Position Statement - Children with
Incarcerated Parents: An Unmet Mental
Health Need
June 2015, Publication #CM49.01
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. 3
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 4
What we know about children of incarcerated parents......................................... 4
What we don’t know about children of incarcerated parents. ............................... 6
Prevention and early intervention services .......................................................... 7
Recommendations .............................................................................................. 9
Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 12
Acknowledgements
Funding for this report was provided by a statewide prevention and early
intervention (PEI) grant through the California Mental Health Services Authority
(CalMHSA) and Prop. 63. Statewide PEI initiatives are funded by counties and
administered by CalMHSA to prevent suicides, reduce stigma and discrimination,
and improve student mental health.
Disability Rights California and its subcontractors work on the stigma and
discrimination initiative includes:
- examining laws and policies and developing related fact sheets
- providing training to the public about legal rights of Californians with
disabilities
- recommending needed changes to discriminatory laws and policies
- distributing culturally relevant and age appropriate facts sheets and training
materials
- providing information and assistance with private insurance mental health
parity issues
We would like to acknowledge our funders and supporters who provided input on
this report:
- Disability Rights California’s Stigma and Discrimination Reduction Project
Advisory Group
- Mental Health Advocacy Services’ Youth Advisory Committee
- Stigma and Discrimination Reduction Consortium
- CalMHSA staff
- Belanie Brown, BA B.Min, Community & Government Relations, Office of
the Director of the Los Angeles County Mental Health Department
- Marvin J. Southard, D.S.W., Director of the Los Angeles County Mental
Health Department
- Rebecca J. Shlafer, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Division of General
Pediatrics and Adolescent Health, Department of Pediatrics, University of
Minnesota
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Introduction
It is estimated that more than 1.75 million children have a parent currently in
prison in the United States.1 Many of these children grow up in foster care, with
grandparents or other relatives, or bounce among an array of temporary
caregivers. One report cites a study that as many as 90% of children in long-term
foster care have a parent who has been arrested or incarcerated. 2 Although little
information exists on these children, given their background, it is reasonable to
assume that they are at risk of significant long-term consequences, including
depression, anxiety, cognitive delays, and difficulties in school.3 Girls between
the ages of 10 and 16 who are in the foster care system are at risk of sexual
exploitation, including sex trafficking.4 Not only have these children lost a parent
to the penal system, but they may well be further traumatized as they cycle
through multiple systems, including the mental health system. Further, they face
stigma and discrimination from their peers, teachers, and other service providers
for the mere fact of being a child with an incarcerated parent. In some cases, this
stigma can lead to isolation, peer hostility, and social rejection.5
The goal of this position statement is to define who these children are, describe
the problems they face, and propose some recommendations to address these
problems.
What we know about children of incarcerated parents.
Shlafer, Rebecca J., Erica Gerrity., Ebony Ruhland and Marc Wheeler, “Children with
Incarcerated Parents – Considering Children’s Outcomes in the Context of Family
Experiences,” p. 9 (June 2013) available at http://www.extension.umn.edu/family/cyfc/ourprograms/ereview/docs/June2013ereview.pdf.
2 Johnson-Peterkin, Yolanda, “Information Packet: Children of Incarcerated Parents,” p.2 (May
2003), available at
http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/socwork/nrcfcpp/downloads/information_packets/children-ofincarcerated-parents.pdf.
3 Shlafer, Rebecca J., Erica Gerrity, Ebony Ruhland, and Marc Wheeler, op. cit., p. 4.
4 Abuana, Aubrey, “Human Trafficking: Foster Children in L.A.,” available at
http://www.ejournalncrp.org/human-trafficking-foster-children-in-l-a/
5 Nesmith, Andrea and Ebony Ruhland (2008). “Children of incarcerated parents: challenges
and resiliency in their own words,” Children and Youth Services Review, Vol. 30, pp. 11191130.
1
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According to the Appleseed Network, “the children of incarcerated parents
become victims of our legal system – in the absence of their parents, these
children's educational and emotional development stagnates or regresses.
Children and family members suffer both during incarceration and again upon
inmate reentry, as the family must readjust to its new structure.”6
The trauma experienced by children with incarcerated parents may result in the
following symptoms:
1. fear, sadness, loneliness, guilt, low self-esteem, depression, emotional
withdrawal from friends and family;
2. separation anxiety and fears of abandonment;
3. eating and sleeping disorders;
4. anxiety and hyper-arousal, attention disorders and developmental
regression;
5. physical aggression, withdrawal, acting out, academic and behavioral
difficulties, truancy;
6. self-medication or misuse of alcohol or drugs.7
Citing a series of studies, the New York Initiative for Children of Incarcerated
Parents reports that these children may “experience a two-fold increase in risk to
mental health problems, and higher rates of major depression and attention
disorders, then the general population of youth.” Further, “the children’s distress
during a period of separation . . . may lead to “failure-to-thrive, depression,
delinquency, and academic problems.” In addition, the traumatizing event of
being separated from a parent “may cause long-lasting changes in the brain,
leading to adverse health and mental health outcomes.”8
6
Appleseed This Week, “Connecting with Children from Behind Bars” (10/10/13).
See Washington State, A Behavioral Health Toolkit for Providers working with Children of the Incarcerated and
their Families (December 2009), p. 3, available at http://www.dshs.wa.gov/pdf/dbhr/youthtxtoolkit.pdf
The toolkit provides social service professionals with skills necessary to respond to the needs of children whose
parent(s) are in prison or have a history of incarceration.
8 The Osborne Association, “Fact Sheet: Parent Incarceration’s Impact on Children’s Health” (May 2012)
(citations omitted), available at:
7
http://www.osborneny.org/images/uploads/printMedia/Parental%20Incarceration's%20Impact%
20on%20Children's%20Health%20Fact%20Sheet_Osborne.pdf
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Dr. Henrie Treadwell, research professor at the Morehouse School of Medicine,
writes that studies suggest girls with an incarcerated household member have
sex at younger ages, are less likely to use contraceptives, have more sexual
partners and are more likely to become pregnant before age 20. Other research
reported by Dr. Treadwell indicates that 23 percent of children with a father who
has served time in jail or prison have been expelled or suspended from school.”9
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recognizes parental
incarceration as one of the 10 negative events experienced early in life known as
an “adverse childhood experience” (ACE).10 People with multiple adverse
childhood experiences have an increased risk of long-term negative health and
mental health outcomes.11
Further, the impact of the stigma of having a parent incarcerated cannot be
ignored as it may represent one of the most damaging results of parental
incarceration, lasting for many children long after the parent is released.12 These
children often do not receive the support they need for grieving a departed
parent,13 and may either internalize the stigma and experience lower self-esteem
or react with anger, defiance, and a desire for retaliation.14
What we don’t know about children of incarcerated parents.
California like many state corrections departments “do not systematically collect
information about incarcerated parents.”15 The number of children of
incarcerated parents in California is an estimate because the state does not
request or keep family information about each arrested or convicted person.
Henrie M. Treadwell, Ph.D., “Opinion: Children of incarcerated parents are ‘collateral damage’
of criminal justice system” (July 3, 2013) available at: http://www.nj.com/timesopinion/index.ssf/2013/07/opinion_children_of_incarcerat.html
10See http://www.cdc.gov/ace/pdf/fhhflorna.pdf (female);
http://www.cdc.gov/ace/pdf/fhhmlorna.pdf (male)
11 Shlafer, Rebecca J, Erica Gerrity, Ebony Ruhland and Marc Wheeler, op. cit., p.5
12 San Francisco Children of Incarcerated Parents Partnership. 2005. “Children of Incarcerated
Parents: A Bill of Rights.” http://www.norcalserviceleague.org/images/billrite.pdf.
13 Hostetter, Edwin C., and Dorothea T. Jinna. 1993. “Research Summary: Families of Adult
Prisoners. Prison Fellowship Ministries.” http://www.fcnetwork.org/reading/researc.html.
14 La Vigne, Nancy G., Elizabeth Davies and Diana Brazzell. 2007. “Broken Bonds:
Understanding and Addressing the Needs of Children with Incarcerated Parents.”Urban
Institute, p. 9
15 Shlafer, Rebecca J., Erica Gerrity, Ebony Ruhland, and Marc Wheeler, op. cit., p.3
9
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Given the limited prevalence data, we do not know how many children “are at
increased risk for both internalizing (e.g., depression, anxiety, withdrawal) and
externalizing (e.g., delinquency, substance use) behavior problems, cognitive
delays, and difficulties in school.”16 Nonetheless, we know that there are unmet
needs and that children with incarcerated parents are at risk. The Children’s
Mental Health eReview at the University of Minnesota has concluded:
Like other Adverse Child Experiences, the incarceration of a parent often
results in exposure to other risk factors that can compromise health and
development across the life course. Although incarceration is not likely the
cause of these compromised outcomes, it instead serves as one indicator
of other co-occurring risks and vulnerabilities that make these families
particularly fragile.17
Prevention and early intervention services
Systems and communities can respond to the needs of children of incarcerated
parents in a number of ways that will lessen the impact of losing a parent. The
following are examples of some of these efforts.
-
The Children’s Hospital & Research Center Oakland has organized a
workshop designed to increase the ability of clinicians and programs to
understand the needs and to develop intervention strategies for young
children and their families who have been impacted by incarceration. 18
-
“A significant body of research has developed around appropriate services
for kids exposed to violence, including: child witness to violence therapeutic
services, trauma-informed therapy, reparative therapy, child-parent
psychotherapy for family violence, play therapy, and other modalities.”19
-
Children with incarcerated parents need “access to specially trained
therapists, counselors and/or mentors.”20
Ibid, p.4.
Ibid, p. 9.
18 See http://alamedacounty10x10.org/events/invisible-children-incarcerated-parents.
19 The Annie E. Casey Foundation, “When a Parent Is Incarcerated: A Primer for Social
Workers” (2011) p. 12, available at:
http://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/When_A_Parent_Is_Incarcerated_Primer.pdf
20 San Francisco Children of Incarcerated Parents, “From Rights to Realities – An Agenda for
Action,” available at: http://www.sfcipp.org/rights.html
16
17
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-
“Each child of an incarcerated parent is unique and requires individualized
assessment and support.”21 A child’s experiences may vary “based on age,
racial category, class, location, type of crime…, length of sentence, history
of parental incarceration, family structure prior, during, and after
incarceration.”22 Further, “it is important to keep in mind how the effects of
a parent’s incarceration may vary depending on the child’s age and
developmental capacities both at the time the parent is incarcerated and
when the parent is released. For example, maternal incarceration during
infancy may result in separation between the child and his primary
attachment figure.”23
-
“Approximately 70% of children whose mothers are in prison live with
grandparents and other relatives.”24 Further, “[s]trong family ties during
imprisonment can have a positive impact on people returning from prison
and on their children.”25
-
In 2013, the Federal Interagency Working Group for Children of
Incarcerated Parents developed the Children in Foster Care with Parents in
Federal Prison: A Toolkit for Child Welfare Agencies, Federal Prisons, and
Resident Reentry Centers.26
-
Further, according to the Appleseed Network, “[r]einforcing the literacy
skills of re-entering inmates and their children will help to ease their
transition, help the family move forward more cohesively and better equip
parents to re-enter the workforce.”27
-
The Child Welfare Information Gateway has compiled a database of
materials for working with incarcerated parents.28
The Osborne Association, op. cit.
Shlafer, Rebecca J., Erica Gerrity, Ebony Ruhland and March Wheeler, op. cit., p. 14.
23 Ibid, p 6.
24 National Resource Center on Children and Families of the Incarcerated (NRCCFI), “Children
And Families Of The Incarcerated Fact Sheet,” p.4, available at:
http://www.f2f.ca.gov/res/pdf/Children-FamiliesOfIncarcerated.pdf
25 Ibid., p. 6.
26 Available at: http://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/COIP-Tookit.pdf
27 Appleseed This Week, op. cit. See also Eric Rossen, “Supporting Students with Incarcerated
Parents,” Principal Leadership (Nov 2011) available at:
http://www.nasponline.org/resources/principals/Incarcerated_Parents_Nov2011.pdf.
28 Bibliography of evidence-based practice, research and reports at:
http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/socwork/nrcfcpp/info_services/children-of-incarceratedparents.html
21
22
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These efforts, however, barely begin to address the needs of all the children who
are negatively impacted by experiencing the incarceration of a parent. It is
imperative, therefore, that given the potential long-term consequences of
parental incarceration for child and adult health, more targeted, evidenceinformed prevention and intervention services are needed.
Recommendations
Recommendation 1: Appoint a State Interagency Working Group for
Children of Incarcerated Parents which will identify and mandate best
practices on data collection and interagency coordination for program
development and implementation to meet the mental health needs of
children with incarcerated parents
The lack of data on who the children with incarcerated parents are and their
mental health needs is a major impediment in addressing this issue. One of the
first steps for the Working Group is the development of a statewide data
collection and reporting system on children of parents who are incarcerated after
arrest or conviction. This will also help increase the systemic accountability for
the well-being of children and their future as well as identify high risk factors. The
Working Group would also be tasked with identifying best practices for meeting
the mental health needs of these children. This will help decrease abandonment
and disconnections from siblings, family, and the community. The Working Group
can build on the existing work of stakeholders.29 There also needs to be
sensitivity to the stigma that attaches to children with incarcerated parents to
avoid unintended adverse consequences for vulnerable kids.
Recommendation 2: Mental Health Services Oversight and Accountability
Commission should recognize “children with incarcerated parents” as
For example, in 2006, the Governor signed Assembly Bill 1942 (Nava), which added Section
833.2 to the Penal Code to promote protocols between law enforcement and county child
welfare agencies on how to best respond to the arrest of a caretaker parent or guardian of a
minor child to ensure the child’s safety and well-being. The Legislature also encouraged the
State Department of Justice to apply to the federal government for a statewide training grant to
assist local police in developing protocols when a caretaker parent or guardian is arrested.
Further, in 2009, the Governor signed Senate Bill 118 (Liu), which required that the case plan
through the State Department of Social Services and county welfare departments include more
specific information about a parent’s incarceration to the extent possible in determining
services that should be offered to that parent’s children. It also requires social workers to
make reasonable efforts to collect data regarding a child’s incarcerated parent.
29
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priority prevention and early intervention focus area,30 and as a
specialized population for assessment, placement, treatment, support, and
family reunification.
Research shows that children with incarcerated parents are a high risk
population that is unserved or underserved, as referenced above. As well, the
social stigma experienced by such children can be too much to bear alone.
Recommendation 3: CalMHSA should amend its California Healthy Kids
Survey CalMHSA Module31 to include the following question: “Have any of
your parents or guardians ever been in jail or prison?”
In 2013, the Minnesota Student Survey was amended to include that question
and the following responses: “None of my parents or guardians has ever been in
jail or prison”; “Yes, I have a parent or guardian in jail or prison right now”; or
“Yes, I had a parent or guardian in jail or prison in the past”.32
Recommendation 4: Allocate funding to develop more programs for
children from Latino and African American communities which are
disproportionately affected.
Children from Latino and African American communities are disproportionately
affected by incarceration rates.33 It is therefore critical that funding to these
communities be prioritized, so that programs which will meet a child’s individual
needs and support family reunification are developed. These programs have the
potential to decrease abandonment issues and prevent high risk factors such as
depression, stress, anger, isolation, long term mental health illnesses, truancy,
substance use, and entry into the juvenile justice system. Programs can
Recommendation 5: Enhance reentry programs to prepare incarcerated
parents for reunification with their children.
See
http://www.mhsoac.ca.gov/MHSOAC_Publications/docs/Child_Youth_Families_PEIFirst3Yrs_0
52413.pdf
31 See http://chks.wested.org/resources/mshs-CalMHSA-1314.pdf
32 See 2013 Minnesota Student Survey, Statewide Tables, p.16, available at:
http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/chs/mss/statewidetables/statetablesbygrade13.pdf
33 See National Conference of State Legislators, “Children of Incarcerated Parents” (2009) p. 2,
available at: http://www.ncsl.org/documents/cyf/childrenofincarceratedparents.pdf
30
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Family reunification planning prior to release from jail or prison should become
part of all reentry programs in order to prepare incarcerated parents for
successful reunification with their children. Family reunification is traditionally
addressed after the release of incarcerated parents, which reduces the
probability of a successful family-focused and productive outcome for the child or
parent. The discharge planning for reentry programs should include the children’s
participation, especially when it is their desire to have contact with the parent
who is incarcerated.34 For example, for parents who are incarcerated for
substance use or domestic violence, the courts could order rehabilitation
treatment prior to release as well as parenting classes with the child’s
participation to increase the probability of successful reunification while receiving
assistance in regaining a productive and healthy life for both the child and their
parent.
Recommendation 6: Put children first and let them know that “they are not
alone.”
“Research demonstrates, and my clinical experience confirms, that the focus of
public discussion and family level interventions needs to shift from a perspective
of punishing a criminal to a consideration for the best interest of the child.35 It will
make a difference in helping children with incarcerated parents on a broader and
more meaningful level, by putting them first and letting them know that “they are
not alone.” Extended families and mentors36 need to be supported for children
who have been abandoned or feel abandoned. This needs to be done on an
individualized basis through a process that involves a wrap-around team that
includes all systems accountable for the child.
http://codes.lp.findlaw.com/cacode/WIC/1/d2/1/2/10/s361.5
Shlafer, Rebecca.J., Erica Gerrity, Ebony Ruhland, and Marc Wheeler, op. cit., p. 11.
36 See DuBois, David L., Nelson Portillo, Jean E. Rhodes, Naida Silverthorn, and Jeffrey C.
Valentine, “How Effective Are Mentoring Programs for Youth? A Systematic Assessment of the
Evidence” (Association for Psychological Sciences 2011), available at:
http://www.mpmn.org/Files/DuBoisPortilloRhodesSilverthornValentine2011.pdf
34
35
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Conclusion
Many children affected by parental incarceration remain invisible. The first step in
serving these children is to know how many there are. It is only then along with a
deeper understanding of the risk factors they present will they receive the
appropriate care that they need.
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The California Mental Health Services Authority (CalMHSA) is an
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