PSYCHOLOGY
Negative Life Events, Prayer and Life Satisfaction
Amanda A. Reasonover
Abstract
The current study assesses individual's negative life events, past prayer practices, current prayer
practices and their impact on life satisfaction. Forty-one participants ranked major life events that
they had experienced. For the purpose of this study the most negative life event was used. Surveys
on past and current prayer practices were correlated to assess the individual's perception of life
satisfaction. Results indicated a positive correlation between current prayer practices and an
increased level of life satisfaction.
Introduction
Coping with negative life events is a topic that has been researched for many decades. Much
research has shown that coping is an ongoing, evolving process. Houston (1987) identified that the
effectiveness or ineffectiveness of a given coping behavior will influence the use of other coping
behaviors. Logically, if a certain coping behavior is effective for an individual they have less need
to continue seeking other behaviors to assist in remedying the situation. Conversely, ifthe coping
behavior is not providing relief, the search continues to find a positive solution.
The broader topics of faith and the beliefs an individual professes need to be considered when
discussing and researching coping skills. For instance, prayer is often utilized by people as a
coping mechanism. Currently, there is a growing need to include how religiosity affects human
functioning with regard to negative life events.
Within the past decade, religious coping has shown implications for improved mental health.
Research conducted by Koenig, McCullough, and Larson (200 l) linked aspects of religious
involvement to a wide variety of health results. According to Ellison et al (200 I), religious
involvement has shown to be an important predictor of psychological distress. Further research
conducted by Graham, et al (2001) indicated religion and spirituality were positively correlated
with coping with stress. However, those individuals who were spiritual through religious beliefs
had greater immunity to stressful situations than those individuals who were spiritual but not
religious. In addition, research conducted by Trevino and Pargament (2007) shows the relationship
between positive religious coping and lowered levels of depression, better quality of life and
greater positive affect. As a result, one can broaden this view and imply those with positive
religious coping have greater life satisfaction than those without religious coping because of a
greater quality of life and the lowered likeliness of one acquiring a mental disorder like depression.
Religiosity (as discussed above) and its implications on mental health have been, and continue to be,
measured in many different ways. Measures include types of religious coping, active church
involvement, personal one-on-one communication with a h{gher-being known as prayer, and others.
These have been associated in previous research with positive outcomes for individuals going
through negative life event stressors. In this domain, Bjorck and Thurman (2007) found negative
life events were related to increased use of positive and negative religious coping. Researchers
found the high use of positive religious coping buffered the effects of negative life events. These
findings have many implications especially for those who have experienced high stress situations
62
such as a death in the family. Mcintosh, Silver a
religion was positively related to cognitive proce
those individuals who participated in religious e'
support and coped more successfully with the de
events.
Religious studies on the subject of coping with s
further the reasons why some people successful!:
not. Eliassen, Taylor, and Lloyd (2005) report ir
to non-religious respondents. The researchers fo
religious individuals than among very religious c
respondents were noted to have a lower life satis
religious or non-religious. Additionally, they fo1
prayer among the less religious.
Research concerning prayer is also an increasing
one of the many components ofreligiosity, it is i
to Stone, Helder, and Schneider (1990), prayer n
(2002) researched psychiatric patients who were
prayer. The research indicated that certain religi
severe symptoms of their diagnosis. In addition,
religious practices were involved.
While much research has shown a positive corre
been inconsistencies between how one measure '
affects differing populations. Previous studies o
mentioning because they point out the need for r
of religion and coping was indicated when indiv
Pargament, 2007). These individuals experience
satisfaction when they faced spiritual conflicts.
lessen emotional problems. However, it was not
to be only useful with certain types of stressors \
Helder, & Schneider, 1990).
This study is intended to extend the research aln
negative life events, prayer usage during the rep•
and life satisfaction. The aim of this study is to '
and incorporate individual 's past and current pra
satisfaction. It is expected that individuals who
have lower life satisfaction than those who have
individuals who prayed during their negative lifi
than those who did not pray. It is also hypothesi
who currently pray. These results may have im1
to participate in prayer and even broader implica
satisfaction. In addition, this study's results ma~
are more likely to be included as a regular aspec
PSYCHOLOGY
Prayer and Life Satisfaction
A. Reasonover
\.bstract
tive life events, past prayer practices, current prayer
Forty-one participants ranked major life events that
study the most negative life event was used. Surveys
>rrelated to assess the individual ' s perception of life
orrelation between current prayer practices and an
t has been researched for many decades. Much
evolving process. Houston ( 1987) identified that the
ing behavior will influence the use of other coping
vior is effective for an individual they have less need
1 remedying the situation. Conversely, ifthe coping
1tinues to find a positive solution.
ndividual professes need to be considered when
instance, prayer is often utilized by people as a
1ing need to include how religiosity affects human
1own implications for improved mental health.
and Larson (2001) linked aspects of religious
.. According to Ellison et al (2001), religious
dictor of psychological distress. Further research
eligion and spirituality were positively correlated
iduals who were spiritual through religious beliefs
m those individuals who were spiritual but not
frevino and Pargament (2007) shows the relationship
I levels of depression, better quality of life and
)aden this view and imply those with positive
han those without religious coping because of a
;s of one acquiring a mental disorder like depression.
ations on mental health have been, and continue to be,
nclude types of religious coping, active church
tion with a higher-being known as prayer, and others.
;h with positive outcomes for individuals going
)main, Bjorck and Thurman (2007) found negative
itive and negative religious coping. Researchers
buffered the effects of negative life events. These
·those who have experienced high stress situations
such as a death in the family. Mcintosh, Silver and Wortman (1993) found the importance of
religion was positively related to cognitive processing and finding meaning in death. They found
those individuals who participated in religious events had an increase in perception of social
support and coped more successfully with the death than those who did not participate in religious
events.
Religious studies on the subject of coping with stressors have led researchers to investigate even
further the reasons why some people successfully cope with negative life events and why others do
not. Eliassen, Taylor, and Lloyd (2005) report insightful findings concerning religious as compared
to non-religious respondents. The researchers found higher levels of depression among moderately
religious individuals than among very religious or nonreligious people. Moderately religious
respondents were noted to have a lower life satisfaction rate than those individuals who were very
religious or non-religious. Additionally, they found heightened stress exposure may elicit increased
prayer among the less religious.
Research concerning prayer is also an increasingly growing subject. Since prayer is considered just
one of the many components of religiosity, it is important that this aspect is recognized. According
to Stone, Helder, and Schneider (1990), prayer may alleviate one's emotional burdens. Baetz et al.
(2002) researched psychiatric patients who were involved in various religious practices including
prayer. The research indicated that certain religious practices may have protected patients from
severe symptoms of their diagnosis. In addition, patients experienced higher life satisfaction when
religious practices were involved.
While much research has shown a positive correlation between religion and coping, there have
been inconsistencies between how one measure's the different aspects ofreligion and how this
affects differing populations. Previous studies on the measurement ofreligiosity are worth
mentioning because they point out the need for more research in this area. A negative correlation
of religion and coping was indicated when individuals experienced spiritual struggles (Trevino &
Pargament, 2007). These individuals experienced greater depression and lower levels of life
satisfaction when they faced spiritual conflicts. Along the same lines, prayer was indicated to
lessen emotional problems. However, it was not directed toward eliminating a problem and seems
to be only useful with certain types of stressors where there is no direct action possible (Stone,
Helder, & Schneider, 1990).
This study is intended to extend the research already done by assessing the correlation between
negative life events, prayer usage during the reported negative life event, current prayer practice
and life satisfaction. The aim of this study is to evaluate the severity of an individual's life event
and incorporate individual ' s past and current prayer usage as it relates to their overall life
satisfaction. It is expected that individuals who have experienced a severe negative life event will
have lower life satisfaction than those who have experienced a moderate negative life event. Those
individuals who prayed during their negative life event are expected to have greater life satisfaction
than those who did not pray. It is also hypothesized that life satisfaction will be greater for people
who currently pray. These results may have implications on when individuals choose to continue
to participate in prayer and even broader implications on how individuals can obtain greater life
satisfaction. In addition, this study' s results may refine our understanding of when prayer practices
are more likely to be included as a regular aspect of an individual's normal daily life.
63
PSYCHOLOGY
Method
Discussion
Participants
Much research has been devoted to improve o
negative life events. Prayer has been found to
going through traumatic life events (President
has previously been identified and was found 1
Koenig, McCullough, & Larson 2001 ; Ellison
finding the relationship between negative life
practice on 1ife satisfaction.
Participants were 23 undergraduates at Indiana University South Bend enrolled in an introductory
psychology course and 18 friends and family members. Males (8) and females (33) participated in
this study. Ages were indicated by checking one of five ranges, 18-22 (48.8 percent), 23-30 (26.8
percent), 31-50 (22 percent), and 51-65 (2.4 percent). Respondents were African American (2.4
percent), Caucasian (87.8 percent), Hispanic (4.9 percent), and others (4.9 percent). Participants
self-identified their religious background. Reported were Agnostic (9.8 percent), Protestant (24.4
percent), Mormon (2.4 percent), Roman Catholic ( 19.5 percent) and other ( 43 .9 percent). Each
participant was given an informed consent form, which had been approved by the university's
institutional research review board. The form indicated that the research involved recalling
negative life events, prayer involvement and level of life satisfaction . Contact information was
provided for mental health assistance. Participants were given the option to withdraw from the
study at any time without penalty.
The first hypothesis expected individuals who
have lower life satisfaction than those who ha'
event. However, no correlation was found bet
satisfaction variables. An explanation for this
major negative life event might have employe,
the trauma. Therefore, the event overall woul,
overall current life satisfaction.
Instrumentation
Negative life events were rated through a checklist. Prayer practices and life satisfaction were
measured with three surveys. Questions administered on the surveys were tested for reliability via
Cronbachs ' alpha. All questions were reliable at or above the .84 level. Each of the surveys
administered contained two reversal questions such as "I am satisfied with my life," contrasted to
"Most of the time I feel my hard work gets me nowhere." The Major Life Event Checklist assessed
the participant's number of negative, neutral and positive life event responses (i.e. getting a
promotion at work, death of a family member, moving.) The 8-item Past Prayer Practice survey
was completed as it related to the most negative life event reported. The Past Prayer Practice
survey asked participants to rate each statement on a five-point scale from I (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree). For example, "Prayer was central to me during my negative life event." This
survey assessed prayer practice during the major life event reported. Participant's filled out a
Current Prayer Practice survey which used the same questions as the Past Prayer Practice survey
but assessed whether or not participant' s currently pray. For example, "I currently believe in the
power of prayer." In addition, an 8-item Life Satisfaction survey was administered to assess
participant's general impressions on the quality of their life. Participants rated questions such as, "I
have a sense of meaning and purpose in my life" on a five-point scale from I (strongly disagree) to
5 (strongly agree). The complete questionnaires are provided as attachments.
Results
A stepwise, multiple regression was used for statistical analysis. The variables analyzed were
negative life events, past prayer practices, current prayer practices and life satisfaction. A positive
correlation was found between current prayer practices and life satisfaction variables (r2 = .268, D
2
= .517, adj. r = .249). The 26.8% of variance in life satisfaction can be explained by current prayer.
The results show that current prayer practices are the best predictor variable for life satisfaction.
64
The second hypothesis predicted that life satis
during their negative life event. This hypothes
for past prayer usage (the prayer practice occu
satisfaction. An explanation for this result cm
their past prayer usage accurately, especially i
Woolley and Phelps (2001) propose that child
found by 7 years of age, children' s prayers are
recalled a negative life event that took place '"'
prayer usage on that event, it is likely that thm
their prayer practice. This seems to be a valid
event occurred early in life.
The third hypothesis expected life satisfaction
to those who do not currently pray. The result
positive correlation was found between indivic
life satisfaction. This finding shows that pray
sense of well being (life satisfaction) and that
This finding appears to correspond to previom
higher levels of well-being and life satisfactio1
these results may be that people who pray free
support structure could provide more encamp<
life experiences and therefore the overall percc
heightened.
The majority of this research sample was Caw
life satisfaction results . Research conducted b
American's have lower levels of well-being 01
PSYCHOLOGY
Discussion
University South Bend enrolled in an introductory
1embers. Males (8) and females (33) participated in
1e of five ranges, 18-22 (48.8 percent), 23-30 (26.8
rcent). Respondents were African American (2.4
.9 percent), and others (4.9 percent). Participants
orted were Agnostic (9.8 percent), Protestant (24.4
ic ( 19.5 percent) and other (43.9 percent). Each
1, which had been approved by the university's
ndicated that the research involved recalling
vel of life satisfaction. Contact information was
rnts were given the option to withdraw from the
:list. Prayer practices and life satisfaction were
istered on the surveys were tested for reliability via
tt or above the .84 level. Each of the surveys
.uch as "I am satisfied with my life," contrasted to
10where." The Major Life Event Checklist assessed
j positive life event responses (i.e. getting a
noving.) The 8-item Past Prayer Practice survey
life event reported. The Past Prayer Practice
on a five-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
itral to me during my negative life event." This
r life event reported. Participant's filled out a
ame questions as the Past Prayer Practice survey
:ly pray. For example, "I currently believe in the
ttisfaction survey was administered to assess
of their life. Participants rated questions such as, "l
'on a five-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to
. are provided as attachments.
tistical analysis. The variables analyzed were
it prayer practices and life satisfaction. A positive
Ktices and life satisfaction variables (r2 = .268, D
t life satisfaction can be explained by current prayer.
! the best predictor variable for life satisfaction.
Much research has been devoted to improve our understanding on how individuals cope with
negative life events. Prayer has. been found to be a successful coping method for many individual's
going through traumatic life events (President et al. 2007). As mentioned earlier, religious coping
has previously been identified and was found to correlate with improved mental health (e.g.,
Koenig, McCullough, & Larson 2001; Ellison et al. 200 l ). The current study was interested in
finding the relationship between negative life events, past prayer practice and current prayer
practice on life satisfaction.
The first hypothesis expected individuals who had experienced a major negative life event would
have lower life satisfaction than those who have experienced a moderate, or minor negative life
event. However, no correlation was found between major negative life event experiences and life
satisfaction variables. An explanation for this might be that individuals who have experienced a
major negative life event might have employed other successful coping strategies for dealing with
the trauma. Therefore, the event overall would not have had a significant impact on a person's
overall current life satisfaction.
The second hypothesis predicted that life satisfaction would be greater in individuals who prayed
during their negative life event. This hypothesis was shown to be false. There was no correlation
for past prayer usage (the prayer practice occurring during the negative life event) and life
satisfaction. An explanation for this result could be that individuals might have trouble recalling
their past prayer usage accurately, especially ifthe event took place when they were a child.
Woolley and Phelps (2001) propose that children can start praying at roughly 3 years of age. They
found by 7 years of age, children's prayers are very similar to adult prayers . If participant's
recalled a negative life event that took place when they were a child, and responded to their past
prayer usage on that event, it is likely that those individual 's could have false memories concerning
their prayer practice. This seems to be a valid consideration ifthe individual's most negative life
event occurred early in life.
The third hypothesis expected life satisfaction to be greater in those who currently pray compared
to those who do not currently pray. The results indicate that this hypothesis was correct. A
positive correlation was found between individuals who currently pray and their overall reported
life satisfaction. This finding shows that prayer may well be beneficial to an individual 's personal
sense of well being (life satisfaction) and that it can be a predictor of positive mental health .
This finding appears to correspond to previous research which found religious people reporting
higher levels of well-being and life satisfaction (Spilka et al. 2003.) An alternative explanation for
these results may be that people who pray frequently do so in a community of believers. This
support structure could provide more encompassing support for all aspects of the individual's daily
life experiences and therefore the overall perception of their personal life satisfaction could well be
heightened.
The majority of this research sample was Caucasian (87.8 percent) . This could have affected the
life satisfaction results. Research conducted by Levin and Taylor (1998) suggests African
American 's have lower levels of well-being or life satisfaction than Caucasians. Only 2.4 percent
65
PSYCHOLOGY
of this study' s population was African American. They note that it is unclear whether it is a racial
confound or a socio-economic status issue. Future research should target a greater number of
African Americans to see if this study' s results remain constant when the racial make up reflects
more accurately the population of the country.
Age might have affected the correlation hypothesis of negative life events and life satisfaction.
Approximately half of the population was in the 18-22 age range. Younger individuals may not
have experienced as severe of a life event as someone who is in the 51-65 age group. Life
experiences increase with age. As one ages parents die, divorces occur and job changes become
more frequent. All of these events have impact that goes beyond the individual. These factors
figure into perceived overall life satisfaction. A broader age range in the study might, once again,
produce significant differences in the statistical outcome.
Another limitation to this study was that the subjects were primarily all women. Women tend to
report being more religious than men (Ladd & Spilka 2006; Spilka et al. 2003). It follows that a
more religious person would tend to pray more than one who does not portend to be religious. A
religious person might also be more likely to gravitate toward a study involving prayer, thus
affecting the result. Therefore, ifthe percentage of men involved in the study were increased, there
might be a significant difference in the result.
This study could be the impetus for future research that has an impact on the process of providing
mental health education and support. If prayer can be shown to be beneficial to greater life
satisfaction, perhaps this concept could be incorporated as a basic part of treatment. It could be
included as one more tool in the arsenal of mental and physical healthcare professionals as they
work with patients. A person's outlook on life, and the issues with which they have to deal, has a
profound impact on the healing process. Findings brought about by scientific research that will
help people cope with the struggles of day to day living will benefit the body knowledge used by
mental health practitioners. Future research on this topic would greatly enhance this aspect of the
mental health profession.
References
Baetz, M ., Larson, D. 8., Marcoux, G., Bowen, R. & Griffin, R. (2002). Canadian psychiatric
inpatient religious commitment: An association with mental health. Can J Psychiatry,
47(2), 159-165.
Bjorck, J.P. & Thurman, J.W. (2007). Negative life events, patterns of positive and negative
religious coping, and psychological functions. Journal/or the Scientific Study of
Religion, 46(2), 159-167.
Eliassen, H. A., Taylor, J. , & Lloyd, D.A. (2005) . Subjective religiosity and depression in the
transition to adulthood. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 44(2), 187-199.
Ellison, C.G., Boardman, J.D., Williams, D.R., & Jackson, J.J. (2001). Religious involvement,
stress, and mental health: Findings from the 1995 Detroit Area Study, Social Forces, 80,
215-49.
66
Graham, S., Furr, S., Flowers, C. , & Burke, M.T
stress. Counseling and Values, 46, 2Houston, 8. K., 1987. Coping with negative lif{
perspectives. New York and London:
Koenig, H.G., McCullough, M .F., & Larson, D.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ladd, K. L. & Spilka, 8. (2006). Inward, outwa
Journal/or the Scientific Study of Reli
Levin, J.S. & Taylor, R.J. (1998). Panel analyse
african americans : Contemporaneous'
Study ofReligion, 37(4), 695-709.
Mcintosh, D.N, Silver, R.C., & Wortman, C.B. 1
life event: Coping with the loss of a cl
65, 812-821.
President and fellows of Harvard College, 2007.
Publications. Vol. 32: 3-4.
Spilka, B. R., Hood, W. Jr. , Hunsberger, 8., & (
An empirical approach (3rd ed.). New
Stone, A. A. , Helder, L. , & Schneider, M.S. (19 1
dimensions and issues. The Journal oj
Trevino, M. & Pargament Kelly and K.I. (2007)
disaster. Southern Medical Associatio
Amanda is a senior psychology majc
advance
PSYCHOLOGY
They note that it is unclear whether it is a racial
e research should target a greater number of
main constant when the racial make up reflects
is of negative life events and life satisfaction.
18-22 age range. Younger individuals may not
eone who is in the 51-65 age group. Life
1ts die, divorces occur and job changes become
at goes beyond the individual. These factors
>roader age range in the study might, once again,
utcome.
!cts were primarily all women. Women tend to
•ilka 2006; Spilka et al. 2003). It follows that a
an one who does not portend to be religious. A
·itate toward a study involving prayer, thus
)fmen involved in the study were increased, there
h that has an impact on the process of providing
n be shown to be beneficial to greater life
)rated as a basic part of treatment. It could be
and physical healthcare professionals as they
id the issues with which they have to deal, has a
s brought about by scientific research that will
living will benefit the body knowledge used by
is topic would greatly enhance this aspect of the
Graham, S., Furr, S., Flowers, C., & Burke, M.T. (2001). Religion and spirituality in coping with
stress. Counseling and Values, 46, 2-13.
Houston, B. K.., 1987. Coping with negative life events: Clinical and social psychological
perspectives. New York and London: Plenum Press.
Koenig, H.G., McCullough, M.F., & Larson, D.B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ladd, K. L. & Spilka, B. (2006). Inward, outward, upward prayer: Scale reliability and validation.
Journal for the Scientific Study ofReligion, 45(2), 233-251.
Levin, J.S. & Taylor, R.J. ( 1998). Panel analyses of religious involvement and well-being in
african americans: Contemporaneous vs. longitudinal effects. Journal for the Scientific
Study ofReligion, 37( 4), 695-709.
Mcintosh, D.N, Silver, R.C., & Wortman, C.B. (1993). Religion's role in adjustment to a negative
life event: Coping with the loss of a child. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology,
65, 812-821.
President and fellows of Harvard College, 2007. Taking control of Stress. Harvard Health
Publications. Vol. 32: 3-4.
Spilka, B. R., Hood, W. Jr., Hunsberger, B., & Gorsuch, R.L. (2003). The psychology of religion:
An empirical approach (3'd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Stone, A. A., Helder, L. , & Schneider, M.S. (1990). Coping with stressful events: Coping
dimensions and issues. The Journal ofPrimary Prevention, 11, 182-209.
Trevino, M. & Pargament Kelly and K.I. (2007). Religious coping with terrorism and natural
disaster. Southern Medical Association, 100(9), 946- 947.
& Griffin, R. (2002). Canadian psychiatric
iciation with mental health. Can J Psychiatry,
Amanda is a senior psychology major. She wrote this paper for Dr. Ritchie's
advanced lab class.
Je events, patterns of positive and negative
lions. Journal for the Scientific Study of
Subjective religiosity and depression in the
C)cientific Study of Religion, 44(2), 187-199.
Jackson, J.J. (2001) . Religious involvement,
the 1995 Detroit Area Study, Social Forces, 80,
67
P SYCHOLOGY
Generational Perceptions and H<
Lauren~
Figure 1 . Scatter Plot of Current Prayer Practice on Life Satisfactio
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Life Satisfaction = 22.91 + 0.32 * CurrentPra}el"
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This research examines how Baby Boomers a:
perception has affected their intergenerational
subjects, each of whom completed a surve)
modified Rochester Interaction Record to rate
perceptions and interactions within and I:
association showed that there was an interact
both cohorts associated more negative words
negative perception of Generation Y both bet'
given to the Baby Boomers both between and "
::i
Ii
Introdu ction
Ii
25 .00
Ii
10.00
20.00
30.00
Current Prayer Practice
40.00
Diversity has new meaning in the workplace. l
alongside each other right now; the Veterans, b
Generation X, born 1964-1979, and Generatior
(Boychuk Duchscher & Cowin, 2004; Jorgense
Squires, & Tourangeau, 2007). Accord ing to D
Boomers and GenXers made up approximately
only approaching the workforce at the time thi~
have completed their bachelor and masters deg
workforce in droves .
Researchers have extensively studied the diffe
dissecting the personality traits, the educational
years, and then finally looking at the similaritie
astonishment of many of the researchers, the B
than differe nt in their values on work and work
Jurkiewicz, 2000; Yang & Guy, 2006). It has b
workplace between Baby Boomers and GenXe1
(Davis, et al., 2006). As both of these birth coh
holding similar workplace values, they face a n
the oldest of the cohort tum 29 this year, they v
however, there is very little research on their re
Twenge (2006), author of Generation Me: Wh;
assertive and entitled-and more miserable thc.
important" group. They were raised in a societ~
have been told since birth about how special th•
they will be successful. The fact that this gener
prosperity in the United States factors into thei.J
of life (Boychuk Duchscher & Cowin, 2004). C
values. It reflects in their choice of words and c
68