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Classifications of Fungi
∗
OpenStax College
This work is produced by OpenStax-CNX and licensed under the
†
Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0
Abstract
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
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Classify fungi into the ve major phyla
Describe each phylum in terms of major representative species and patterns of reproduction
The kingdom Fungi contains ve major phyla that were established according to their mode of sexual
reproduction or using molecular data. Polyphyletic, unrelated fungi that reproduce without a sexual cycle,
are placed for convenience in a sixth group called a form phylum.
Not all mycologists agree with this
scheme. Rapid advances in molecular biology and the sequencing of 18S rRNA (a part of RNA) continue to
show new and dierent relationships between the various categories of fungi.
The ve true phyla of fungi are the Chytridiomycota (Chytrids), the Zygomycota (conjugated fungi), the
Ascomycota (sac fungi), the Basidiomycota (club fungi) and the recently described Phylum Glomeromycota.
The Deuteromycota is an informal group of unrelated fungi that all share a common character they use
strictly asexual reproduction.
Note:
-mycota is used to designate a phylum while -mycetes formally denotes a class or is used
informally to refer to all members of the phylum.
1 Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids
The only class in the Phylum Chytridiomycota is the
Chytridiomycetes.
The chytrids are the simplest and
most primitive Eumycota, or true fungi. The evolutionary record shows that the rst recognizable chytrids
appeared during the late pre-Cambrian period, more than 500 million years ago.
Like all fungi, chytrids
have chitin in their cell walls, but one group of chytrids has both cellulose and chitin in the cell wall. Most
chytrids are unicellular; a few form multicellular organisms and hyphae, which have no septa between cells
(coenocytic). They produce gametes and diploid zoospores that swim with the help of a single agellum.
The ecological habitat and cell structure of chytrids have much in common with protists.
Chytrids
usually live in aquatic environments, although some species live on land. Some species thrive as parasites on
plants, insects, or amphibians (Figure 1), while others are saprobes. The chytrid species Allomyces is well
characterized as an experimental organism. Its reproductive cycle includes both asexual and sexual phases.
Allomyces produces diploid or haploid agellated zoospores in a sporangium.
∗ Version
1.8: May 10, 2013 10:45 am -0500
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Figure 1:
The chytrid
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Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is seen in these light micrographs as transparent
spheres growing on (a) a freshwater arthropod and (b) algae. This chytrid causes skin diseases in many
species of amphibians, resulting in species decline and extinction.
Johnson ML, Speare R., CDC)
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(credit:
modication of work by
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2 Zygomycota: The Conjugated Fungi
The zygomycetes are a relatively small group of fungi belonging to the Phylum
Zygomycota.
They include
the familiar bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer, which rapidly propagates on the surfaces of breads, fruits, and
vegetables. Most species are saprobes, living o decaying organic material; a few are parasites, particularly
of insects.
Zygomycetes play a considerable commercial role.
The metabolic products of other species of
Rhizopus are intermediates in the synthesis of semi-synthetic steroid hormones.
Zygomycetes have a thallus of coenocytic hyphae in which the nuclei are haploid when the organism is
in the vegetative stage.
The fungi usually reproduce asexually by producing sporangiospores (Figure 2).
The black tips of bread mold are the swollen sporangia packed with black spores (Figure 3). When spores
land on a suitable substrate, they germinate and produce a new mycelium. Sexual reproduction starts when
conditions become unfavorable. Two opposing mating strains (type + and type ) must be in close proximity
for gametangia from the hyphae to be produced and fuse, leading to karyogamy.
zygospores
The developing diploid
have thick coats that protect them from desiccation and other hazards.
They may remain
dormant until environmental conditions are favorable. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis
and produces haploid spores, which will, in turn, grow into a new organism. This form of sexual reproduction
in fungi is called conjugation (although it diers markedly from conjugation in bacteria and protists), giving
rise to the name conjugated fungi.
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Figure 2:
Zygomycetes have asexual and asexual life cycles. In the sexual life cycle, plus and minus
mating types conjugate to form a zygosporangium.
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Figure 3: Sporangia grow at the end of stalks, which appear as (a) white fuzz seen on this bread
mold, Rhizopus stolonifer. The (b) tips of bread mold are the spore-containing sporangia. (credit b:
modication of work by "polandeze"/Flickr)
3 Ascomycota: The Sac Fungi
The majority of known fungi belong to the Phylum
of an
ascus
Ascomycota, which is characterized by the formation
(plural, asci), a sac-like structure that contains haploid ascospores. Many ascomycetes are of
commercial importance. Some play a benecial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine
fermentation, plus trues and morels, which are held as gourmet delicacies. Aspergillus oryzae is used in the
fermentation of rice to produce sake. Other ascomycetes parasitize plants and animals, including humans. For
example, fungal pneumonia poses a signicant threat to AIDS patients who have a compromised immune
system.
Ascomycetes not only infest and destroy crops directly; they also produce poisonous secondary
metabolites that make crops unt for consumption. Filamentous ascomycetes produce hyphae divided by
perforated septa, allowing streaming of cytoplasm from one cell to the other. Conidia and asci, which are
used respectively for asexual and sexual reproductions, are usually separated from the vegetative hyphae by
blocked (non-perforated) septa.
Asexual reproduction is frequent and involves the production of conidiophores that release haploid conidiospores (Figure 4). Sexual reproduction starts with the development of special hyphae from either one of
two types of mating strains (Figure 4). The male strain produces an antheridium and the female strain
develops an ascogonium. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine in plasmogamy without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the male
strain and one from the female strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei in
karyogamy.
During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci ll a fruiting body called the
diploid nucleus gives rise to haploid nuclei by meiosis.
form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia (Figure 5).
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ascocarp.
The
The ascospores are then released, germinate, and
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Figure 4:
The lifecycle of an ascomycete is characterized by the production of asci during the sexual
phase. The haploid phase is the predominant phase of the life cycle.
Which of the following statements is true?
a.A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to
form eight ascospores.
b.A diploid ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form
eight ascospores.
c.A haploid zygote that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to
form eight ascospores.
d.A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes plasmogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to
form eight ascospores.
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Figure 5: The bright eld light micrograph shows ascospores being released from asci in the fungus
Talaromyces avus var. avus. (credit: modication of work by Dr. Lucille Georg, CDC; scale-bar data
from Matt Russell)
4 Basidiomycota: The Club Fungi
The fungi in the Phylum
Basidiomycota are easily recognizable under a light microscope by their clubbasidia (singular, basidium), which are the swollen terminal cell of a hypha.
shaped fruiting bodies called
The basidia, which are the reproductive organs of these fungi, are often contained within the familiar mushroom, commonly seen in elds after rain, on the supermarket shelves, and growing on your lawn (Figure 6).
These mushroom-producing basidiomyces are sometimes referred to as gill fungi because of the presence
of gill-like structures on the underside of the cap. The gills are actually compacted hyphae on which the
basidia are borne. This group also includes shelf fungus, which cling to the bark of trees like small shelves. In
addition, the basidiomycota includes smuts and rusts, which are important plant pathogens; toadstools, and
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shelf fungi stacked on tree trunks. Most edible fungi belong to the Phylum Basidiomycota; however, some
basidiomycetes produce deadly toxins.
For example, Cryptococcus neoformans causes severe respiratory
illness.
Figure 6:
The fruiting bodies of a basidiomycete form a ring in a meadow, commonly called fairy ring.
The best-known fairy ring fungus has the scientic name
Marasmius oreades.
The body of this fungus,
its mycelium, is underground and grows outward in a circle. As it grows, the mycelium depletes the soil
of nitrogen, causing the mycelia to grow away from the center and leading to the fairy ring of fruiting
bodies where there is adequate soil nitrogen. (Credit: "Cropcircles"/Wikipedia Commons)]
The lifecycle of basidiomycetes includes alternation of generations (Figure 7). Spores are generally produced through sexual reproduction, rather than asexual reproduction.
The club-shaped basidium carries
spores called basidiospores. In the basidium, nuclei of two dierent mating strains fuse (karyogamy), giving
rise to a diploid zygote that then undergoes meiosis. The haploid nuclei migrate into basidiospores, which
germinate and generate monokaryotic hyphae.
The mycelium that results is called a primary mycelium.
Mycelia of dierent mating strains can combine and produce a secondary mycelium that contains haploid
nuclei of two dierent mating strains. This is the dikaryotic stage of the basidiomyces lifecyle and and it
is the dominant stage.
Eventually, the secondary mycelium generates a
basidiocarp,
which is a fruiting
body that protrudes from the groundthis is what we think of as a mushroom. The basidiocarp bears the
developing basidia on the gills under its cap.
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Figure 7:
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The lifecycle of a basidiomycete alternates generation with a prolonged stage in which two
nuclei (dikaryon) are present in the hyphae.
Which of the following statements is true?
a.A basidium is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus, and it forms four basidiocarps.
b.The result of the plasmogamy step is four basidiospores.
c.Karyogamy results directly in the formation of mycelia.
d.A basidiocarp is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus.
5 Deuteromycota: The Imperfect Fungi
: Imperfect fungithose that do not display a sexual phaseare classied in the form phylum
cota.
Deuteromy-
Deuteromycota is a polyphyletic group where many species are more closely related to organisms in
other phyla than to each other; hence it cannot be called a true phylum and must, instead, be given the
name form phylum. Since they do not possess the sexual structures that are used to classify other fungi,
they are less well described in comparison to other divisions. Most members live on land, with a few aquatic
exceptions. They form visible mycelia with a fuzzy appearance and are commonly known as
mold.
Molec-
ular analysis shows that the closest group to the deuteromycetes is the ascomycetes. In fact, some species,
such as Aspergillus, which were once classied as imperfect fungi, are now classied as ascomycetes.
Reproduction of Deuteromycota is strictly asexual and occurs mostly by production of asexual conidiospores (Figure 8). Some hyphae may recombine and form heterokaryotic hyphae. Genetic recombination
is known to take place between the dierent nuclei.
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Figure 8: Aspergillus niger is an imperfect fungus commonly found as a food contaminant.
The spherical
structure in this light micrograph is a conidiophore. (credit: modication of work by Dr. Lucille Georg,
CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Imperfect fungi have a large impact on everyday human life.
The food industry relies on them for
ripening some cheeses. The blue veins in Roquefort cheese and the white crust on Camembert are the result
of fungal growth. The antibiotic penicillin was originally discovered on an overgrown Petri plate, on which
a colony of Penicillium fungi killed the bacterial growth surrounding it. Many imperfect fungi cause serious
diseases, either directly as parasites (which infect both plants and humans), or as producers of potent toxic
compounds, as seen in the aatoxins released by fungi of the genus Aspergillus.
6 Glomeromycota
The
Glomeromycota is a newly established phylum which comprises about 230 species that all live in close
association with the roots of trees. Fossil records indicate that trees and their root symbionts share a long
evolutionary history. It appears that all members of this family form
arbuscular mycorrhizae:
the hyphae
interact with the root cells forming a mutually benecial association where the plants supply the carbon
source and energy in the form of carbohydrates to the fungus, and the fungus supplies essential minerals
from the soil to the plant.
The glomeromycetes do not reproduce sexually and do not survive without the presence of plant roots.
Although they have coenocytic hyphae like the zygomycetes, they do not form zygospores. DNA analysis
shows that all glomeromycetes probably descended from a common ancestor, making them a monophyletic
lineage.
7 Section Summary
Chytridiomycota (chytrids) are considered the most primitive group of fungi. They are mostly aquatic, and
their gametes are the only fungal cells known to have agella. They reproduce both sexually and asexually;
the asexual spores are called zoospores. Zygomycota (conjugated fungi) produce non-septated hyphae with
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many nuclei. Their hyphae fuse during sexual reproduction to produce a zygospore in a zygosporangium.
Ascomycota (sac fungi) form spores in sacs called asci during sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is
their most common form of reproduction. Basidiomycota (club fungi) produce showy fruiting bodies that
contain basidia in the form of clubs.
Spores are stored in the basidia.
Most familiar mushrooms belong
to this division. Deuteromycota (imperfect fungi) belong to a polyphyletic group that does not reproduce
through sexual reproduction. Glomeromycota form tight associations (called mycorrhizae) with the roots of
plants.
8 Art Connections
Exercise 1
(Solution on p. 13.)
Figure 4 Which of the following statements is true?
a. A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to
form eight ascospores.
b. A diploid ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form
eight ascospores.
c. A haploid zygote that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to
form eight ascospores.
d. A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes plasmogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to
form eight ascospores.
Exercise 2
(Solution on p. 13.)
Figure 7 Which of the following statements is true?
a. A basidium is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus, and it forms four basidiocarps.
b. The result of the plasmogamy step is four basidiospores.
c. Karyogamy results directly in the formation of mycelia.
d. A basidiocarp is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus.
9 Review Questions
Exercise 3
(Solution on p. 13.)
The most primitive phylum of fungi is the ________.
a. Chytridiomycota
b. Zygomycota
c. Glomeromycota
d. Ascomycota
Exercise 4
(Solution on p. 13.)
Members of which phylum produce a club-shaped structure that contains spores?
a. Chytridiomycota
b. Basidiomycota
c. Glomeromycota
d. Ascomycota
Exercise 5
(Solution on p. 13.)
Members of which phylum establish a successful symbiotic relationship with the roots of trees?
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a. Ascomycota
b. Deuteromycota
c. Basidiomycota
d. Glomeromycota
Exercise 6
(Solution on p. 13.)
The imperfect fungi that do not reproduce sexually are classied as ________.
a. Ascomycota
b. Deuteromycota
c. Basidiomycota
d. Glomeromycota
10 Free Response
Exercise 7
(Solution on p. 13.)
What is the advantage for a basidiomycete to produce a showy and eshy fruiting body?
Exercise 8
(Solution on p. 13.)
For each of the four groups of perfect fungi (Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and
Basidiomycota), compare the body structure and features, and provide an example.
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Solutions to Exercises in this Module
to Exercise (p. 11)
Figure 4 A
to Exercise (p. 11)
Figure 7 D
to Exercise (p. 11)
A
to Exercise (p. 11)
B
to Exercise (p. 11)
D
to Exercise (p. 12)
B
to Exercise (p. 12)
By ingesting spores and disseminating them in the environment as waste, animals act as agents of dispersal.
The benet to the fungus outweighs the cost of producing eshy fruiting bodies.
to Exercise (p. 12)
Chytridiomycota (Chytrids) may have a unicellular or multicellular body structure; some are aquatic with
motile spores with agella; an example is the Allomyces. Zygomycota (conjugated fungi) have a multicellular
body structure; features include zygospores and presence in soil; examples are bread and fruit molds. Ascomycota (sac fungi) may have unicellular or multicellular body structure; a feature is sexual spores in sacs
(asci); examples include the yeasts used in bread, wine, and beer production. Basidiomycota (club fungi)
have multicellular bodies; features includes sexual spores in the basidiocarp (mushroom) and that they are
mostly decomposers; mushroom-producing fungi are an example.
Glossary
Denition 1: Arbuscular mycorrhizae
mycorrhizae commonly involving Glomeromycetes in which the fungal hyphae penetrate the cell
walls of the plant root cells (but not the cell membranes)
Denition 2: ascocarp
fruiting body of ascomycetes
Denition 3: Ascomycota
(also, sac fungi) phylum of fungi that store spores in a sac called ascus
Denition 4: basidiocarp
fruiting body that protrudes from the ground and bears the basidia
Denition 5: Basidiomycota
(also, club fungi) phylum of fungi that produce club-shaped structures (basidia) that contain spores
Denition 6: basidium
club-shaped fruiting body of basidiomycetes
Denition 7: Chytridiomycota
(also, chytrids) primitive phylum of fungi that live in water and produce gametes with agella
Denition 8: Deuteromycota
(also, imperfect fungi) phylum of fungi that do not have a known sexual reproductive cycle
Denition 9: Ectomycorrhizae
mycorrhizae in which the fungal hyphae do not penetrate the root cells of the plant
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Denition 10: Glomeromycota
phylum of fungi that form symbiotic relationships with the roots of trees
Denition 11: mold
tangle of visible mycelia with a fuzzy appearance
Denition 12: Zygomycota
(also, conjugated fungi) phylum of fungi that form a zygote contained in a zygospore
Denition 13: zygospore
structure with thick cell wall that contains the zygote in zygomycetes
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