Nixon’s Visit to China in 1972:
Improving Diplomatic Relations between China and the United
States
By
Bradley Conn
Junior Division
Paper
In late February 1972, President Richard Milhous Nixon and his National Security
Advisor Henry Kissinger made a historic trip to China to meet with the Communist Chinese
leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou En-Lai. They spent one week in China that changed the world.
China and the United States had viewed each other as enemies for nearly twenty-five years and
had very little contact. During that time, the Cold War was in progress and Communism was
spreading throughout the world. Nixon’s plan was to improve relations between China and the
United States because he believed Asia would not be peaceful if China remained isolated from
the rest of the world.
China: Early Interaction with Foreign Powers
Chinese governments called dynasties had ruled China since 1800 B.C. In 1644 A.D.,
the Qing Dynasty came to power; it had a policy of keeping China isolated from the rest of the
world. For hundreds of years, few Chinese were allowed to leave the country and foreigners
were allowed very little contact with the Chinese. In the 1800s, several foreign countries
including Germany, Japan, Great Britain, and France forced their way into China to trade goods.
They took control of many parts of China. The Chinese were forced into unfair trade policies
and treaties by the foreign countries. Many Chinese people felt that China should be controlled
only by the Chinese. Nationalist groups formed to protest the presence of the foreigners. One
group was known as the Society of the Righteous Harmonious Fists, nicknamed the “Boxers”
because they did martial arts. The Boxers attacked foreign diplomats and missionaries, trying to
get all foreigners to leave China. Foreign troops, including Americans, came into the Chinese
capital of Peking and forced the Chinese into a humiliating treaty that allowed the troops to stay
1
in the capital.1 After the Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911, many political parties formed that
competed in the only election held in China’s history. The Guomindang (Nationalist Party) won
the most votes; however, the Guomindang government was weak and had little control over
many parts of China.2 In 1920, the Chinese Communist Party formed. Two Chinese men named
Mao Zedong and Zhou En-Lai became members.3
By 1927, the Guomindang government brought the country under some control with help
from the Communists. Then they turned on the Communists, killing tens of thousands of them.
To escape the Guomindang, Mao Zedong led the Communists on a yearlong march known as the
Long March.4 The Guomindang were distracted from completely destroying the Communists
when China became involved in World War II. By the end of the war, the Communist side had
built up a strong army. In 1946, the Chinese Civil War started and by 1949 the Communists
drove the Guomindang from the mainland to the island of Taiwan. Mao Zedong became the
leader of Communist China that became known as the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Zhou
En-Lai became its first Premier and Foreign Minister. The Guomindang set up their government
on the island of Taiwan led by Chiang Kai-Shek.5
After the Chinese Civil War ended, only communist states recognized the People’s
Republic of China (PRC) as the government of China. The United States recognized the Taiwan
government instead. The Korean War happened in the 1950s and when the American and
1
Mao Zedong- Founder of the People’s Republic of China by Rebecca Stefoff, pg. 24-31
2
Mao Zedong by Jonathan Spence, pg. 19-20
3
Mao The Unknown Story by Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, pg. 19
4
Chairman Mao: Picture of a Dictator, Biography. August 1988, pg. 88-94
5
Nixon and Mao by Margaret Macmillan, pg. 247-248
2
Korean fighting got too close to the Chinese border, the Chinese army attacked the Americans.
Americans got involved in the Vietnam War in the 1960s. China supported the North who was
fighting the U.S. At that time, the Cold War was happening and the Soviet Union was gaining
power; they wanted the world to turn Communist, but America was strongly against it. From the
time of the Communist Revolution in 1949, China isolated itself. This isolation intensified
during the Cultural Revolution in 1966.
A New Relationship Begins
President Richard Nixon was sworn into office as the 37th President of the United States
on January 20, 1969. He selected Henry Kissinger as his National Security Advisor. In Nixon’s
inaugural address he said, “We seek an open world--a world in which no people, great or small,
will live in angry isolation.” Nixon’s personal view was that Asia could not move forward if
China remained isolated.6
Nixon wanted to talk to the Chinese leaders about improving relations, but had no open
line of communication with them. The only place in which both countries had diplomats was
Warsaw, Poland. Nixon asked the Polish ambassador, Walter Stoessel, to tell the Chinese
ambassador he wanted “serious, concrete talks with the Chinese.” In Warsaw, Walter Stoessel
caught up with the Chinese ambassador after a fashion show and passed on the message. The
Chinese ambassador only said, “Good, I will report that.”7 In America, government officials
from the State Department found out about Nixon’s attempt to set up a meeting with the Chinese.
6
Memorandum of conversation between ambassador Agha Hilaly and Harold H. Saunders, August 28, 1969
7
Telegram from U.S. Ambassador to Poland Walter Stoessel to Secretary of State William Rogers, December 3, 1969
3
They disagreed with Nixon’s plans and thought the U.S. should focus only on the problems
between the two countries. Nixon decided to secretly communicate with the Chinese and not let
the State Department know.8
President Nixon took the first step in opening a secret channel of communication with the
Chinese using Yahya Khan, the leader of Pakistan on August 1, 1969, during his trip to Asia.9
Nixon asked Yahya Khan to “convey his feeling to China in the highest level,” and tell them he
wanted to meet with them. Nixon voiced interest in improving relations with China publicly, but
Mao did not reply because he was afraid it would affect his image as a Communist leader.10
Ping-Pong Diplomacy
On March 21st 1971, a Chinese Ping-Pong team arrived in Japan to play in an
international tournament. An American player named Glenn Cowan hitched a ride on the
Chinese bus that was going on a sight-seeing tour to a pearl farm and talked to the Chinese
champion Zhaung Zedong.11 Pictures of the two shaking hands made their way to both
countries’ news media. Mao Zedong had not wanted American teams to come to China, even
though he invited other foreign teams. After Mao saw this news, he decided to let the American
team come to China. This came as a big surprise to everyone.
8
Kissinger-A Biography by Walter Isaacson, pg. 336-337
9
Memorandum of conversation between ambassador Agha Hilaly and Harold H. Saunders, August 28, 1969
10
Mao The Unknown Story by Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, pg. 579
11
Kissinger-A Biography by Walter Isaacson, pg. 339
4
When the American team went to China, they received a lot of attention from the Chinese
people. Everywhere they went, they saw Chinese people smiling and waving to them.12 Many
reporters who were there put positive things in the news about the ping-pong team’s visit. One
week later, a secret message came from Premier Zhou En-Lai inviting the Americans for a
meeting. Ping-Pong had changed public opinion and Nixon now felt it would benefit him
politically to go. To prepare the groundwork for a possible Nixon visit, Kissinger secretly went
to China to meet with Zhou En-Lai. He offered to give the PRC full diplomatic recognition by
the United States and help them to replace Taiwan in the United Nations. Further, he offered to
tell the Chinese about America’s interaction with Soviet Union and to show them many
classified documents about the Soviet military. Kissinger said the United States would pull their
troops out of Vietnam within twelve months and most of their troops out of Korea.13
After Kissinger’s visit, Nixon announced publicly on television that he had been invited
to China and had accepted their invitation. He told the public that he would talk to the Chinese
leaders about normalizing relations.14 In October, 1971, Kissinger returned to Peking to get
everything set up for President Nixon to visit. At the same time, a vote was taken to replace
Taiwan’s seat in the United Nations (U.N.) with Peking’s government. They won the seat with
America’s support, which also gave them a seat on the U.N.’s Security Council.
12
The World: The Ping Heard Round the World, Time. April 26, 1971
13
Mao The Unknown Story by Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, pg. 581-583
14
Typescript of Speech President Nixon Gave Announcing Upcoming Trip to China, July 15, 1971
5
Nixon Visits China
On February 17, 1972, President Nixon, other government officials, and reporters arrived
at the Peking airport in his plane called “The Spirit of ’76.”15 Signs on the street were taken
down if they were negative towards Americans and replaced with more friendly ones.16 There
were no crowds of people on the streets to greet the Americans as they drove with Zhou En-Lai
through the capital to a heavily guarded compound. This surprised the Americans because when
the Ethiopian Emperor had visited Peking in October of 1971, there had been a crowd of 250,000
people waving Ethiopian flags.17
During their one-week trip to China, President Nixon and Henry Kissinger met daily with
Zhou En-Lai. The meetings were very slow because of the language barrier and how long it took
to translate every word. Mao Zedong was very ill and the Americans did not know if they
would even get to meet with him. They thought it was very important to meet with him because
they wanted to confirm that he was behind their new relationship with the Chinese. On February
21, Nixon did meet with Mao Zedong. The meeting was only scheduled to last fifteen minutes
but lasted over an hour. The Chinese were afraid Mao might collapse during the meeting
because he was so ill, but the more he talked, the better he started to look.18 During the meeting,
Mao did not want to talk about any specific agreement; instead, he talked in general terms and
15
Nixon in China, First Steps of a Long March, Newsweek. March 6, 1972
16
A guide to Nixon’s China Journey, Time. February 21,1972, pg. 27-30
17
Nixon and Mao by Margaret Macmillan, pg. 20
18
Nixon and Mao by Margaret Macmillan, pg. 70-74
6
about philosophy. There was a lot of joking and they laughed often.19 The meeting was very
symbolic of the new relationship between the Americans and Chinese (Appendix I).
The Americans were invited to a large banquet. Nixon and Zhou En-Lai gave speeches
on their new relationship. The banquet was symbolic and showed diplomacy because the
Americans used Chinese customs such as using chop sticks, even though it was difficult
(Appendix II). At this banquet, they also gave each other gifts. The Chinese gave the Americans
two giant pandas, which were rare for Americans to see. They were put in the National Zoo in
Washington, D.C. and became the star exhibit right away. The Americans gave the Chinese two
Musk Oxen.20
The Americans continued meetings with Zhou En-Lai on a daily basis and they talked
about what they would try to do in the future. On February 28, when the week had finally ended,
they made and signed a document called the Shanghai Communiqué which detailed areas of
agreement and disagreement. They agreed about co-existing in spite of their different types of
governments as well as not forcing their views onto other countries. They agreed that
relationships between the people of the two countries would be beneficial. They agreed that
trade would be a good thing between the two countries and about exchanging representatives to
talk and stay in contact with each other. They also stated their positions on Taiwan, Japan, and
Vietnam.21 However, the Shanghai Communiqué did not require a commitment by either
country to carry out any future actions.
19
Memorandum of Conversation between President Richard Nixon and Chairman Mao Tse-tung, February 21,1972
20
Effects of the President’s Trip to China, Ping-Pong Diplomacy: Nixon’s Trip to China. http://www.presidentialtimeline.org/timeline/bin/
21
Nixon in China, First Steps of a Long March, Newsweek. March 6, 1972
7
After the Shanghai Communiqué
Soon after the meetings, diplomats were exchanged between the two countries. On
November 7, 1972, Richard Nixon was re-elected as president. He and his re-election committee
were accused of the “Watergate” scandal. They were traced to the break-in of the Democrat
offices at the Watergate Hotel. Nixon denied any involvement, but a tape in court revealed that
he was involved. On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned because he was likely to be impeached.22
Mao Zedong and Zhou En-Lai both passed away in 1976.23
On January 1, 1979, under President Jimmy Carter, Americans and Chinese formally
established full diplomatic relations. Before the meetings, United States and China mostly
thought of each other as enemies. If the meetings had not happened, relations would likely be
very different today. Both countries still have huge philosophical differences, a massive
language barrier, and political systems that are completely different. However, since Nixon’s
trip to China, diplomatic relations between the United States and China have improved greatly.
The things both sides agreed upon in the Shanghai Communiqué are still important.
Trade between China and the United States has gone from almost nothing to about 400
billion dollars per year. In terms of total volume, China has become the second largest trading
partner of the United States, slightly behind Canada. The United States now receives more
imports from China than any other country. Trading has increased steadily each year; it
increased 219.7 billion dollars from 2000 to 2009 (Appendix III).24 Increased trade has caused
22
Richard M. Nixon, the White House. http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/richardnixon
23
"Nixon's China Game," The American Experience. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/timeline/timeline6nf.html
24
Appendix III: US International Trade Commission, Table 1. http://www.uschina.org/statistics/tradetable.html
8
more capitalism throughout the world. Many United States jobs have moved to China; it has
caused trade imbalances and an increased role of China in world political affairs. There are still
many differences between China and the United States today. For example, China continues to
want Taiwan as part of their country and the United States believes it should remain as an
independent country.
Overall, the meeting between Nixon and Mao Zedong is considered a success in
diplomacy. Both the United States and China agreed to be respectful of other countries, not to
use force to settle international disputes, and try and peacefully coexist.25
25
Shanghai Communique, February 28, 1972. http://www.taiwandocuments.org/communique01.htm
9
Appendix I
When Mao and Nixon shook hands, lots of reporters took pictures. The picture showed
that the United States and China had created a new relationship. After looking at each other as
enemies for many years, the people from both countries could see that it was possible to become
friends. From: http://www.archives.nysed.gov/projects/legacies/syrchinese/doc2.shtml
10
Appendix II
This is a picture of Nixon and Zhou En-Lai eating together at the banquet the Chinese
held to welcome the American government officials to China. Even though it was difficult, the
Americans tried their best to use Chinese customs such as using chopsticks and letting the
seniors have their food first. From: http://forum.globaltimes.cn/forum/showthread.php?t=8907
11
Appendix III
China's Trade with the United States ($ billion)
Source: US International Trade Commission
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
US exports
16.3
19.2
22.1
28.4
34.7
41.8
55.2
65.2
71.5
69.6
% change
24.4
18.3
15.1
28.5
22.2
20.6
32.1
18.1
9.5
-2.6
US imports
100.0 102.3 125.2 152.4 196.7 243.5 287.8 321.5 337.8 296.4
% change
22.3
Total
116.3 121.5 147.3 180.8 231.4 285.3 343
386.7 409.2 366.0
% change
22.6
21.4
21.2
12.7
US balance
-83.7
-83.0
-103.1 -124.0 -162.0 -201.6 -232.5 -256.3 -266.3 -226.8
2.2
22.4
21.7
22.8
29.1
28
23.8
23.3
18.2
20.2
11.7
5.1
5.8
-12.3
-10.6
American and Chinese trade steadily increased to about 400 billion dollars per year by
2009. Today, the US receives many more imports from China than it exports. The United States
and China have also gone from trading 116.3 billion dollars in 2000 to 366 billion dollars in
2009. From: http://www.uschina.org/statistics/tradetable.html
12
Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources
Burr, William. "Nixon's Trip to China." The National Security Archive. George Washington
University, 11/12/2003. Web. 26 Sep 2010.
<http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB106/index.htm>.
This website contains declassified documents of the actual conversations Nixon had with
the Chinese leaders and other conversations from the time leading up to Nixon’s trip. It is
important because I can easily look at exactly what they discussed. It also has quite a bit
of other information in addition to the declassified documents. (The documents were
declassified in 2003)
"First Steps of a Long March." Newsweek. 06 Mar 1972: 14-25. Print.
This is a news-magazine article from 1972; it has several quotes and described what
happened when Nixon first arrived in China. It also has information on what Nixon and the
Chinese leaders talked about during his visit.
"Memorandum of Conversation between Ambassador Agha Hilaly and Harold H. Saunders, 28
August 1969 ." The National Security Archive. Nixon Presidential Materials Project,
National Security Council Files. Box 1032. Cookies II (Chronology of Exchanges with PRC
Feb. 1969- April 1971), August 28, 1969. Web. 10 Oct 2010.
<http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB145/02.pdf>.
This was the conversation between ambassador Agha Hilaly and Harold H. Saunders
talking about Nixon’s meeting with Yahya Khan. Nixon asked Yahya Khan to tell the
Chinese that he wanted to meet with them.
"Telegram from U.S. Ambassador to Poland Walter Stoessel to Secretary of State William
Rogers." Richard Nixon Library. N.p., 03 Dec. 1969. Web. 20 Oct 2010.
<http://www.presidentialtimeline.org/html/record.php?id=299&noNav>.
This telegram was between the Americans and their ambassador to Poland named Walter
Stoessel. It helped me to understand Walter Stoessel’s involvement as a liaison and how
Nixon asked him to contact the Chinese ambassador.
"Typescript of Speech President Nixon Gave Announcing Upcoming Trip to China." Richard
Nixon Library. N.p., 15 Jul 1971. Web. 24 Oct 2010.
<http://www.presidentialtimeline.org/html/record.php?id=300&noNav>.
This is a transcript of Nixon’s announcement of his trip to China. It shows how he
presented new ideas to the public.
13
United States and People's Republic of China. Joint Communique of the United States of
America and the People's Republic of China (Shanghai Communiqe). , 28 February 1972.
Web. 15 May 2011. <http://www.taiwandocuments.org/communique01.htm>.
This is the Shanghai Communique document that was signed at the end of the weeklong
meetings. It states what the Chinese and Americans agreed and disagreed about.
United States. Memorandum of Conversation between President Richard Nixon and Chairman
Mao Tse-tung. , 1972. Web. 10 Oct 2010.
<http://www.presidentialtimeline.org/html/record.php?id=296>.
This was the conversation Nixon had with Mao. It shows exactly what they said or talked
about during the meeting and that they laughed.
14
Secondary Sources
Chang, Jung, and Jon Halliday. The Unknown Story Mao. 1st ed. New York: Random House of
Canada Limited, Toronto, 2005. Print.
This book is a biography about Mao and shows everything from his point of view. It has
information about his youth and discussed his role in the formation of the Chinese
communist party. It also tells about Nixon’s visit.
Cohen, Warren I. "Nixon in China." America.gov Engaging the World. U.S. Department of
State's Bureau of International Information Programs, 01/04/2006. Web. 26 Sep 2010.
<http://www.america.gov/st/peacesecenglish/2006/April/20080522121002WRybakcuH0.3434717.html>.
This website has information on different things that happened leading up and involving
Nixon’s visit to China. It has information about the Chinese civil war, U.S. relations with
China before he visited, and what Nixon did immediately prior to his visit.
Drew, Elizabeth. Richard M. Nixon. 1st ed. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC, 2007.
Print.
This biography on Nixon has many dates for important events in his life. It included
information about his childhood and resignation.
Frost, Bob. "Chairman Mao: Picture of a Dictator He Rallied the Chinese Peasants, then
Ravaged Them." Biography. Aug. 1998: 88-94. Print.
This article describes Mao Zedong leading the Communists in their Long March. It also
has information on the Chinese Civil War, the Korean War, and how Mao treated his own
people. I better understood the totalitarian nature of the Chinese government.
Hongze, He, and Ding Gang. "Shanghai Communique Lays Foundation for US-China Ties:
Kissinger." People's Daily 2002: 1-3. Print. 24 Oct 2010.
This article is about what has happened since the Shanghai Communique. It looks at how
it laid the groundwork for the trade we now have with the Chinese.
Hooker, Richard. "The Boxer Rebellion." Ch'ing China. World Civilizations, 1996. Web. 10 Oct
2010. <http://wsu.edu/~dee/CHING/BOXER.HTM>.
This web page has a lot of detailed information about the “Boxer Rebellion” and how the
foreign powers dominated the Chinese.
15
Isaacson, Walter. Kissinger A Biography. 1st ed. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. Print.
This biography of Henry Kissinger describes his role in Nixon’s visit to China, including
his meetings with the Chinese leaders. It also has information about the American PingPong player Glenn Cowan getting on the Chinese bus.
Macmillian, Margaret. Nixon and Mao The Week That Changed the World. 1st ed. New York:
Random House TradePaperback Edition, 2007. Print.
This book has lots of useful information and is very detailed. It talked about what led up to
Nixon’s visit, including the formation of governments in China. The book discussed
Nixon’s arrival in China and ride through the capital. It showed that Mao Zedong was very
ill at the time of the meetings.
"Nixon's China Game." The American Experience. PBS, 1999. Web. 10 Oct 2010.
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/timeline/timeline6nf.html>.
This is a timeline of U.S.-Chinese relations from 1949 to 1979. It includes information
about specific events that occurred between the two countries on a day-to-day basis. It
gave the dates Mao Zedong and Zhou En-Lai passed away.
"Ping Pong Diplomacy: Nixon's Trip to China." The Presidential Timeline. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Oct
2010. <http://www.presidentialtimeline.org/timeline/bin/>.
This is a timeline of the events leading up to Nixon’s trip. The timeline details what
happened during the trip and shows effects resulting from it. It has many pictures and
documents, including memorandums of conversations and even the banquet menu.
"Richard M. Nixon." The White House. The United States Government, n.d. Web. 18 Oct 2010.
<http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/richardnixon>.
This web page has information about Richard Nixon’s life. It told about the “Watergate”
scandal and about Nixon resigning from office.
Spence, Jonathan. Mao Zedong. 1st ed. New York: Penguin Group, 1999. Print.
This book talks about the formation of political parties in China. It also talked about
China’s involvement in World War 1.
Smith, William E., and Richard Bernstein. "China: A Decade of Measured Progress." Time
Magazine. 15 Mar. 1982: Print.
This article was written ten years after Nixon’s meeting with the Chinese leaders. It talked
about what has happened between China and the United States since the meetings.
16
Stefoff, Rebecca. Mao Zedong Founder of the People's Republic of China. 1st ed. Brookfield:
The Millbrook Press, Inc., 1996. Print.
This book described China’s history and interaction between the Chinese and foreign
powers. It also talks about Mao Zedong, the leader of the Communist government. It has
several important dates.
"Taiwan and U.S.-China Relations." Asia for Educators. Columbia University, 2009. Web. 18
Oct 2010. <http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_taiwan.htm>.
This web page has information about when the United States got formal diplomatic
relations with China. It describes how China wants Taiwan to be part of their country and
that the United States doesn’t want violence or force to be used.
"The World: China: A Stinging Victory." Time Magazine. 08 Nov. 1971: 1-11. Print.
This long article tells about the Chinese Peking government getting into the United Nations
and the United States’ role in China getting the seat.
"The World: The Ping Heard Round the World." Time Magazine. 26 Apr. 1971: Print.
This article is about the American Ping-Pong team in China prior to Nixon’s visit. It
showed how the team changed each country’s view of each other and allowed Nixon’s
visit to happen.
Zakaria, Fareed, and others. "Does the Future Belong to China." Newsweek Vol. 145, No. 19.
09 May 2005: 26+. SIRS Researcher. Print. 24 Oct 2010.
This news article is about what has happened since 1972 when Nixon was in China. It
details China’s fast economic growth and development as an increasing world power.
17