteron
how the Iroquois waged war. He also demonstrateshow this once powerfulconfederation,dividedand greatlyweakened by the AmericanRevolution, was utterlydevastated by the War of 1812. Less useful is
ChristopherDensmore's briefbiographyof Red Jacket,the Seneca oratorand statesmenwho sided withthe United States."616Densmore shows
that Red Jacketdeserves to be rememberedforhis effortsto preserve
Seneca traditionsand triballands but adds littleto our understandingof
his role in the War of 1812.
There are also several new books that focus on the Indians in the
Southwest. KathrynBraund's study of Creek trade shows how contact
withwhiteschanged Creek society and ultimatelyled to the Creek civil
war that soon became AndrewJackson's Creek WVar.117
Similarly,Bendual biographyof WilliamMcIntoshand WilliamWeathjamin Griffith's
111. GregoryEvans Dowd,A SpiritedResistance:The NorthAmericanIndian
Press,1992).
StruggleforUnity,1745-1815 (Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversity
112. JohnSugden,Tecumseh:A Life(New York:HIenry
Holt,1997).
113. RobertS. Allen,His Majesty'sIndian Allies: BritishIndian Policy in the
DefenceofCanada, 1774-1815 (Toronto:DundurnPress,1992).
114. RichardWhite,The Middle Ground:Indians, Empires,and Republicsin
Press,1991).
theGreatLakes Region,1650-1815 (New York:CambridgeUniversity
Quotationfromp. xi.
ofToronto
115. Carl Benn,TheIroquoisin theWarof1812 (Toronto:University
Press,1998).
116. Christopher Densmore, Red Jacket: Iroquois Diplomiiatand Orator (Syra-
cuse, N.Y.:SyracuseUniversity
Press,1999).
117. KathrynE. Holland Braund,Deerskins and Duffels:ThleCreek Indian
Trade with Anglo-America,1685-1815 (Lincoln: Universityof Nebraska Press,
1993).
758
*
THE JOUIRNAL OF
--
ThzeWar ?t 1812
erford,two mixed-blood leaders who foughton opposite sides in the
Creek civil war, also argues that white contact caused the internecine
conflict.",8Claudio Saunt makes much the same point in a perceptive
study that argues that mestizos (mixed-bloods) spearheaded the adoption of new concepts of power and propertythat fundamentallytransformedand disruptedCreek societyand thus broughton the civil war.'19
Indeed, Saunt emphasizes that Redstick traditionaliststargetedmixedbloods as much as whitesin theirwar withthe United States. David and
Jeanne Heidler have writtena study of AndrewJackson and American
expansion in the Southwestthat is sharplycriticalof Old Hickory,portrayinghim as "an angryyoungman who became an angryold man."1211
Thomas Kanon has writtenan article on the Battle of Horseshoe Bend
that includes freshdetail.'21 And Brian Rucker has writtenan article
describingAmericanraids on the survivingRedstickswho took refugein
Spanish Florida aftertheirdefeatat Horseshoe Bend.122
Togetherthese works present a great deal of informationon how
Native Americans lived and on their role in the War of 1812, showing
thattheywere much more than passive agentsto be manipulatedby the
belligerentpowers.
The War at Sea
The war at sea has attractedalmost as much attentionas the war on
land. Robert Gardiner has edited a large-format,
illustratedwork that
presentsan overviewof the naval war. This is a Britishproduction,the
fifth
volume in a six-volumeset on the Britishnavy in the French Revolutionaryand Napoleonic Wars.123Althoughan informativeand useful
correctiveto Americanstudies, this work is marredby an unnecessary
introductorychapter that is filledwitherrorsand by a tendencyto distortthe evidence to make the Britishlook better.We also have two vol118. BenjaminW. Griffith,
Jr.,McIntoshand Weatherford,
CreekIndian Leaders (Tuscaloosa:University
ofAlabamaPress,1988).
119. Claudio Saunt,A New Order of Thiings:Property,
Power,and the Transformationof the Creek Inidians,1733-1816 (Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniPress,1999).
v,ersity
120. David S. Heidlerand JeanneT. Heidler,Old HickorysWar:AndrewJackson and theQuestfoor
Empire (Mechanicsburg,
Pa.: StackpoleBooks,1996). Quotationfromp. 18.
121. Thomas Kanon, "'A Slow, LaboriousSlaughter':The Battleof Horseshoe
Bend,"TennesseeHistoricalQuarterly58 (Spring1999): 2-15.
122. Brian R. Rucker,"Nixon'sRaid and Other Precursorsto Jackson's1814
InNvasion
of SpanishWestFlorida,"GulfSouth HistoricalReview 14 (Spring1999):
33-50.
123. RobertGardiner,ed., TheNaval Warof1812 (Annapolis,Md.:Naval InstitutePress,1999). The seriesis theChathamPictorialHistories.
MIfLITARY HISTORY
*
759
DONALD R. IIICI(EY
umes in the superb documentarycollection being produced by William
Dudley and his colleagues at the Naval HistoricalCenter in Washington,
D.C.124This collection,which is now projected to reach fourvolumes,
focuseson the Americanside of the story,but withinthose limitscovers
all aspects of the war on the coast, the highseas, and the lakes, including operations,supply,recruitment,privateers,marines,ship construction,prisoners-of-war,
and inter-and intra-servicerivalries.
WVe
have twonew studiesofAmericannaval strategyat the beginning
ofthe war. In one, PeterKastormakes the dubious claim thatthe administrationsent the navyto sea onlybecause the armywas so slow to mobilize.125 In the other,JeffSeiken suggeststhat the American navy might
have been most profitablyused disruptingtrade and threateningtroop
and supplytransportsoffthecoast ofCanada.126 Two otherstudiesexamine Britishnaval strategy.In a fact-filled
articlefocusingon the economic
impactofthe conflict,Faye Kertarguesthatblockade and convoyplayed
a central role in Britishstrategy.127And in a thinlyresearched article
thatexplores Britishattitudes,C. J. Bartlettargues thatcontemptforthe
American people underlay Britain'swillingnessto launch amphibious
operationsagainstcivilian targets.128
Anotherusefulworkon the navy is ChristopherMcKee's finestudy
of the officercorps.129McKee presentsan excellent analysis of how the
navy workedbeforeand duringthe War of 1812, focusingon the duties
of officers,navy finances,deaths and resignations,crime and punishment,alcoholism (predictablywidespread),and homosexuality(surprisingly rare). Another useful work is Harold Langley's informativebut
124. WilliamS. Dudleyet al., eds.,Th-eNaval Warof1812: A DocumentaryIIistory,4 vols. (WVashington:
NavalHistoricalCenter,1985- ).
125. PeterJ. Kastor,"Toward'the MaritimeWVar
Only': The Questionof Naval
Mobilization,1811-1812,"JournalofMilitaiyHistory61 (July1997): 455-80. Jeff
Seiken has challengedKastor'suse of evidencein "Expandingthe Fleet: The CongressionalDebate overNavalPolicyon the Eve oftheWVar
of 1812," paperdelivered
at the annual conventionof the SocietyforMilitaryHistory, hleaton,Ill., 26 April
1998.
126. Jeff
Seiken,"'To Strikea Blowin theWVorld
thatShall Resoundthroughthe
Universe':AmericanNaval Operationsand Optionsat the StartoftheWarof 1812,"
inNew Interpretations
theFourteenth
Naval
ofNaval History:SelectedPapersfromii
HistorySymposium,ed. RandyBalano and CraigL. Symonds,Naval InstitutePress,
forthcoming.
127. Fave M. Kert,"The Fortunesof WVar:
CommercialWVarfare
and Maritime
Riskin theWVar
of 1812,"Northern
Mariner8 (October1998): 1-16.
128. C. J. Bartlett,
"GentlemenversusDemocrats:CulturalPrejudiceand MilitaryStrategyin Britainin theWVar
of 1812," Warin History1 (July1994): 140-59.
129. ChristopherMcKee,A Gentlemanlyand HonorableProfession:ThleCreation of the U.S. Naval OfficerCorps, 1794-1815 (Annapolis,Md.: Naval Institute
Press,1991).
760
*
TIHE JOUPR-NAL
OF
ThleWar of1812
diffusestudy of naval medicine, which details attemptsto cope with
healthproblemsashore and afloatand describes the movementto establish a more professionalmedical service.130 ComplementingLangley's
work is Seebert Goldowsky'sfascinatingbiographyof Usher Parsons, a
surgeonwho servedon the Niagara frontierand thenin Perry'ssquadron
on Lake Erie.131
Spencer Tucker'sillustratedstudyof naval guns and ordnance is yet
anothervaluable work.132 Althoughthisstudyis indispensableforunderstandingthe war at sea, Tucker presents littleinformationon how the
guns actuallyperformedin battle,and his spare documentationstylewill
make it difficult
forothers to duplicate his research.
Tucker also has produced a finestudyofJefferson's
gunboatnavy.133
Tucker argues that duringthe War of 1812 gunboats played a useful(if
modest) role, convoyingcoastal vessels, servingas transportsfor the
navy,and delayingthe Britishadvance on New Orleans. In a follow-up
article, Tucker credits these vessels with several other minor wartime
In anotherstudy(one thatuses a somewhatbroaderdefcontributions.'34
initionofgunboats),Gene Smithmakes the credibleargumentthatthese
vessels contributedto the American victories on Lake Erie and Lake
Champlain as well as at New Orleans, althoughhis claim that theyalso
delayed the Britishassault on Washingtonand preventedan attack on
Charleston and Savannah seems to go too far.135In still another work,
RobertMalcomson presents a superb analysis of the design and use of
136 In anotherstudy
gunboatson Lake Ontarioand the St. Lawrence River.
ofsmallvessels,WilliamWellsseeks to shed lighton the confusinghistory
of Americanrevenue cutterscaptured duringthe war,althoughat times
his account is itselfconfusing.137Finally,in a briefarticle, Blake Dun130. Harold D. Langley,A Historyof Medicine in the Early u.s. Navy (BaltiPress,1995).
more:JohnsHopkinsUniversity
ParYankeeSurgeon:The Lifeand TimesofLJsher
131. SeebertJ. Goldowsky,
sons (1788-1868) (Boston: Francis A. CountwayLibraryof Medicineand Rhode
Island PublicationsSociety,1988).
132. Spencer Tucker,Armingthe Fleet: U.S. Navy Ordnance in the MuzzleLoading Era (Annapolis,Md.: NavalInstitutePress,1989).
of
GunboatNavy (Columbia:University
133. SpencerTucker,TheJeffersonicai
SouthCarolinaPress,1993).
Gunboats in Service, 1804-1825,"
134. Spencer Tucker,"The Jeffersonian
AmericanNeptune55 (Spring1995): 97-110.
135. Gene A. Smith,"For thePurposes ofDefense":The Politicsof theJefferofDelawarePress,1995).
sonian GunboatProgram(Newark:University
of 1812,"Sea136. RobertMalcomson,"Gunboatson Lake Ontarioin theW7ar
1996): 27-31,
1996): 31-37, (Mlarch-April
ways: Ships in Scale 7 (January-February
(May-June1996): 40-44.
of 1812,"
137. WilliamR. WVells
II, "US RevenueCuttersCapturedin the WNrar
AmericanNeptune58 (Spring1998): 225-41.
MIILITARY IIISTORY
*
761
DONALD R. IIICKEY
naventexamines the Americannavy'sriveroperationsduringthe war.138
We also have new studies of several ships and naval engagements.
Frances Robottiand JamesVescovi have writtenan undocumentedpopular historyof the USS Essex that challenges Captain David Porter's
claim thathe did $5 milliondollarsin damage to the Britishin the Pacific
before his ship was captured and turned into an Irish prison hulk.139
TyroneMartinhas significantlyrevised his authoritative1980 popular
workon the USS Constitution,presentingadditionaldetail on the ship
and its successful cruises during the war.'4"1In another popular work,
James Tertiusde Kay traces the historyof the Macedonian, the British
frigatethat was captured by the USS United States in 1812.141Calling
this"the mostimportantprize ofwar ever takenby theAmericanNavy,"
de Kay shows how the navy kept this trophyship on display untilit was
finallydropped fromthe rolls in 1875.142 In another popular work,De
Kay describes the Anglo-Americansparringin Long Island Sound and
Great Britain'scurious assault in 1814 on the exposed but inoffensive
town of Stonington,Connecticut.143 And in a recent article, Anthony
Gutridgehas examined the lucrative business of a Britishnavy prize
agent at Halifaxand Bermuda duringthe war.144
Poor recordkeepinghas limitedour understandingof the designand
constructionof many warshipsthat took part in the 1812 conflict.Fortunately,scholars on both sides of the borderhave begun archaeological
investigationsof sunken ships, many of which have been well preserved
in the freshwaterenvironmentof the lakes. So far,these projects have
targetedsome fifteenvessels, includingthe Nancy in Lake Huron; the
Hamilton, Scourge, and Jeffersonin Lake Ontario; the Eagle, Ticonderoga, and Linnet in Lake Champlain; and Joshua Barney'sflotillaof
gunboatsin the Chesapeake Bay.145
The US Navyin River138. R. BlakeDunnavent,"Broadsidesand BrownWVater:
duringthe War of 1812," American Neptune 59 (Summer 1999):
ine WNrarfare
199-210.
139. FrancesDiane Robottiand JamesVescovi,The USS "Essex" and theBirth
Navy (Holbrook,Mass.:AdamsMedia,1999).
oftheAmnerican
A MostFortunateShip:A NarrativeHistoryofOld IronG. Martin,
140. Tyrone
sides, rev.ed. (Annapolis,Md.: Naval InstitutePress,1997).
141. JamesTertiusde Kay,ChroniclesoftheFrigate"Macedonian,"1809-1922
(New York:W. NV.Norton,1995).
142. Ibid., 11.
143. JamesTertiusde Kay,The BattleofStonington:Torpedoes,Submarines,
and Rocketsin theWarof1812 (Annapolis,Md.: NavalInstitutePress,1990).
"GeorgeRedmondHulbert:PrizeAgentat Halifax,Nova
144. AnthonyGutridge,
Scotia, 1812-14,"Mariner'sMirror87 (February2001): 30-42.
145. The bestoverviewofthissubject,thoughnowsomewhatdated,is Kenneth
of 1812: BattlefortheGreatLakes,"in
A. Cassavoyand KevinJ.Crisman,"The WVar
Ships and Shipwrecksof theAmericas:A HistoryBased on UnderwaterArchaeol762
*
OF
THE JOUTPR-NAL
---
The War of1812
We have several new naval biographiesas well. Ira Dye has writtena
finedual biographyof two commanders,WilliamAllen of the USS Argus
and JohnMaples of HMS Pelican, whose vessels clashed in 1813.146 In
the process of tellinghis story,Dye presentsa good deal of information
on service in the American and Britishnavies. Stephen Duffyhas just
published a studyof JohnstonBlakeley,the ill-fatedofficerwho was in
charge of the USS Wasp when it disappeared at sea in 1814 after a
remarkablysuccessful cruise.147 And Gene Smith has writtena biographyofThomas ap CatesbyJones,the naval officerwho chased smugglers
and foreignprivateersat New Orleans and then foughtthe Britishon
Lake Borgne.148
The War of 1812 was the last war in which privateeringplayed a significantrole, and several recent works deal with this subject. Lawyer
Donald Petriehas writtenan incisivelittlebook thatlays out the ground
rules forprivateering.149He also discusses the practice of ransomingvessels and the use of sea cartels. Faye Kert has writtena fineaccount of
Canadian privateering,demonstratingthat this species of warfarecontributedto the "unprecedented prosperity"of Nova Scotia and New
151 Kerthas informative
Brunswickduringthe war.
chapterson the operations of privateers,the evolution of prize law and prize courts, the
Britishsystem for licensing enemy trade, and the disposition of navy
prizes. She also compares privateeringin Canada with the practice in
the UnitedStates. In anotherwork,RichardWinslowpresentsa colorful
if superficial account of private armed vessels operating out of
Portsmouth.151And in yet anotherwork,Gordon Harringtonhas written
ogy ed. GeorgeF. Bass (London: Thames and Hudson,1988), 169-88. See also Art
of1812,"in Ansley,
Cohn and KevinCrisman,"The ArchaeologicalLegacyoftheWVar
Vergennes, Vermontand the War of 1812, 216-19.
of1812
146. Ira Dye,TheFatal Cruiseofthe"Argus".Two Captains in thetWar
(Annapolis,Md.:Naval InstitutePress,1994).
Captain Blakeleyand the"Wasp":.TheCruiseof1814
147. StephenW.H. Duffy,
(Annapolis,Md.:Naval InstitutePress,2001).
148. Gene A. Smith,Thiomasap CatesbyJones:CommodoreofManifestDestiny(Annapolis,Md.:Nav,alInstitutePress,2000).
149. DonaldA. Petrie,ThePrize Game: LawfulLootingon theHighSeas in the
Days ofFightingSail (Annapolis,Md.: Nav,alInstitutePress,1999).
150. Faye M. Kert,Prize and Prejudice: Privateeringand Naval Prize in
International
MarAtlanticCanada in the War of 1812 (St. Johns,Newfoundland:
itimeEconomicHistoryAssociation,1997). Quotationfromp. 157.
151. RichardE. WinslowIII, Wealthand Honour": Portsmouthduring the
MarineSoci1 775-1815 (Portsmouth,
N.H.: Portsmouth
GoldenAge ofPrivateering,
ety,1988).
MIILITARY HISTORY
*
763
DONALD R. IIICKEY
an articleshowinghow Americanprivateerscaused problemsin the Far
East forBritain'sEast India Company.'52
Most American POWs in this conflictwere seafaringmen, and two
studies of thisgroupshould be noted. Robin Fabel has writtenan article
thatpresentsa good descriptionofwhat lifewas like at Dartmoorprison
forsome 6,500 American POWs, most of whom were taken fromprivateers or released fromBritishwarships at the beginningof the war.153
Similarly,Ira Dye has done a statisticalanalysis of the DartmoorPOWVs
to produce a portraitofAmericanseamen in this era.154
Works in Progress
All in all, the recent outpouringof literatureon the militaryhistory
of the War of 1812 has been remarkable.Nor is the end in sight.Robert
Malcomson is writingbooks on the BattleofQueenston Heightsand warships on the lakes; James Elliott is workingon the Battle of Stoney
Creek; John Grodzinski is pursuing research on the war on the St.
Lawrence River; Stanley Quick is writinga book on the war in the
Chesapeake; WilliamGray has anotherproject under way on the militia
of Upper Canada; Donald E. Graves is workingon a biographyof the
Canadian traitorJosephWillcocks;Carl Benn is preparinga biographyof
the influentialAnglo-Indianleader John Norton; Frederick Drake is
workingon the naval war; Gary Gibson is studyingthe war on Lake
Ontario and the St. Lawrence River; BarryGough is writinga book on
the war on Lake Huron; David Skaggs is writinga dual biographyof
Oliver Perry and Thomas Macdonough; Tyrone Martin and Virginia
Steele are workingon a biography of shipbuilder William Doughty;
Richard Eddy is workingon a studyof shipbuilderJoshua Humphreys;
Kevin Crisman is editing a volume on the archeology of 1812 shipwrecks;MatthewWarshaueris writinga book on AndrewJackson'simposition of martiallaw in New Orleans; John Staggis workingon a social
historyoftheAmericanarmy;Gene Smithis preparinga comprehensive
is researchingthe
workon AfricanAmericansin the war; and JohnWVeiss
4,000 slaves who fledwiththe Britishat the end of the conflict.
"The AmericanNavalChallengeto theEnglishEast
152. GordonK. Harrington,
in Naval History:
India Companyduringthe Warof 1812," in New Interpretations
SelectedPapersfromtheTenthNaval HistoiySymposium,ed. JackSweetmanet al.
(Annapolis,Md.:Naval InstitutePress,1993), 129-52.
153. RobinF.A. Fabel,"Self-Helpin Dartmoor:Blackand WhitePrisonersin the
of 1812,"JournaloftheEarlyRepublic9 (Summer1989): 165-90.
WVar
154. Ira Dye, "Physical and Social Profilesof Early American Seafarers,
1812-1815," in Jack Tar in History:Essayis in the Historyqf MaritimeLife and
AcaNewBrunswick:
Labour,ed. Colin Howelland RichardJ.Twomey(Fredericton,
diensisPress,1991), 220-35.
764
*
TIIE JOURNAL OF
-
ThteWar
of 1812
Still a ForgottenConflict?
Does this renaissance mean that we can drop the label "forgotten
conflict"? Probably not yet. Most of the work has been done in the
United States and Canada. Canadians have been especially busy, producinga disproportionatenumberof 1812 studies,probablybecause this
war holds a more centralplace in theirheritage.Indeed, in a recentpoll
Canadians ranked the War of 1812 as the thirdmost importantevent in
theirhistory,behind only the establishmentofthe Confederation(1867)
and the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway (1885).) -"The
British,by contrast,stillconsider "the second Americanwar" littlemore
Even thoughthere were as
than a footnoteto the Napoleonic Wars.1-'5
manyBritishtroopsin NorthAmerica in 1814 (48,000) as at any timein
the Peninsula, and farmore than at Waterlooin 1815, the Britishcontinue to ignorethe Americanconflict.157
Moreover,virtuallyall the new workhas been confinedto the war's
militaryhistory;the domestic historyand the diplomatichistoryhave
been largelyignored.',8In addition,while the new workshave givenus a
deeper understandingof the war, they probably will not significantly
alter the way the conflictis treatedin textbooks.Recent scholarshiphas
WinstheVoteforthe GreatestEventin
155. See AnneMellroy,"Confederation
TorontoGlobe and Mail, 18 September2000.
Our History,"
156. BritishscholarBrianJenkinscalls the war "the alwaysperipheralAmerican conflict."See HenryGoulburn,1784-1856: A Political Biography(Montreal:
McGill-Queen'sUniversity
Press,1996), 89.
weresuppliedby DonaldE. Gravesin a
on Britishdeployments
157. The figures
Hisletterto the author,26 August2000. The pertinentvolumein the new (Xvford
to thewarin 595 pages
has onlya fewscatteredreferences
toryoftheBritishEnmpire
Century,vol. 2 ofThe OxfordIlistoiy
oftext.See P. J.Marslhall,
ed., ThleEighteenth
Press,
of the BritishEmpire, ed. Alaine Low (Oxford,England:OxfordUniversity
1998), 195, 369, 382-83, 387-88, 579-80.
158. There are some exceptions.In Injured Honor: Thte"Chesapeake"-"Leopard"Affair,June 27, 1807 (Annapolis,Md.: Naval InstitutePress,1996), SpencerC.
analysisof thisepisode in
Tuckerand FrankT. Reuterpresentthe firstbook-length
relations.Their descriptionof the engagementand the ensuing
Anglo-American
Americannaval investigation
is verygood,but theirdiplomatichistoryis unreliable.
Pressof Kansas,1990),
In The Presidenc_y
ofJamesMcadison(Lawrence:University
RobertA. Rutlandpresentsan even-handedbut sympatheticview of Madison's
wartimeleadership.And in American Public Finance and Financial Services,
1700-1815 (Columbus:Ohio StateUniversity
Press,1994), EdwinJ.Perkinspresents
a refreshingly
modernand astutereassessmentofAmericanwartimefinance.Perkins
did much betterin this area than is commonly
argues that the administration
theseriousnessofthefinancial
thought,
althoughhe appearsto have underestimated
crisisthatbeset the nationin the last monthsofthe war,whenthe Treasurywas so
paperwas quoted
destituteoffundsthatitdefaultedon thenationaldebt,government
contractorsrefusedto accept
at a substantialdiscount,and banks and government
treasurynotes.
MILITARY HIISTORY
*
765
DONALD R. IIICKEY
not significantly
changed the big pictureof the war,and most textbooks
do not go much beyond this. Textbookwritersare usually slow to adopt
new ideas anyway(unless, ofcourse theydeal withtrendysubjects,such
as race, gender,class, or ethnicity).
Nor is it certain that the public will embrace the war as enthusiastically as scholars have. There are, however,some indicationsthatit may.
Studies dealing with the conflictseem to sell reasonablywell, although
thiscould be simplya reflectionofthe generalpopularityofmilitaryhisAlso encouragingis the way that reenactorsaround the country
tory.159
have gravitatedto the conflict.Canadian JohnSek has identifiedthirtyseven Americanand Britishunits thatare now active.16' There is a Genstates and
eral Society of the War of 1812, with affiliatesin twenty-two
the DistrictofColumbia, which is open to the male lineal descendantsof
those who served in the war.161 There is a similar organization for
women, the United States Daughtersof 1812, which is open to female
descendants of anyone who held a civil or militaryposition between
states and
1784 and 1815. This organizationhas affiliatesin thirty-eight
the DistrictofColumbia and maintainsa museumin Washington,D.C.'62
The War of 1812 Consortiumin Baltimorepublishesa popular quarterlyjournal and sponsors an annual fall symposium on the war.163
ChristopherGeorge and the War of 1812 Consortiumalso have established a comprehensivewebsite that publishes documents,articles,bioon the war.164MilitaryHeritage
graphicalsketches,and otherinformation
.com maintainsanotherWar of 1812 website aimed at militarybuffs.165
Holts Tours of Kent,England,has offeredtoursof 1812 sites, and HistoryAmerica Tours of Dallas, Texas, offered a similar tour in 1998
(althoughit did not draw nearlyas well as establishedtoursdealingwith
the Revolution,the Civil War,or the Indian wars of the West).166
159. David Nevin'sfictionalwork,1812: A Novel (New York:Forge,1996), also
seems to have sold well.
units on his web site at <http://www.iaw.on.cal
160. Sek has listedthirty-four
.jsek/1812unit.htm>.
Threeadditionalunitshave notyetbeen listed.Sek to author,
8 March2001.
161. For details on this organization,go to: <http://wwxv.societyofthewarof
1812.org>.
162. For details,go to: <http://www.usdaughtersl812.org>.
"TheJournalof1800-1840."
163. The "JournaloftheWarof1812" was formerly
164. "Casebook:The W'arof1812" can be foundat: <http://warofl812.casebook.
org>.
165. "The Warof 1812 W'ebsite"can be foundat: <http://www.militaryheritage.
Yale Law School's "AvalonProject"supportsanotherwebsitethat
com/1812.htm>.
reproducesdocumentsbearingon thewar'sdiplomatichistory.See <http://www.yale.
eduAlawweb/aralon/diplomacy/brl814m.htm>.
offerstoursof 1812 sites as partof thepro166. The Canadian armyregularly
ofitsofficers
takepart
regularly
fessionaldevelopment
just as Americanarmyofficers
battlefields.
in staffridesofCivilWVar
766
*
THE JOURNAL OF
The War of1812
Even thoughonly4 ofthe 229 culturalor historicalsites managedby
theNationalPark Service are devotedto the war,the ParkServicehas initiated a study of all 1812 sites in the United States to fosterpreservation.167The Park Service also is studyingthe feasibilityof creating a
Star-SpangledBanner National Historic Trail linkingmore than thirty
1812 sites in the UpperChesapeake. Canadian officialsand scholarsseem
equally determinedto preserveand promotesiteson theirside ofthe border. Effortsalso are under way to reconstructsome of the warshipsthat
sailed on the GreatLakes duringthe era oftheWarof 1812. On theAmerican side the Niagara has been rebuilt,as has the privateerChasseur
(which,aftera fire,has been rebuilta second timeand is called The Pride
ofBaltimoreII); and on the Canadian side the Tecumsethand Bee have
168
been reconstructed,and workhas begun on theDetroitand Wolfe.
Documentaryfilmscould furtherstimulatepublic interest.Here, as
in other areas, the Canadians have taken the lead. Arnie Gelbart and
Andrea Nemtinhave produced a four-partdocumentarypresentingthe
Canadian and Indian view of the war forGalafilmof Canada.169This ponderous filmreliesheavilyon actors and reenactorsinsteadofexpertcommentators,but despite some inadequacies, it is generallyaccurate. It has
aired on local stations in Canada as well as on the HistoryChannel.'71'
Canadian RobertLivesey has produced a three-partfilmon the war that
relies entirelyon re-enactorsforboth commentaryand action scenes.17'
Althoughmarredby some errors,anachronisticlanguage,and confusing
battlescenes, the filmdoes a good job ofdepictingfieldand battleconditionsof the period.MarkStarowiczis producinga sixteen-partdocumentaryon the historyofCanada forthe Canadian BroadcastingCorporation
thatstartedairingon CBC in the fallof2000. The fifth
episode covers the
years fromthe AmericanRevolutionthroughthe XVarof 1812.172
167. The four1812 sites are FortMcHenryNationalMonumentand Historic
Peace Memorialat
Shrinein Baltimore,Maryland;Perry'sVictoryand International
Ohio; HorseshoeBend NationalMilitaryParkat Daviston,Alabama;and
Put-in-Bay,
John LafitteNational HistoricalPark, which includes ChalmetteBattlefieldand
in NewOrleans,Louisiana.The totalnumberofsitesmanagedby
NationalCemetery,
theParkServ,iceis 384. Formoreon theNationalParkService'sAmericanBattlefield
sitesfromtheAmericanReolutargeting
Program(whichis currently
Preservation
tionas wellas theWarof 1812), go to: <http://wvv2cr.nps.gov/abpp>.
oftheNiagara, see Bob Malcomson,"Niagara Sails
168. For thereconstruction
Again,"Naval History5 (Summer1991): 37-43.
169. Warof1812, prod.ArnieGelbartand AndreaNemtin,Galafilm,1999.
richlyillustrated
companionvolumeto thefilmthat
170. Thereis a largeformat,
includesan interactiveCD-ROM. It is VictorSuthren,The War of 1812 (Toronto:
McClellandand Stewart,1999).
171. 1812: The ForgottenWar, prod. Robert Liresey, Little Brick SchoolProductions,1995.
house/Franjo
172. Rebels,Loyalistsand Invaders,Episode#5ofCanada: A People'sHistory,
2000-.
prod.MarkStarowicz,Canadian BroadcastingCorporation,
MlILITARY HISTORY
*
767
DONALD R. IHICKEY
AmericanGary Foreman has produced nicely paced and reasonably
accurate documentarieson the life of Tecumseh and the Battle of New
Orleans, althoughthe formeris marredby too manyAnglo-lookingIndians and a certaintyin the scriptthat is hardlywarrantedby the historical record.173Both of these filmshave aired on the HistoryChannel. The
HistoryChannel has produced its own documentaryon "The "Star-Spangled Banner."1174
This filmis well-paced and profitsfromscholarlycommentary,but the scriptis gushyand filledwitherrors.It is also marred
by an ill-advisedattemptto pass offHillaryRodham Clintonas an expert
on the Fort McHenryflag.Finally,Bruce Carlin and David Fitz-Enz of
Cannonade Filmworkshave produced a finedocumentaryon the Battle
of Plattsburghand are contemplatinganother documentarythat would
cover the entirewar.175
Future Work
Is-thereadditionalworkstillto be done on the war? There certainly
is. Althoughscholars have pursued some of the leads that I suggestedin
my 1989 study(as well as many thatdid not occur to me), thereare still
need someone to writea historyof this congaps in our knowledge.WVe
flictfromthe perspectiveof the Britishgovernmentand the Britishpeople. WVe
also need a full-scaleanalysis of the strategyand tactics of the
war. We could use modernstudies of the battles of Tippecanoe, Detroit,
Fort George, Stoney Creek, and Beaver Dams. We could also use a
detailed account of General HenryDearborn'saborted invasionof Upper
Canada in 1812 and of the Britishoccupation of Maine in 1814. In addition,we need fullerstudies of the Britishand Americansupplysystems,
could
the treatmentof prisonersof war,and the role ofprivateering.WVe
profitfrommodern biographies of all the British senior commanders
(Prevost,Brock,Sheaffe,Drummond,and de Rottenburg)and several of
their American counterparts(Dearborn and Porter as well as William
Hull,AlexanderMacomb, and JamesWilkinson).
There also is work to be done on the domestic and diplomatichistoryof the war. To betterassess the causes of the war,we need modern
prod. Gary L. Foreman,Questar,
173. Tecumseh:The Dream of Confederacy,l
1998; The BattleofNew Orleans, prod. GaryL. Foreman,Swell [Productions]and
on Tecumsehis partofa four2000. The documentary
GaryL. ForemanProductions,
part series called Frontier:Legends of the Old Northtwest,while the filmon New
Orleansis partofa four-part
seriescalledFrontier:The Decisive Battles.
174. The Star-SpangledBanner,prod.AndrewD. Berg,HistoryTelevisionProductions,1998.
175. ThieFinal Invasion: The 14War
of1812 and theBattleofPlattsburgh,prod.
1999.
BruceCarlinand David Fitz-Enz,CannonadeFilmworks,
768
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THE JOURNAL OF
-- T1heW
\ar of 18129
studies of the Britishpractice of impressment,the Americanuse of economic sanctions,and the economic impact on the United States of the
BritishOrders-in-Counciland the French ContinentalDecrees. For the
war itself,we need to know more about the scope and role of enemy
trade,the part played by Republican dissidentsin the UnitedStates and
Canadian dissidents in Canada, and the way that enemy aliens were
treatedon both sides. We could also use a comprehensivestudyof Federalistoppositionto the war.
We need moderntreatmentsofthe financialhistoryofthe war in the
United States and Canada. The social and economic historyof the con176 In addition,we could
test in both countrieshas barelybeen touched.
use studies that explore the war in the American and Canadian memories-that is, how the conflicthas been understood and portrayedon
each side ofthe borderover the past twohundredyears. Finally,as John
Stagg has suggested,we need someone to break the standardcampaign
narrativemold and offera new synthesisofthe war,one thatbetterlinks
the wartime themes of American unity and expansion to subsequent
developmentsin Americanhistory.'77
Fortunately,
source materialformuch ofthisresearchis readilyavailable. In theUnitedStates,mostofthe pertinentgovernmentrecords,personal correspondence,newspapers,pamphlets,and other sources have
been microfilmedand thus can be boughtor borrowedthroughinterlibraryloan. Much of the Britishmaterialis available on microfilmas well.
Accordingto Donald E. Graves, "The National Archivesof Canada in
Ottawahas acquired all the Britishdiplomatic,strategicaland operational
primarydocumentationof the war in the northand it is well indexed,
organizedand available on microfilmforloan."'78
In sum, even thoughwe know more about the War of 1812 than we
did ten or fifteenyears ago, there are still plentyof opportunitiesfor
those interestedin pursuingresearch on the "forgotten
conflict."
176. The mostnotableexceptionas faras social historyis concernedis George
Sheppard'sPlunder,Prqfits,anidParoles and a follow-up
and Privaarticle,"'WVants
tions':WVomen
in the WVar
of 1812 in UpperCanada,"Histoiresociale/SocialHistory
28 (May1995): 159-79.
177. Staggmade thissuggestionin a thoughtful
commentdeliveredin a session
entitled"The WVar
of 1812 and Its Aftermath"
at the annual SHEARmeetingin Buffalo,N.Y.,on 21 July2000.
178. Letterto theauthor,14 June2000.
MILITARY IIISTORY
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