International Centre for development
oriented Research in Agriculture
CBUD
Centre for Biodiversity
Utilisation and Development
INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES IN THE UPPER EAST REGION
OF GHANA: OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR
CONSERVATION AND COMMERCIALISATION
Working Document Series 102
Ghana – 2002
INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES IN THE UPPER EAST
REGION OF GHANA: OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS
FOR CONSERVATION AND COMMERCIALISATION
Stephen Amisah
Jitendra Prasad Jaiswal
Armen Khalatyan
Suzana Kiango
Nikoloz Mikava
In collaboration with Victoria Adarkwa Aduasah and Joyce Bediako
This report is the product of team work with equal contribution from the
authors whose names are listed in alphabetical order
International Centre for development Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and
oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA)
Development (CBUD)
P.O. Box 88, 6700 AB Wageningen
The Netherlands
P.O. Box UP 1106
IRNR KNUST-KUMASI, Ghana
ABSTRACT
This study examined the conservation, utilisation and potential for commercialisation of some
indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) in the Upper East Region of Ghana. The study was
implemented through a joint field study programme by the International Centre for
development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA) in the Netherlands and the Centre for
Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) in Kumasi, Ghana. The study was carried
out in four districts in the Upper East Region namely Bolgatanga, Bongo, Bawku West and
Kassena-Nankana. The study employed the ARD approach, which is demand driven and
integrates the diverse perspectives of all stakeholders and beneficiaries. Participatory methods
were employed to collect relevant qualitative and quantitative information.
Indigenous leafy vegetables are cultivated under both rainfed and irrigated conditions in the
study area. Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus), Bento (Vigna
unguiculata), Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus), Okro (Abelmuscus esculentus), Spider plant
(Cleome gynandra), Luffa sp., and Sambola are the popular cultivated ILVs. Bito, Berese,
Bento and Alefu, in that order, were perceived to be the cultivated species holding most
potential for commercialisation. Production costs, labour requirements, and the possibility of
processing ILVs for future use were perceived by the farming households to be the important
factors determining potential of ILVs for commercialisation. The benefit-cost ratios for Bito,
Berese and Bento were above the break-even point of 1, indicating economic viability of
cultivation of ILV species, in five of the six villages studied. Collected ILVs that hold
potential for commercialisation include Tokara (Adansonia digitata), Bunto, Ougla and
Sanvama, in descending order. There is considerable indigenous knowledge on nutritional,
medicinal, preservation and processing aspects of ILVs, and on the control of field and
storage pests that affect them.
The main development strategies suggested to sustain the production, commercialisation and
conservation of ILVs include in situ conservation of wild/collected species of ILVs,
documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs. Other strategies include
provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation, use of integrated pest
management (IPM) techniques, establishment of small-scale/cottage processing and
packaging industries and market promotion of ILVs through mass media. Incorporating ILVs
under development programmes of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture is also
recommended. Researchable areas to enable interventions for the sustainable utilisation and
conservation of ILVs are discussed.
i
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The ICRA-2002 Ghana Team wishes to express its gratitude to the International Centre for
development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA) in the Netherlands and its donor
agencies for providing funding and fellowship support for this study. We also thank the
Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) of the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana, for hosting the joint field study and
for providing logistical support for the study. Our special thanks go to Dr. Boakye AmoakoAtta, Coordinator for CBUD, for his incredible support for the team and to Dr. Gerrit Bartels,
CBUD’s Institutional Development Officer, for his sustained interest and invaluable
contribution to the field study.
Our sincere thanks go to Mr. E. A. Otupri, Upper Regional Director of MoFA, and his deputy,
Mr. Roy Ayariga for their unflinching support and providing an enabling environment for the
team to function effectively. Their contributions during our workshops are gratefully
acknowledged. We acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Sam Apiiga (Regional MoFA office),
Mr. Joe Ameyuri, (Director of MoFA for Navrongo District) and the Directors for
Bolgatanga, Bongo and Bawku West Districts.
The active participation and invaluable contributions by Dr. David Millar, Coordinator,
Savannah Resource Management Project, Prof. Saa Dittoh, Pro-Vice Chancellor, UDS,
Tamale; Mr. Martin Yeboah (SARI), Dr. Paul Tanzubil (SARI), Dr. Karbo (ARI), Mr
Bonaventure Aligebam (SARI), Ms Rosemary (Bolga Catholic Diocese) and Mr. David
Adakablah (Pwalugu farmer) during our workshop sessions are gratefully acknowledged. We
also thank the farmers of the four districts without whose cooperation this study would have
been impossible. The participation of TRAX, Technoserve, Catholic Diocese, World Vision,
ICOUR and ACDEP in our workshops is gratefully acknowledged.
We acknowledge with sincere thanks the constructive suggestions, contributions and active
participation of our Reviewer, Dr. Ranjitha Puskur. Finally, we thank all ICRA staff and
resource persons who helped to strengthen the capacity of the team during the knowledge
acquisition phase in Wageningen in the Netherlands.
iii
iv
THE GHANA ICRA TEAM
Name
Specialisation
Dr. Stephen Amisah
Watershed and Fisheries
Management
Jitendra Prasad Jaiswal
Agronomist
Armen Khalatyan
Production System Engineer
Suzana M. Kiango
Animal scientist
Nikoloz Mikava
Agro-Engineer
Victoria Adarkwah Aduasah
Agro-forestry
Joyce Bediako
Socio-economist
Address
Institute of Renewable Natural
Resources
University of Science and Technology
Kumasi, Ghana
Tel:
+233 51 60381
Fax:
+233 51 60375
E-mail: [email protected]
Gulmi-Arghakhanchi Rural
Development Project (GARDP II)
Ministry of Local Development
Pulchowk, Lalitpur, Nepal
Tel:
+977 1 526207 (office)
+977 46 20285 (home)
Fax:
+977 1 537727
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
United Methodist Committee on
Relief (UMCOR)
16, Karapet Ulnetsu Street, Yerevan,
375037, Armenia
Tel:
+3741 248141 (office)
+3741 265740 (home)
Fax:
+3741 249215
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
Ministry of Agriculture and Food
Security (MAFS)
P.O. Box 31311
Dar-es-salaam, Tanzania
Tel:
+255 22 2700947 (office)
+2555 22 2420557 (home)
Email: [email protected]
Georgia State Agrarian University
(GASU)
13-km., David Aghmashenebeli Alley,
380031-Tbilisi, Georgia
Tel:
+995 32 524906 (office)
+995 32 392432 (home)
Fax:
+995 32 942521
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and
Development, IRNR
P.O. Box UP 1106, Kumasi, Ghana
Tel:
+233 51 60137
Fax:
+233 51 60382
Email: [email protected]
University of Development Studies,
P.O. Box 1350, Tamale, Ghana
v
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Acknowledgements
The Ghana 2002 ICRA Team
Table of contents
List of figures
List of tables
List of acronyms
Executive summary
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
2
i
iii
v
vii
xi
xii
xiii
xv
This report
Context of the study
1.2.1
Institutional framework
1.2.2
Justification for the study
1.2.3
Objectives of the study
Background
1.3.1
Study area
1.3.2
Basic features of the study area
1.3.3
Socio-economic and policy environment
1.3.4
Ethnicity and food preferences
1.3.5
Indigenous leafy vegetables
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
5
8
9
9
METHODOLOGY
11
2.1
2.2
11
13
13
13
13
16
16
17
19
19
19
19
20
21
22
23
23
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
The ARD approach
Preparation for field work
2.2.1
Team organisation
2.2.2
Contextual analysis
2.2.3
Field study plan
Reconnaissance survey of study area in Ghana
Introductory workshop
Typology and village selection
Data collection process and tools/methods used
2.6.1
Sample size
2.6.2
Focus group discussions
2.6.3
Household survey
2.6.4
Matrix scoring and ranking
2.6.5
Benefit-cost analysis
2.6.6
Market survey
Mid-term workshop
Identifying and screening development strategies
vii
2.9
2.10
3
2.11
2.12
2.13
Identification and prioritisation of research and development options
Identification of potential partners for implementing research and
development options
Formulation of research plans and proposals
Final workshop
Seminar at host institute (CBUD)
24
24
24
2.14
Report writing and editing
25
INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES OF THE UPPER EAST REGION
27
3.1
3.2
27
29
29
29
30
31
31
35
37
39
39
41
41
41
44
44
44
47
50
50
51
53
53
53
54
54
55
58
58
59
60
61
61
62
62
62
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
viii
23
24
Contextual analysis
Definition of the system of interest
3.2.1
Central theme
3.2.2
Main components
Types of indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs)
3.3.1
Cultivated species
3.3.2
Changes over time for cultivated species
3.3.3
Collected species
3.3.4
Changes over time for collected species
Agro-ecological features of Upper East Region
3.4.1
Water resources
3.4.2
Land resources and soil types
3.4.3
Trees
3.4.5
Crops
3.4.6
Livestock
Production systems of Upper East Region
3.5.1
Rainfed system
3.5.2
Irrigated system
Seasonal calendar
Strengths and weaknesses of the existing production systems
3.7.1
Rainfed system
3.7.2
Irrigated system
Livelihood systems
3.8.1
Role of food/cereal crops in livelihoods
3.8.2
Role of livestock in livelihoods
3.8.3
Role of indigenous leafy vegetables in livelihoods
3.8.4
Sources of household income
Economic resource flow
Gender role and division of labour
3.10.1
Labour availability
3.10.2
Access and control over resources
Agricultural Knowledge and Information System
3.11.1
Sources of information
3.11.2
Research service
3.11.3
Extension service
Social organisation
3.13
4
67
4. 1
67
4.3
Identification and prioritisation of ILVs with potential for
commercialisation
4.1.1
Matrix scoring of cultivated and collected species
4.1.2
Benefit-cost analysis
The marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables
4.2.1
Farm level marketing methods
4.2.2
Market survey
4.2.3
Inter-market price variation
4.2.4
The marketing channels of ILVs
4.2.5
Consumer survey
4.2.6
Seasonal supply of ILVs in UER
4.2.7
Problems of ILV marketing
Economic viability of ILVs
68
71
76
76
77
81
82
84
85
86
87
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
89
5.1
89
89
89
90
90
92
95
95
5.2
5. 3
5.4
6
63
63
63
64
66
COMMERCIALISATION OF INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES
4.2
5
Indigenous knowledge on leafy vegetables
3.13.1
Sources of knowledge
3.13.2
Knowledge on properties of ILVs
3.13.3
Indigenous production, processing and conservation practices
3.13.4
Homogeneity and extent of knowledge
Stakeholder interests and their perceptions about ILVs
5.1.1
Farmer/vegetable producer
5.1.2
Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA)
5.1.3
Research institutions
5.1.4
Developmental institutions
Farmers/community stakeholder linkages
Stakeholder linkages
Potential roles of stakeholders in promotion of indigenous leafy
vegetables
IDENTIFICATION AND SCREENING DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
Constraints
6.1.1
Farmers’ perceptions
6.1.2
Stakeholders’ perceptions
Opportunities
Development strategies
6.3.1
Conservation strategies
6.3.2
Cultivation strategies
6.3.3
Processing strategies
6.3.4
Marketing strategies
6.4.5
Others/institutional strategies
Screening of development strategies
99
99
99
100
103
104
105
106
108
109
110
111
ix
7
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS
117
7.1
Research options
7.1.1
Research options for conservation strategies
7.1.2
Research options for cultivation strategies
7.1.3
Research options for processing strategies
7.1.4
Research options for marketing strategies
7.1.5
Research options for others/institutional improvement strategies
Development options
7.2.1
Development options for conservation strategies
7.2.2
Development options for cultivation strategies
7.2.3
Development options for processing strategies
7.2.4
Development options for marketing strategies
7.2.5
Development options for others/institutional improvement
strategies
Prioritisation of research and development options
7.3.1
Research options prioritisation
7.3.2
Development options prioritisation
Potential partners for implementation of prioritised Research and
Development options
117
117
118
119
120
120
121
121
121
122
122
122
CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF INDIGENOUS LEAFY
VEGETABLES
8.1
Sustainable conservation and cultivation
8.2
Status of research and development of ILVs
8.3
Policy environment
8.3.1
Agricultural policy that promotes production and utilisation of
ILVs
8.3.2
Promotion of in-situ conservation at wild ILV ‘hot spots’
8.3.3
Promotion of ILV utilisation in Southern Ghana
8.3.4
Control of field and storage insect pests
8.3.5
Water conservation for ILV production
131
7.2
7.3
7.4
8
122
123
125
127
131
131
131
130
130
130
130
131
REFERENCES
135
APPENDICES
137
1 Terms of Reference (TOR)
2 Research question related to research topic
3 Villages proposed by introductory workshop participants for conducting in-depth
study
4 Checklist for Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
5 Checklist for household survey
6 Matrix scoring for potential species for commercialisation
7 Local names of calculated species of indigenous leafy vegetables
8 Local names of collected species of indigenous leafy vegetables
9 List of cultivated species of indigenous leafy vegetables grown in Upper East
Region of Ghana
x
139
143
146
148
149
153
154
155
157
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Collected species of indigenous leafy vegetables in Upper East Region of Ghana
A reflection of production constraints
Matrix scores of calculated species
Matrix scores of collected species
Estimates of benifits and costs on an irrigated commercial farm at Pwalugu
Indigenous leafy vegetables’ stakeholders’ role and responsibility
Research and development options
158
159
160
160
161
162
165
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.1
6.1
Map of field study area
The four phases of the ARD procedure
Flow chart of the field study plan
Farm types and selected villages for the in-depth study
Diagrammatic presentation of the tools and methods used in data collection
Rich picture
Transect of Binaba village
Agro-ecological map of Widnaba village
Seasonal calendar for labour utilisation in the Upper East Region
Sources of household cash income in the rainfed site (Sherigu village)
Sources of household cash income in the irrigated site (Bongo Central village)
Sources of household cash income (case study in Pwalugu village)
Production costs components of irrigated systems
Production costs components of rainfed systems
Estimated benefit-cost ratios
Disposal pattern of ILVs
Areas provided market survey on ILVs
Price variations between markets
Principal marketing channels of indigenous leafy vegetables in the UER
Factors affecting the consumer behaviour
Seasonal calendar of ILV supply and demand in the UER
Venn diagram showing stakeholder relationships at Bongo Central
ARD Phase III, identifying development strategies
4
12
14
18
20
28
40
43
52
56
56
57
73
73
75
76
78
82
83
84
85
94
99
xi
LIST OF TABLES
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
5.1
5.2
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
xii
Irrigation in the Upper East Region
Population figures for some districts of the Upper East Region of Ghana
Selected villages for studies on indigenous leafy vegetables in the Upper East
Region
Criteria for ranking collected and cultivated ILV species’ potential for
commercialisation
Variables for ILVs’ costs of production and benefits
Species of ILVs cultivated in the Upper East Region of Ghana
Species of ILVs collected from the bush in Upper East Region of Ghana
Soil characteristics of the Upper East Region
Cropping pattern in the rainfed production system
Vegetables species commonly sold under the irrigation system
Cropping pattern in the irrigated production system
Percentage contribution of ILVs to the household income
Household tasks division (activity profile)
Access and control of household resources
Sources of Agricultural Knowledge and Information
Matrix ranks of ILVs
Factors affecting the commercialisation of cultivated ILV
Factors affecting the commercialisation of collected ILV species
Important cost variables identified for irrigated and rainfed systems
Comparative cost-benefit analysis of different species of ILVs at Sherigu
Gender roles in marketing
Species found in the markets
Key stakeholders working in the surveyed villages
Indigenous leafy vegetables stakeholder linkage matrix
Farmers’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production in the UER of Ghana
Stakeholders’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production in the UER of
Ghana
Stakeholders’ perception on opportunities for ILV production in the UER
Development strategies for promotion of ILVs in the UER of Ghana
Criteria used for screening development strategies
Matrix scoring for screening of development strategies with farmers and other
stakeholders
Criteria used for prioritising research and development options for promoting
ILV production in the UER
Prioritisation of research options for screened development strategies
Prioritisation of research options for screened development strategies
Potential partners for implementation of research Options
Potential partners for implementation of development Options
7
7
18
21
22
32
36
42
46
48
49
55
59
60
61
69
70
70
71
74
79
80
93
96
100
101
103
104
112
113
123
124
126
127
128
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACDEP
ADB
ADRA
AES
ARC
ARD
ARI
AVRDC
BACH
BIWFA
Ca
CBOs
CBUD
CECIK
CENSUDI
CRS
DCE
DDT
EPA
FGD
FRI
FSD
GAS
GBC
GDP
GNFS
GTV
ICOUR
ICRA
IFAD
ILV
IPM
IRNR
ITTU
K
KNUST
LACOSREP
Mg
MoFA
N
Na
NCRC
NGO
P
PGRC
PRA
R&D
RENARSA
Association of Church Development Projects
Agricultural Development Bank
Adventists Development and Relief Agency
Agro – Ecological System
Agricultural Rehabilitation Centre for the Blind
Agriculture Research for Development
Animal Research Institute
Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre
Binaba Anglican Church
Binaba Women Farmers’ Association
Calcium
Community Based Organisations
Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development
Centre for Cosmo vision and Indigenous Knowledge
Centre for Sustainable Development Initiatives
Catholic Relief Services
District Chief Executive
Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
Environmental Protection Agency
Focus Group Discussion
Food Research Institute
Forest Services Division
Garu Agricultural Station
Ghana Broadcasting Corporation
Gross Domestic Product
Ghana National Fire Service
Ghana Television
Irrigation Company of the Upper East Region
International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture
International Fund for Agricultural Development
Indigenous Leafy Vegetable
Integrated Pest Management
Institute of Renewable Natural Resources
Integrated Technology Transfer Unit
Potassium
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Land Conservation and Smallholder Rehabilitation Project
Magnesium
Ministry of Food and Agriculture
Nitrogen
Sodium
Natural Conservation and Research Centre
Non-Governmental Organisation
Phosphorus
Plant Genetic Resources Centre
Participatory Rural Appraisal
Research and Development
Renewable Natural Resources Students Association
xiii
RUWA
SARI
SRMC
SRI
SRMP
SSI
TOR
TZ
UDS
UER
UG
UNICEF
WIAD
WUA
WVI
xiv
Rural Women Association
Savannah Agriculture Research Institute
Savannah Research Management Centre
Soil Research Institute
Savannah Resource Management Programme
Semi Structured Interview
Terms of Reference
Tuo-zafi (local name of main staple food)
University for Development Studies
Upper East Region
University of Ghana, Legon
United Nations Children’s Education Fund
Women In Agricultural Development
Water Users Association
World Vision International
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Background and justification
Indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) provide an important source of food, nutrition and
medicines for both the rural and urban populations of the Upper East Region of Ghana. These
vegetables provide proteins, vitamins and minerals and therefore offer opportunities to the
malnourished, poor and deprived communities to maintain healthy diets. Furthermore they
could make a considerable contribution to the household cash income. When village
households run out of food stocks, particularly during crop failures and the long, dry seasons,
ILVs provide food security and serve as hunger gap fillers. They are available nearly all year
round. The ILVs are well adapted to the climatic conditions of the region. Their ease of
production and low input requirements mean that even marginal lands are suitable for the
cultivation of ILVs.
Despite these benefits ILVs have received little or no attention from development agencies,
researchers or the country’s Ministry of Food and Agriculture. Unlike some non-traditional
export crops, there is no policy support for the production, export or commercialisation of this
rather important commodity.
Anecdotal information frequently suggests that some of these vegetables, particularly those in
the wild, face the threat of extinction. Of particular significance is the threat of bush fires,
bush clearing and other habitat degradation practices, which have been implicated in the
disappearance of some ILV species. There also appears to be a shift to cultivate exotic
vegetables, which have better chances of recovering costs of irrigation. Indigenous knowledge
on ILVs remains anecdotal, fragmentary and largely undocumented and the risk of losing
such vital knowledge as the aged pass away is very real indeed.
It is against this background that this study was initiated as a joint programme between the
Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) based at the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana, and the International Centre for
development oriented research in Agriculture (ICRA) in the Netherlands. The study was
carried out to identify strategies for the conservation and commercialisation of indigenous
leafy vegetables in the region. It is further anticipated that lessons learned from the study will
facilitate similar interventions on ILVs in other parts of the country. This study, therefore,
investigated the cultivation, processing, conservation and the potential for commercialisation
of indigenous leafy vegetables in the Upper East Region of Ghana. The study was carried out
in four administrative districts in the Upper East Region, viz., Bawku West, Bolgatanga,
Bongo and Kassena-Nankana. The objectives of the study were to:





assess the extent of and trends in ILV collection and cultivation in the study area;
identify ILV species produced in the study area and assess their potential for
commercialisation;
describe the production systems within which ILVs are produced and analyse the
strengths and weaknesses of these systems;
investigate gender roles in the production and commercialisation of ILVs and how these
roles may be affected by improved commercialisation;
identify and prioritise development strategies in support of the conservation and continued
use and commercialisation of these ILVs, and
xv

identify and prioritise researchable areas that may be pursued to improve the production
and utilisation of the identified food resources.
Research approach and farm types
The study made use of the Agricultural Research for Development (ARD) approach as
elaborated in Chapter 2 of this report. In this approach an interdisciplinary team applies
participatory and systems approaches to integrate and analyse the diverse perspectives of
stakeholders and beneficiaries. The ARD approach is demand-driven and aims at designing
research that responds to the needs of clients and beneficiaries (particularly the resource-poor
farmers). To target research, the research team classified the farming households into six
types and at least one village was selected to represent each type and from each district for indepth study as indicated below:






Rainfed production system with subsistence scale production (Kandiga, Kassena-Nankana
District);
Rainfed production system with commercial scale production having limited access to
market (Widnaba, Bawku West District);
Rainfed production system with commercial scale production having easy access to the
market ( Sherigu, Bolgatanga District);
Irrigated production system with commercial scale production having limited access to
market (Binaba, Bawku West District);
Irrigated production system with commercial scale production having easy access to
market.( Bongo, Central Bongo District);
Irrigated production system with subsistence scale production (Gaani, Kassena-Nankana
District).
Data gathering
Focus group discussions and household surveys were used to gather information on ILVs.
Agro-ecological mapping, time line, matrix scoring, activity profile, Venn diagram, semi
structured interviews, resource flow diagrams, livelihood profiles and stakeholder analysis
were among the various analytical tools used to collect relevant information. Market surveys
were also conducted in the study area, Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, Tamale in the Northern
region and Kumasi in the Ashanti region.
Data and information on marketing channels, production costs, packaging, consumer
preferences, produce handling and management were analysed. Matrix scoring was used to
rank different cultivated and collected species of ILVs. The criteria used for ranking
cultivated species included production costs, labour requirements, time for maturity, ease of
processing, market demand, market prices and nutritional values. For collected species the
criteria included the periods of availability during the year, ease of collection, distance from
community and medicinal value.
xvi
Main findings
Production systems
There are broadly two main production systems for ILVs in the Upper East Region, which are
the rainfed and irrigated production systems. There were no districts that operated exclusively
under rainfed or irrigated conditions. Consequently, the production of ILVs was practised
under both rainfed and irrigated conditions in all the districts.
Cultivated indigenous leafy vegetables
There is an increasing trend in the number of households that are cultivating ILVs. This has
been attributed to:





increasing population and food requirements;
increasing awareness of the nutritional value of ILVs;
increasing market demand;
ease and low cost of cultivation and
quick returns.
Over the past 20 years there has been no change in the species of ILVs that are grown except
for the introduction of Amaranthus cruentus to Kandiga in the 1990s. Amaranthus cruentus
was, however, being cultivated within 10 km in nearby Navrongo. There is an increase in
cultivation under both irrigated and rainfed conditions and, also in the dry season. Provision
of irrigation facilities has enhanced the cultivation of ILVs in the dry season and farmers have
been able to produce in considerable marketable quantities. Species of ILVs cultivated under
both irrigation and rainfed conditions that are popular among producers are:








Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus)
Bento (Vigna unguiculata)
Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus)
Okro (Abelmuscus esculentus)
Spider plant (Cleome gynandra)
Calabash plant (Luffa sp.)
“Sambola”
The pattern of cultivation of ILVs among households is as follows:
 All households (100%) in both irrigated and rainfed conditions cultivated Hibiscus
sabdariffa and Hibiscus cannabinus;
 Between 80-90% cultivated both Vigna unguiculata and Amaranthus cruentus;
 About 75% cultivated Abelmuscus esculentus under both irrigated and rainfed conditions;
 For both Cleome gynandra and “Sambola”, the respondents growing ILVs were less than
40% in both production systems;
 Luffa sp. was produced by about 45% under rainfed conditions, whereas 70% of
households produced the vegetable under irrigation.
ILVs produced under rainfed conditions were found to contribute to about 39% of the average
annual household cash income, whereas under irrigated conditions the indigenous leafy
xvii
vegetables contributed to about 20%. Irrespective of the production system, it is obvious that
ILVs play an important role in the livelihoods of the people.
Collected/wild ILVs
The study has revealed that there is a decrease in the number of households that are collecting
ILVs. The reasons are as follows:






increased cultivation of ILVs which has reduced the need to go to the bush to collect;
limited demand for collected ILVs;
changing tastes and eating habits;
women (main collectors) now busier due to new enterprises of gardening;
more children attending school, therefore having no time to collect, and
difficulties in processing wild ILVs for consumption.
The study also noted a decrease in the quantities of ILVs collected due to a progressively
declining availability. The reasons have been ascribed to the following factors:




bush burning;
land clearing for farming;
low and sporadic rainfall, and
overgrazing.
While no changes in species collected were recorded by the study, some species such as
"Samparaga" and "Kelpomvooro" were said to be disappearing fast. The main collected
species in the Upper East Region include the following:








Kapok
Bogosid
Guwara
Baobab (Adansonia digitata)
Ogla
Bongto
Samparaga
Kelpomvooro
Baobab leaves are collected by 80% of the households and 50% collect Bongto. The other
vegetables are collected by 10-25% of the households.
Indigenous knowledge
The study has demonstrated that there is considerable indigenous knowledge on the leafy
vegetables of the region (Chapter 3). In particular, there is indigenous knowledge on the
nutritional and medicinal aspects of ILVs. In addition there is also a wealth of indigenous
knowledge available on preservation, processing and control of field insect pests.
xviii
Potential for commercialisation of ILVs
Among the cultivated species, the ILVs found to hold most potential for commercialisation
are Bito, Berese, Bento and Alefu. For collected species the ILVs selected are Tokara
(Adansonia digitata), Bongto, Ogla and Samvama, in descending order.
Reasons for the low rating of Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus) among cultivated species, include
high production costs, high labour requirements, and the inability of farmers to process Alefu
(Amaranthus cruentus) for future use. Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Berese (Hibiscus
cannabinus) and Bento (Vigna unguiculata) on the contrary, have low labour requirements,
low costs of production and can be processed and stored for use during scarcity.
The benefit-cost ratio for Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus) and Bento
(Vigna unguiculata) for all farm types also indicated high economic gains to farmers. In
Sherigu, Kandiga, Widnaba, Bongo Central and Gaani the benefit-cost ratios are above the
break-even point of 1, indicating profits and economic viability of the ILV species.
Development strategies
Using the constraints and opportunities analysis and information collected from the field
through in-depth study, the team designed 16 development strategies to address the
constraints and exploit the opportunities, in consultation with the stakeholders. The
development strategies identified by the team were then screened using three broad criteria:
environmental sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness. Sub-criteria for
each of them were defined by the team and the stakeholders together for screening the
strategies.
Screening of the development strategies was done in two stages: first with various
stakeholders representing research stations (SARI, Manga Research Station), extension
(MoFA) and NGOs (SRMP, TRAX, Technoserve, Catholic Diocese) and then with farmers in
two villages, each representing a specific production system(irrigated and rainfed). The 9
screened development strategies are as follows:









In situ conservation of wild/collected species of ILVs
Documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs
Provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes and diversified use of
irrigation sources
Use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques
Establishment of small-scale/cottage processing and packaging industries
Proper handling of ILVs to reduce post harvest losses
Market promotion of commercialisation potential of ILVs through the mass media
Incorporating ILVs under MoFA and other organisations development programmes
Awareness creation on multipurpose uses of ILVs
A detailed description of development strategies is presented in Chapter 6. The screened
development strategies were taken to the next step of identifying and prioritising the research
and development options.
xix
Research and development options
Seventeen research options and 17 development options were identified for the nine
development strategies, which were screened. These research and development (R&D)
options were prioritised by using various criteria. Prioritisation of the R&D options was done
separately for conservation, cultivation, processing, marketing and other/institutional
improvement strategies. Various stakeholders representing research stations (SARI, Manga
Research Station), policy-making organisation and extension (MoFA), NGOs and other
organisations (SRMP, TRAX, Technoserve), University (UDS) and farmers (from four
villages) participated in the prioritisation of the R&D options.
The top two prioritised research and development options under each of the various aspects
are presented below.
Research options
Conservation
 Identification of “hot spots” for
endangered species of ILVs
 Research on mode of conservation
Cultivation
 Research on efficiency of indigenous
pest control measures
 A study on major insect pests and
diseases in ILVs
Processing
 Verifying the effectiveness of
indigenous drying methods
 Research on the effect of
processing/solar drying on quality
Development options
Conservation
 Documentation of indigenous knowledge
on ILVs
 Intensifying awareness to control bush
burning, clearing and overgrazing
Cultivation
 Creation of awareness on on-farm/in situ
water conservation
 Introduce/promote
integrated
pest
management
Processing
 Training/encouraging ILV producers for
appropriate packaging and storage
 Introducing/demonstrating solar dryer for
processing of ILVs
Marketing
 Survey on post-harvest losses at the farm Marketing
and in the market
 Education of farmers and traders on
hygienic handling of ILVs on-farm and in
 Research on proper packaging materials
the market
and methods
 Market
promotion
in
terms
of
popularising
the
commercialisation
Others
potential of ILVs through the mass media
 Research on potential use of ILV
residues as livestock feed
Others
 Analysis and documentation of the
 MoFA should include and co-ordinate
nutritional value of ILVs
with other organisations to include ILVs
under their programme.
 Creating awareness on the multipurpose
uses of ILVs
xx
Potential partners
A number of organisations (both governmental and non-governmental) have been suggested
as potential partners in the conservation and commercialisation of ILVs. Of special relevance
are: ICOUR, ACDEP, TRAX, Technoserve, ADRA, UDS, SARI, SRMP, World Vision,
Farmer groups and others. A commercial ILV farmer at Pwalugu in the Bolgatanga District,
Mr. David Adakabla, could be an important partner in the commercialisation of ILVs.
This study has brought into focus a commodity that has much to offer in reducing poverty and
improving the livelihoods of the rural and urban populations of the Upper East Region. And
yet, ILVs have been taken for granted and relegated to the background by researchers,
development agencies and even by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. This study has reawakened interest in the ILVs of Northern Ghana in general. It is anticipated that the findings
of this study will offer a starting point for further work and development interventions to
improve the conservation and sustainable utilisation of indigenous leafy vegetables.
xxi
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
This report
This report is the result of an analysis of the conservation, cultivation, processing and
marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables of the Upper East Region of Ghana. It is expected
that the output from this study will form the basis for research and development interventions
in order to refocus attention on indigenous leafy vegetables and to enhance its
commercialisation and conservation. It is also intended that these interventions will help
reduce rural poverty and contribute to improve livelihoods.
This report consists of eight chapters. Chapter 1 provides the background to the study and
describes the main institutions involved in the study: the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation
and Development (CBUD) and the International Centre for development oriented Research in
Agriculture (ICRA). The chapter describes the study area and outlines the justification and
objectives of the study and, the approach used in data gathering and analysis. Chapter 2
describes in detail the methodology and the analytical tools used. Chapter 3 describes the
contextual analysis, extent of and trends in indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) collection and
cultivation in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Production practices and indigenous
knowledge on nutritional, medicinal properties, processing and preservation aspects are
described in the same chapter. Chapter 4 presents an in-depth analysis and marketing
potential of indigenous leafy vegetables. Chapter 5 deals with the stakeholders analysis
including stakeholders’ perceptions of the problematique, key stakeholders identification,
their roles, interests and linkages. Chapter 6 discusses development strategies for
commercialisation and conservation of indigenous leafy vegetables. Chapter 7 presents the
suggested research and development options, their prioritisation and their screening for
implementation. Chapter 8 summarises the conditions for sustainable utilisation of indigenous
leafy vegetables.
1.2
Context of the study
1.2.1
Institutional framework
The field study was conducted as a joint activity of the CBUD and the ICRA, the Netherlands.
The study was hosted by CBUD in Ghana. The CBUD is a collaborative programme of the
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi, Ghana and the
Royal Netherlands Embassy in Accra, Ghana. CBUD is based at the Institute of Renewable
Natural Resources (IRNR) of the KNUST. The CBUD programme aims at the conservation
and sustainable utilisation of biological resources, particularly those that are traditional or
indigenous to Ghana. The CBUD programme, which started in 1998, uses an extensive
network of partners in development, research, co-ordination, facilitation and promotion of the
conservation and utilisation of bio-resources. In these processes, CBUD also seeks to
document and conserve knowledge and information on those lesser-known indigenous
biological resources that remain anecdotal and often disappear with the passing away of the
ageing generation.
In recent years, CBUD has demonstrated considerable interest in indigenous leafy vegetables
(ILVs) and has already undertaken considerable initiatives in Southern Ghana for
conservation and development of these traditional food resources. The CBUD initiative on
1
indigenous leafy vegetables is now being expanded to the northern parts of the country. This
initiative, it is hoped, will explore various strategies to conserve the resources while seeking
to reduce poverty and improve livelihoods of the rural communities at the same time.
The IRNR, which hosts CBUD, is Ghana’s leading training and research institute in
renewable natural resources management. The Institute, located at the KNUST in Kumasi, has
five academic departments, namely Freshwater Fisheries and Watershed Management,
Silviculture and Forest Management, Wood Science and Technology Management, Wildlife
and Range Management and Agroforestry. The IRNR maintains a holistic, multi-resource
approach to a rational, sustainable utilisation and conservation of renewable natural resources.
The institute has the mandate to offer both academic and professional training in renewable
natural resources management. Since its establishment in 1982, the IRNR has acquired
considerable expertise and become one of the main institutions where renewable natural
resources managers in the West African sub-region are formally trained.
The International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA), was
established in 1981 to assist in strengthening the capacity of researchers and development
professionals to make meaningful contributions to agricultural development. ICRA is based in
Wageningen in the Netherlands. ICRA’s mission is to provide learning opportunities, to
exchange and consolidate knowledge and to develop the professional attitudes and skills
necessary for the design of research relevant to resource-poor farmers and the broader needs
of society.
1.2.2
Justification for the study
In Northern Ghana indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) provide important sources of food,
nutrition and medicines of both the rural and urban population of Ghana. They are important
sources of proteins, vitamins and minerals and offer opportunities for malnourished, poor and
deprived communities to maintain balanced diets. When village households run out of food
stocks, particularly in the long dry season, ILVs serve as food security and hunger gap fillers.
They are perennial and available nearly all year round. Their ease of production means that
even marginal lands can be used to cultivate ILVs.
Indigenous leafy vegetables play an important role in income generation and subsistence.
Recent surveys carried out by the Natural Resources Institute in Cameroon (West Africa) and
Uganda (East Africa) provide evidence that ILVs offer significant opportunity for the poorest
people to earn a living, as producers and/or traders without requiring large capital investments
(Schippers, 2000). They are important commodities for households because they are
relatively affordable when compared to other food items.
Despite the immense benefits of ILVs in the Upper East Region of Ghana, these important
bio-resources have received little or no attention from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture,
research or other development agencies. Anecdotal information frequently suggests that a
number of these leafy vegetables are going out of production. The threat of habitat
degradation, particularly from bush fires, has also been implicated in the disappearance of
some ILV species. There also appears to be a shift to cultivation of exotic vegetables, which
have better chances of recovering irrigation costs. In the Upper East Region women are
known to play vital roles in production, processing and marketing of ILVs. It would therefore
be interesting to investigate the social implications of commercialisation of these vegetables.
There is little or no documentation of indigenous knowledge on the nutritional, medicinal or
2
conservation characteristics of ILVs and the risk of losing such vital knowledge as the aged
pass away is very real indeed.
It is against this background that CBUD in collaboration with ICRA has found it necessary to
conduct this study to address the issues raised in this section. This study seeks to investigate
the cultivation, processing, conservation and the potential for commercialisation of
indigenous leafy vegetables of the Upper East Region of Ghana.
It is expected that the study will generate information and data useful for research and
development efforts on indigenous leafy vegetables and contribute to knowledge on this
subject. Above all, it is expected that the findings of this study will justify whether or not
commercialisation of ILVs in the region will be economically feasible and whether it will
contribute towards the reduction of poverty and the improvement of livelihoods of the rural
population.
1.2.3
Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study were to:






assess the extent of and trends in ILV collection and cultivation in the study area;
identify ILV species produced in the study area and assess their potential for
commercialisation;
describe the production systems within which ILVs are produced and analyse the
strengths and weaknesses of these systems;
investigate gender roles in the production and commercialisation of ILVs and how these
roles may be affected by improved commercialisation;
identify and prioritise development strategies in support of the conservation and continued
use and commercialisation of these ILVs
identify and prioritise research areas that may be pursued to improve the production and
utilisation of the identified food resources.
1.3
Background
1.3.1
Study area
One area in Ghana where indigenous leafy vegetables are cultivated and/or collected and
utilised to a considerable extent is the Upper East Region, hence the choice of this region for
the study. The Upper East Region lies between latitudes 10 15´ and 11 10´ north and
longitudes 1 4´ west and bounded to the north by Burkina Faso, to the east by Togo and to
the south and west by the Northern and Upper West Regions respectively. The Upper East
Region is divided into six administrative districts, namely Bolgatanga, Builsa, Kassena–
Nankana, Bongo, Bawku West and Bawku East (Fig. 1.1).
Four districts were selected for the study by the host institute, CBUD, while developing the
framework and terms of reference for the study. These districts were selected because
considerable farming and utilisation of ILVs was taking place in those areas. The selected
districts were Bolgatanga, Kassena-Nankana, Bawku West and Bongo Districts. Although
Bawku East District was an important locality for ILV production, it was beset with ethnic
and tribal physical conflicts at the time. It was not considered prudent to send an international
3
4
research team to such conflict-stricken areas. On the other hand, the extent of cultivation of
ILVs in the Builsa District was considered to be relatively low and was therefore not included
in the districts to be studied.
1.3.2
Basic features of the study area
Topography
The Upper East Region is generally flat-lying with gentle slopes ranging from 1% to 5%.
Inselberg outcrops and a few uplands with slopes of more than 10% occur sporadically in
Bongo District.
Soil and soil types
The soils of the Upper East Region are, mainly, savannah ochrosols and oxysols
(LACOSREP, 1992; SRMP, 1998), which are characterised by low organic matter content of
less than 1% in the top soil. This translates to relatively low levels of N, P, K, Mg, Na and Ca
as compared to similar soils in the southern parts of the country such as the Afram plains and
forest zones (LACOSREP, 1992). Soil erosion, which is rather high in the region, is attributed
to the coarse-textured nature of the parent material. There is considerable variation in soil
texture across the region. The upland soils have been derived largely from granite rocks and
their fertility, as a consequence, is low.
Rainfall and temperature
The Upper East Region experiences long dry seasons which frequently lasts from November
to about April or May. The north-eastern winds, originating from the Sahara desert and
referred to as the harmattan, blow from November to January each year. The winds are often
laden with sand and daily temperatures are usually high, frequently reaching over 40C in
most places in the north of the country. Night temperatures could fall to 15C or below. The
south-west monsoon also blows from the Gulf of Guinea bringing rain to most parts of the
region soon after the harmattan season. Humidity during the rainy season can be high
reaching up to 91% but dropping down to 15% during the dry season (Smilde, 1999). The
minimum temperature within the year is approximately 15C and may go up to 45C between
March and April.
The average rainfall is 921 mm and ranges from 645 mm to 1250 mm. Rainfall may occur
between April and October. A considerable amount of rainwater is lost through run-off and
evapo-transpiration, therefore reducing soil moisture levels. The rainfall season is typically
characterised by heavy thunderstorms and lightning activity with medium to strong gale force
winds. The uni-modal nature of rainfall in this region means most cropping takes place
during the wet season. The uncertainty in time of the onset of the planting rains coupled with
the poor water-holding capacity of the soil favours the timeliness of cultivation practices.
Ecological zone and vegetation
The Upper East Region lies within the Guinea Savannah zone but a small area north of
Bawku lies within the Sudan Savannah belt. The vegetation is characteristically grass, shrubs
and a sparse distribution of trees, most of which have xerophytic characters and are generally
drought-resistant. The natural vegetation of the region (savannah woodland) has come under
5
intense pressure over the years as a result of bush burning and farming practices. Only trees of
some economic importance have been retained which resulted in a tree population of only 1020 trees per hectare in some areas (Quansah, 1992). The most common tree species are
Butyrospermum parkii (Shea nut), Parkia filicoides (Dawadawa), and Adansonia digitata
(Baobab). Among the common grasses are Andropogon gayanus, Pennisetum subangustum,
Pennisetum purpureum, Hyparrhenia sp. and Heteropogon sp.
Crops
Agriculture constitutes the main economic activity in the region with over 60% of the people
involved in agriculture (Smilde, 1999). The major crops in the rainfed areas of the region
include millet, sorghum, groundnuts, maize and cowpea. Rice, tomatoes, onions and peppers
may be cultivated in the flood plains and areas with access to irrigation. Most crop farms
depend on rain for production and mixed cropping is a common feature of these farms. Mixed
seeding is also practised in which case, different seeds are planted in a single hole. Most
farmers have no mechanical implements but some use bullock ploughs. Animal manure and
household rubbish may be used to fertilise the soil. Little or no fertilisers and pesticides are
used on the farms. Indigenous leafy vegetables are usually also cultivated on the same field
as sorghum or millet and indeed several crops may be inter-cropped. For example Kenaf may
be grown as a boundary crop in a predominantly sorghum or millet farm.
Irrigation
The rural population in the Upper East Region depends on dams, dugouts for dry season
irrigation, livestock watering and domestic purposes. There are, at least, 200 lentic water
bodies in the Upper East Region alone. These include reservoirs, dams and dugouts. Under
the IFAD/LACOSREP I project, 44 dams were rehabilitated. The dams assure water supplies
to about 550 hectares of irrigated land (0.18% of the cultivated area in the region). Under
LACOSREP II an additional 36 dams will be rehabilitated.
The Irrigation Company of Upper Region (ICOUR) has irrigable areas of 2490 and 850
hectares at Vea and Tono dams respectively. The Tono and Vea irrigation projects are located
in the Kassena-Nankana and Bongo districts respectively. The Vea irrigation Project covers 7
villages, partly under the jurisdiction of the divisional chief of Bolgatanga (Zaare, Yikine,
Yorogo, Sumbrungu and part of Nyarega) and partly under the jurisdiction of the divisional
chief of Bongo (Vea, Gowrie and part of Nyarega). The Tono irrigation project covers another
8 villages accounting for 4.5% of the cultivated area in the Kassena-Nankana District. The
two projects together irrigate 1.1% of the cultivated area in the Upper East Region. Table 1.1
presents an inventory of dams and dugouts in the region. There is considerable scope for
irrigation in all the districts as the irrigated land is still less than the total irrigable area (Table
1.1). Extension of the irrigated land has been proposed and this may lead to an enhancement
of the area under ILV cultivation.
6
Table 1.1
District
Irrigation in the Upper East District
Irrigable land
area (ha)
Land area presently
irrigated (ha)
Proposed
extension (ha)
Expected total
irrigated land
222.5
57.5
39
62
153
27.5
31
32
59
20
16
26
212
47.5
47
58
Bawku**
Bongo
Bolgatanga
KassenaNankana
**Includes Bawku East and Bawku West Districts.
Source: IFAD (1990)
Livestock
Farmers in the region rear livestock, which includes goats, sheep, cattle, pigs and donkeys.
Guinea fowls and chickens are also reared. Cattle are usually grazed in the fields during the
rainy season but may feed on crop residues after harvesting. Chickens and guinea fowl are
usually kept on a free-range system. Household waste and grains form a supplementary feed
for the poultry.
Demographic factors
The Upper East Region (UER) is sparsely populated with a population density of 103.7
persons per km2 and a population growth rate of 1.1%, which is below the national average of
2.5% (Ghana Statistical Service, 2000). The total population of the region is 917,253 and the
total land area is 8842 km2 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2000). Population estimates based on
the year 2000 census indicate that Bongo District has the highest population density of
204 km2, whilst Bawku West had the lowest population density of 68 persons km2 (Table
1.2). The population of Ghana is estimated at around 18 million with a density of about
75/km2.
Table 1.2
Population figures for some districts of the Upper East Region of Ghana
Population
Population density
(No. of persons km2.
)
Males as % of
total population
Females as % of
total population
Bolgatanga
225,864
105
48.1
51.9
Bongo
76,773
204
46.7
53.3
KassenaNankana
Bawku West
150,951
111
47.6
52.4
81,972
68
46.7
53.3
District
Source: Ghana Statistical Service (2000). Population and Housing Census
7
In all the four districts the female population was larger than the male population (Table 1.2).
This has considerable implications on any development strategies that target the people of the
region. Therefore the strategies should be gender sensitive and take into account how women
and their roles may be affected.
1.3.3
Socio-economic and policy environment
Agriculture
Ghana is predominantly an agricultural country. The performance in the agricultural sector
will be an important factor in meeting the targets set for Ghana-Vision 2020 (National
Development Planning Commission, 1997). Agriculture is the leading contributor to the GDP
(41%), employment, government revenues (especially from cocoa), foreign exchange
earnings and it provides raw materials for industries. Despite this, the sector faces
considerable problems, which represent a setback to the progress of the economy. Among
these problems are the absence of a comprehensive credit policy, the decline in bank support
for agriculture and lack of access to insurance in agriculture. The lack of or difficulty in
getting credit from financial institutions in the Upper East Region is very real and this places
considerable limitations on agricultural production.
Nutritional status of the population
Malnutrition, to which infants, young children and pregnant women are particularly
vulnerable, is found throughout the country. Household food insecurity, arising in part from
seasonal variation in food production is a major factor in malnutrition. Major nutrition issues
include a high prevalence of protein energy malnutrition in Northern Ghana and the lack of
knowledge regarding the food and nutritional needs of household members (National
Development Planning Commission, 1997).
An improved nutrition status of the population will be attained through strategies that promote
the consumption of balanced diets. Such programmes should target children, rural households,
the urban poor and other disadvantaged groups in society. The strategy will involve the
strengthening of capacities of agencies and organisations working in education, health,
agriculture and sanitation.
Unemployment and low labour productivity
In rural areas, the major economic problem is not overt unemployment but the low labour
productivity, which results in low levels of remuneration, particularly in agriculture related
jobs. The rural-urban migration is mirrored by the north-south migration within Ghana. The
high rates of unemployment in urban centres are a reflection of the lack of opportunities for
paid employment in the rural areas. Together with poor social and economic amenities in the
rural areas, these factors encourage young people in the villages to migrate to the towns in the
hope of improving their living standards.
One of the indicators of rural-urban and north-south disparities is the source of income. In
Accra, 42% of the household income is derived from paid employment. The corresponding
figure for the other urban centres is 24%; 9% for rural areas; 4% for the Upper East Region
and 7% for the Upper West Region. Considering the levels of employment or unemployment
and the low average incomes there is a high degree of disguised unemployment and a dearth
8
of remunerative job opportunities. In the Upper East Region, migrants constitute less than 6%
of the population, but 25% are returned migrants, i.e. people born in the region who tried
unsuccessfully to improve their living standards elsewhere and have returned home.
Rural infrastructure development
The importance of developing good feeder roads is critical, as the provision of such
infrastructure will facilitate movements and marketing of agricultural produce. Poor
transportation networks and services between rural agricultural settlements and the urban
markets lead to heavy post-harvest losses and high food prices. The UER has poor feeder
roads and access to some production and marketing centres is limited. The provision of an
enabling environment by the central government will be a prerequisite for rural development.
1.3.4
Ethnicity and food preferences
There are several ethnic groups in the region and their food and vegetable preferences vary at
some locations, although there are rather more similarities than differences. Among the
various ethnic groups in the region are Kusasis, Kassenas, Nankanas and Grunis. These ethnic
differences are frequently reflected in their choice of vegetables for the table, especially those
indigenous vegetables collected from the wild. While kapok leaves may be gathered for food
by some ethnic groups, others do not perceive it as edible. These ethnic perceptions can also
affect the type of vegetables that may be cultivated for consumption. In some areas Ayoyo
(Corchorus olitorius) is collected from the wild while some ethnic groups prefer to cultivate
the plant.
1.3.5
Indigenous leafy vegetables
There is considerable controversy on the definition of “indigenous vegetables”. To some
people indigenous vegetables refer to vegetables traditionally eaten by the people or those that
are native to the locality. To define what is indigenous and what is not is far from easy. It is
probable that what is considered native to an area may even have its origins outside the
locality. The common cultivated Amaranthus cruentus found along Africa’s warm and humid
coastal regions, is usually referred to as a typical African indigenous vegetable but there is
still considerable uncertainty about this assertion. In the context of this study, indigenous
leafy vegetables are defined as those vegetables that are locally cultivated or collected from
the wild and that are traditionally and frequently eaten by villagers in the Upper East Region
but are not normally consumed by Europeans.
9
10
2
METHODOLOGY
2.1
The ARD Approach
The acronym “ARD” refers to Agricultural Research for Development. Conventional
agricultural research has so far failed to successfully address the main concerns of
governments, donor agencies and small and marginal farmers. Problems related to food
security, poverty, environmental degradation and abuse of natural resources, particularly in
the developing world, continue to escalate. Meeting the challenges of the complex modern
agricultural research requires a systems approach by scientists to address the problems of
poverty, food security and sustainable livelihoods within a sustainable environment. It is
against this background that the International Centre for development oriented Research in
Agriculture (ICRA) has designed a general procedure for identifying research needs. The
procedure is based on a participatory and systems approach that integrates the diverse
perspectives of relevant stakeholders to address their economic, social and environmental
objectives.
The systems approach integrates the different perspectives of stakeholders and disciplines in a
holistic manner and culminates in improvements and/or adaptations to technology, policy and
social organisation to enhance agriculture and development. ARD thrives on interinstitutional and interdisciplinary teamwork. In this regard, the strengths and perspectives of
different scientific disciplines and institutions can be combining their efforts to solve the
complex problems of agricultural development.
The ARD approach is demand-driven and thus responds to the needs of clients and
beneficiaries, especially the resource-poor farmers and contributes to poverty reduction, food
security, and competitiveness of farm enterprises and sustainable resource use. The ARD
procedure, designed by ICRA, has the following four phases (Fig. 2.1).
Phase I: Organising teams
During this phase, interdisciplinary teams are composed based on the requirements of the
Terms of Reference (TOR) for the study. The team plans its own work and allocates roles and
tasks among the team members on the basis of individual abilities or competencies. A team
contract is formulated and the team agrees upon decision-making and conflict resolution
mechanisms and rules. A common understanding of the terms of reference is established
among the team members and between the team and its clients. These mechanisms are
necessary to facilitate the smooth running of the team process and to enhance achievement of
the desired objectives.
Phase II: Defining the system of interest
This phase places the problem as defined in the TOR in a broader development context and
integrates the various perspectives of relevant stakeholders, actors and beneficiaries. In this
process a re-definition and subsequent elaboration of the central problem or problematique
may be made. The development context is clarified and stakeholders identified. This phase
therefore helps in demarcating the system of interest, which needs to be analysed or studied in
more detail.
11
Fig. 2.1
The four phases of the ARD procedure
I
Terms of
Reference
Organising the Team



II
Defining the System of Interest
Iteration
III


Iteration
Identifying Development Strategies


IV
Formulating Research Plans


R&D options
Prioritising R&D options
Interdisciplinary team
Team contract
Field study plan
Contextual analysis
Analysis of system of interest
- Agro-eco system
- Farming system
- Livelihood system
- Commodity system
- Stakeholder analysis
- Knowledge system
Development strategies
Screening development strategies
Research
Proposals

Potential stakeholders
for implementation
Phase III: Identifying development strategies
In this phase, analyses of the system of interest are undertaken from different disciplinary and
analytical perspectives as appropriate. Such perspectives may be defined from agro-ecological
systems, agricultural knowledge and information systems, livelihood systems, social systems,
and commodity systems or from any other relevant perspectives. Again, such analyses are
targeted to specific groups because different groups may be affected differently by the
problematique. This phase also identifies the different development scenarios and driving
forces through the participation of various stakeholders. The opportunities and constraints for
research and development are identified. Different development strategies are then identified
for further implementation.
Phase IV: Formulating research plans
In phase 4 of the ARD procedure the development strategies defined in phase 3, are screened
with the stakeholders to examine their possible effects on environmental sustainability, social
equity and economic competitiveness. The primary objective of the screening is to expose any
potential problems that are likely to arise with each development scenario.
12
This phase also examines the potential contributions of research to the realisation of the
development scenarios that have passed the screening. As a consequence, a number of
research options are identified and prioritised. Both screening and prioritisation of research
options are important and take into account making effective use of limited resources
available for research and development. Screening and prioritisation is achieved through a
participatory approach with stakeholders using well-defined criteria. Matrix and rank scoring
methods are used in the screening and prioritisation exercise. Research proposals are then
formulated for research options that receive high priority. Funding may then be actively
sought to carry out the research.
The ARD approach was followed by the team to address the objectives of the field study as
defined in the Terms of Reference (Appendix 1). This approach was applied because it is
demand-driven and has an inherent capacity to respond to the needs of stakeholders or
beneficiaries. The research team worked together with stakeholders at all stages of the
research process resulting in a better comprehension and analysis of the problems raised in the
Terms of Reference (TOR). Although all the four phases of the ARD procedure were covered
during the study, the formulation of research proposals was not undertaken. The team, by its
TOR, was required only to come up with prioritised research and development initiatives and
identify potential partners for CBUD to work with. Proposals would be developed later by
CBUD in collaboration with suitable partners in implementation.
2.2
Preparation for field work
2.2.1
Team organisation
An interdisciplinary team of six scientists was constituted by ICRA in Wageningen, the
Netherlands, considering the requirements of the TOR. The team spent three weeks in the
Netherlands to prepare the field study. During this period, the team agreed on a team contract,
procedure, working rules and decision-making mechanisms to be used during the field study.
These arrangements were necessary to ensure that the team functioned with little or no
conflicts and that the team’s efficiency was enhanced to achieve the desired outputs. A local
researcher was contracted to join the team on its arrival in Ghana to provide socio-economic
expertise to the team.
2.2.2
Contextual analysis
Prior to the departure of the team to the field study location an initial contextual analysis was
done and a rich picture developed. This was based on the TOR and analysis of secondary
data/information. The broader context of the problem, as stated in the TOR, was elaborated
upon. Further analysis resulted in a description of the system of interest (see Chapter 3). This
facilitated a common understanding of the problem in the team.
2.2.3
Field study plan
As part of preparation for the field study, the team designed a comprehensive fieldwork plan
as shown in the schematic presentation of Fig 2.2. In this process, hypothesis and research
questions were formulated and information gaps were identified. Appropriate tools, methods
and expected outputs were discussed and documented for guidance in the field (Appendix 2).
13
Fig. 2.2
Week
W-1
Flow chart of the field study plan
Phases
Defining
Apr 15
16
17
18
19
Activity
Output
Clarifications on TOR
Meeting with CBUD &
secondary data collection

system of
interest

Reconnaissance
survey
Basic information
about field study area
Possible criteria for
typology
W-2
Apr 22
23
24
25
26
W-3
Introductory
workshop
Meeting with
stakeholders
Apr 29
30
May 1
2
3
W-4
May 6
7
8
9
10
W-5
May 13
14
15
16
17
W-6
R
E
V
I
E
W
V
I
S
I
T
14
Validated typology
6 villages selected
for in-depth study
Key stakeholders’
identification & interest
matrix
Costs and benefits, resource
flows, timelines, AES maps,
matrix scoring, indigenous
knowledge, livelihood
analysis, knowledge
information system analysis
In depth study
data collection in
4 villages, data
compilation &
analysis
ILV species in market,
sources of supply, market
prices & distribution channels
Data analysis & market
survey in Tamale
Stakeholders’
interview, market
May 20
21
22
23
24


Selection of
study villages &
meeting with
MOFA District
Director
Data collection,
in depth study in 2
villages

Key stakeholders’
identification & interest
matrix
 ILV species in market,
sources of supply, market
prices & distribution channels
Costs and benefits, resource
flows, timelines, AES maps,
matrix scoring, indigenous
knowledge, livelihood analysis,
knowledge information system
Week
W-7
Phases
Activity
Output
Data analysis
market survey
Bolgatanga
May 27
28
29
30
31
Mid-term
workshop
&
in
Constraints & opportunities
analysis, stakeholders’
perceptions & feedback on output
Incorporation of
workshop feedback
W-8
June 3
4
5
6
7
W-9
Trip to Burkina Faso market
survey at Guelwongo, Zebila,
Senkanse Bawku & Navrongo
Identify
June 10
11
12
13
14
W-10
Development
Strategies
Formulating
June 17
18
19
20
21
W-11
June 24
25
26
27
28
W-12
July 1
2
3
4
5
W-13
July 8
9
10
11
12
13
Formulating
development strategies
Research
R
E
V
I
E
W
V
I
S
I
T
Plans
Meeting with
stakeholders for
screening
development
strategies
Defining research
& development
options
Meeting with
stakeholders
for prioritizing
R&D options
Report writing and
editing workshop
invitation
Final
workshop
Incorporation of
feedback in the
report/editing
ILV species in market,
sources of supply,
market prices &
distribution channels
List of development
strategies for conservation,
collection, processing,
marketing & institutional
improvement
Screened development
strategies
List of R&D options
Prioritized researchable
areas & development
options
First draft of report
Second draft of report
Seminar in
Kumasi
Report editing
and finalising &
travel to Accra
Final draft of report
submitted to CBUD
15
2.3
Reconnaissance survey of the study area in Ghana
A three-day reconnaissance survey was undertaken to give the team a general overview of the
situation in the field and for collection of basic information about the area. A checklist of the
issues to be observed during the survey was developed. The list included:




Topographical features of the study area
Natural resources including soil types, river, streams, natural vegetation and forest/trees
Production systems including the production systems (irrigated or rainfed), cropping
systems, crops, fruits, vegetables and livestock systems
Infrastructure like: road network, market and processing facilities and irrigation facilities
(dams, hand-dug wells)
A senior officer of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) accompanied the team
during the visit. The guided tour also clarified enquiries on socio-cultural aspects of area. The
team was also given a briefing on development agencies (stakeholders) and their
roles/interventions in the study area.
2.4
Introductory workshop
Following the reconnaissance survey, an introductory workshop was held in Bolgatanga
where the team was based. In attendance at the workshop were various stakeholders and
potential stakeholders for indigenous leafy vegetables in the region. In particular,
representatives of MOFA, NGOs, Universities, Research Institutions and ILV producers were
present.
The objectives of the introductory workshop were to:





16
present and clarify the ICRA team’s understanding of the terms of reference to the
stakeholders;
validate, through a participatory process, the selection of Bolgatanga, Bongo, Bawku
West, and Kassena-Nankana Districts as study locations for indigenous leafy vegetables
(ILVs);
facilitate the selection of study villages or locations that reflect the ILV situation in the
target districts through an interactive process with stakeholders;
present the proposed field study plan for feedback from the stakeholders and;
identify key stakeholders, their interests and potential future roles in the promotion of
ILVs.
2.5
Typology and village selection
An initial typology was formulated by the team on the basis of secondary information
available, which was verified and refined after the reconnaissance survey of the study area.
The criteria used to define farm typology were: production systems (rainfed vs irrigated),
scale of production (subsistence vs commercial) and access to the market (limited access vs
easy access).
Production system
Availability of irrigation water in Upper East Region plays an important role in the production
of indigenous leafy vegetables. In areas where irrigation water is available, production of
indigenous leafy vegetables is done throughout the year while in rainfed areas the production
is limited to the rainy season. Based on water availability, the two major production systems
were categorised as rainfed and irrigated systems.
Scale of production
The scale of production reflects the major purpose of production (home consumption vs
income generation). It is important to note here that the difference between subsistence and
commercial scales of production is mainly based on the purpose of production regardless of
the extent of production. The scale of production does affect decisions on input investments
and labour allocation. Under subsistence production, indigenous leafy vegetables are mainly
produced for home consumption. Farmers do sell part of it however, when need arises. On the
other hand commercial scale production of ILVs is mainly for income generation, but part of
the produce is used for home consumption.
Access to the market
Market accessibility plays an important role in the promotion of ILVs to a commercial level.
Regardless of the scale of production, where there is a market, people are motivated to
produce for sale. Thus two farm categories were identified as those with easy access and those
with limited access to the market.
This typology developed was presented to various stakeholders at the introductory workshop
where it was endorsed with no modification. After validation of the typology, the workshop
participants were divided into four groups on the basis of their familiarity or acquaintance
with the four districts targeted for the study. Each group proposed villages, which represented
farm types that were presented to them. Each stakeholder group, with reasons, selected two
villages that best described each farm type (Appendix 3). The participants also assisted in
identifying stakeholder interests and their future roles. The six farm types identified are
illustrated in Fig 2.3.
17
Fig. 2.3
Farm types and selected villages for the in-depth study
Farm
Farmtype
Type
Rainfed
Commercial
Easy market access
Sherigu
(Bolgatanga)
Irrigated
Subsistence
Kandiga
(Kassena-Nankana)
Subsistence
Gaani
(Kassena-Nankana)
Limited market access
Widnaba
(Bawku-West)
Commercial
Easy market access
Bongo Central
(Bongo)
Limited market access
Binaba
(Bawku-West)
For each farm type and for each district at least one village was selected by the team to reflect the
best representation of the farm types. The selected villages and the justification for selection are
presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Selected villages for studies on indigenous leafy vegetables in the Upper
East Region
Farm type
Selected
Village/District
1. Rainfed production system
Kandiga
with subsistence scale production (Kassena-Nankana)
Reasons for selection
2. Rainfed production system
with commercial scale
production having limited access
to the market
Widnaba
(Bawku West)
Rainfed, subsistence production, access
road, border with Burkina Faso, other
villages too remote and transport
difficulties exist
Massive production of ILVs, large virgin
forest, but with limited access to the
market; other villages have lower scale of
production and no virgin forests.
3. Rainfed production system
with commercial scale
production having easy access to
the market
4. Irrigated production system
with commercial scale
production having limited access
to the market
Sherigu
(Bolgatanga)
5. Irrigated production system
with commercial scale
production having easy access to
the market
6. Irrigated production system
with subsistence scale production
Bongo Central
(Bongo)
18
Binaba
(Bawku West)
Gaani
(Kassena-Nankana)
Village is close to the regional capital
market and has better transport and access
to the market than Pelungu, the second
choice
Limited access to markets, no access to
large markets, has 2 irrigation dams,
produces many types of vegetables; other
villages have a single dam and not easily
accessible.
Very large irrigated area, good access
road and easy access to the market; other
villages have less irrigated area
Near Navrongo market, another village
Biu is further from Navrongo and road is
bad.
The information on indigenous leafy vegetables relating to production, processing, marketing
and conservation was gathered from these selected villages. The criteria on production
systems seemed to be strong in the categorisation of the farm types. Minimum variability for
scale of production and accessibility to the market was observed in the field during data
collection.
2.6
Data collection process and tools/methods used
Different participatory methods were used in the field for data collection. A number of
participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools were used to involve as many stakeholders as
possible and for a critical analysis of the system of interest. The different tools and methods
used in data gathering are indicated in Fig 2.4.
2.6.1
Sample size
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and household interviews were held in each village. The
team often split into three sub-teams to undertake these activities. Each sub-team working
with one focus group consisting of at least, ten farmers with approximately equal numbers of
males and females. This was to ensure that gender related issues would be adequately covered
and their perceptions captured. A total of 55 households were interviewed in the six villages.
This included almost equal numbers of males and females.
2.6.2
Focus group discussions
In each village, on the first day FGD was used to collect information (Appendix 4). During
FGD, an agro-ecosystem map was drawn at each village to locate the natural resources and
agro-ecological niches. A transect walk with key farmers was also undertaken to locate the
various natural resources e.g. vegetation or trees, rivers, animals, crops, soil types and the
general features of the physical environment including social amenities. Historical trends, the
extent of cultivation and collection of ILVs were investigated using time lines, while labour
utilisation during the different times of the year was captured using a seasonal calendar.
Information on relevant stakeholder roles and linkages in the village was obtained by using
Venn diagrams. Gender roles at the household level and household task division were
investigated using activity profiles.
2.6.3
Household survey
On the second day, in each village individual household surveys were organised. Information
on available resources of the farmers, interactions of different components of farming systems
and input-output flows was obtained using semi-structured interviews and resource flow
diagrams. Semi-structured interviews (Appendix 5) were used to obtain information on
indigenous knowledge on ILVs relating to importance, production practices, insects/pests and
diseases control, harvesting, handling, processing and storage. Information on sources of
household income, contribution of ILVs to food security and access and control over
resources was obtained using Livelihood analysis.
19
Fig 2.4
Diagrammatic presentation of the tools and methods used in data
collection
Resource flows
Activity profiles
Seasonal calendars
Access and control profiles
AES maps
Transects
Timelines
Reconnaissance surveys
Agro-eco
Systems
Farming
Systems
Focus Group
Discussions
Knowledge
Systems
Household
survey
Livelihood
Analysis
Case study
Stakeholder
Analysis
Linkage matrix
Venn diagram
Identification and Interest matrix
2.6.4
Commodity
Systems
Benefit-cost analysis
Market surveys
Matrix scoring
Matrix scoring and ranking
Matrix scoring was used for prioritisation of ILVs with a potential for commercialisation. The
procedure of assigning scores for each species was introduced to the group during FGD.
Using corn seeds, farmers scored the vegetable species according to their qualification on
given criteria. Farmers identified their own criteria based on their knowledge of production,
processing, marketing, utilisation and the conceived problems associated with the cultivated
or collected species (Table 2.2). The criteria were then discussed and agreed upon before
being used for matrix scoring and ranking.
20
Table 2.2
Criteria for ranking collected and cultivated ILV species potential for
commercialisation
Criteria
Description
Costsof production
Low costs of production are desirable as financial capital
among the communities is a limiting factor in the production
Labour requirements
Low labour requirements are considered an important
criterion, as labour is mainly limited to family labour.
Time of maturity
Early maturing species are preferred for quick returns
Processing
Easy processing by indigenous method of sun drying is
considered important
Market demand
ILVs with high market demand are preferred
Nutritional value
Vegetables with high nutritional value as perceived by
farmers are preferred as they contribute to good health
Market price
Vegetables with high prices are desired due to their high
profit-making ability
Seasonal availability of Availability of collected species throughout the year is
the species
considered an important criterion
Ease of collection
Vegetables that are easy to collect are desired
Distance to the collection Vegetables that are found in proximity are preferred as that
point
helps to save time in collection
Medicinal value
Vegetable species from the bush with multi-purpose uses
including medicinal value are preferred
Source: ICRA 200, Field Study.
A score of ten was assigned to each cell in the matrix. The higher the score, the better is the
performance of the species. The sum totals of the scores under each criterion for each species
of leafy vegetable represented the major factors affecting the cultivation or collection of the
species. The grand totals were used to determine its position of priority (Appendix 6). The
species were ranked based on the total score and these were used to draw final conclusions on
the preference of species.
2.6.5
Benefit-cost analysis
The costs of production of major cultivated ILV species was estimated by interviewing about
five farmers in each village. The benefit-cost ratios were computed after estimating the gross
costs and benefits. The cost and benefit variables employed in the calculation are as shown in
Table 2.3. A detailed description of the variables is presented in Chapter 4. The gross costs of
production include all the expenses incurred in the production process plus an opportunity
cost on capital, at an interest rate of 26 % for a four week operational period, because ILV
cultivation takes four weeks in the field.
21
Table 2.3
Variables for ILVs costs of production and benefits
Component
Total costs of production
Variables
Land
Land preparation
Nursing / Transplanting
Costs of Inputs Insecticides/ Ash /botanicals,
fertiliser/manure/compost and seeds
Depreciation of farm tools
Costs of marketing
Labour for watering, planting, weeding (first and second) and
harvesting/selling
Gross costs of production Total costs of production plus opportunity costs on capital at
an interest rate of 26 % for a four week operational period
Gross income
Income from fresh leaves sold
Income from dried leaves sold
Value of fresh leaves consumed
Value of dried leaves consumed
Value of leaves given out for ceremonies, festivals and gifts
Income derived from the sale of fibres from Berese and Bito
stems
Source: ICRA 2002, Field Study
2.6.6
Market survey
Market surveys were conducted to gather information from producers, traders, and consumers
in the study area to facilitate an understanding of the demand and supply situation of ILVs in
different localities. Information on market infrastructure, marketing channels and prices was
also obtained. The market survey procedure involved focus group discussions, individual
interviews, weighing and counting of ILV stems in bunches. The weights of bunches of
vegetables found in the markets were calculated and standardised to units of cedis per
kilogram for inter-market price comparisons. The respondents included farmers, many of
whom were found selling in the markets, wholesalers and retailers who also included farmers
and consumers.
The markets surveyed in the study area include Bolgatanga, Navrongo, Bongo and Zebilla.
They were selected due to their good patronage by ILV traders and consumers. In addition,
market surveys were conducted in Tamale and Kumasi in Southern Ghana to trace marketing
of ILVs from the study area to markets in that part of the country. For similar reasons, some
market surveys were conducted in the capital city of the neighbouring country Burkina Faso
(Ouagadougou), at the northern border with Burkina Faso (Guelwongo) and in some markets
at the north-eastern border with Togo (Senkance).
22
2.7
Mid-term workshop
A mid-term workshop was held after seven weeks of field data collection. The objectives of
the workshop were to:




present the main findings of the analysis of system of interest to stakeholders;
validate through a participatory and interactive process, the findings of the team;
verify that the focus of the study continued to be relevant to the stakeholders and potential
beneficiaries, and
obtain the suggestions of stakeholders to focus the study during the remaining period.
Representatives from MoFA, Universities, NGOs, Research Institutes, PGRC, ICOUR and
farmers participated in the workshop. In this workshop participants discussed the constraints
in and opportunities for conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing of ILVs in UER.
Both institutional and policy perspectives were considered.
2.8
Identifying and screening development strategies
Based on the results of the in-depth study at village and household level and the analysis of
constraints and opportunities, potential development strategies were identified by the team.
The strategies were then presented in a stakeholder meeting where they were refined. They
were then screened by the stakeholders.
Screening of the development strategies was done in two stages. In the first stage the
screening was done with various stakeholders representing research stations (SARI, Manga
Research Station), extension (MoFA) and NGOs (SMRC, TRAX, Technoserve, Catholic
Diocese). While in the second stage, a separate screening session was conducted with farmers
at two villages each representing a rainfed (Sherigu) and an irrigated (Bongo Central)
production system. Ten farmers, five men and five women, attended the screening exercise in
each village.
The development strategies were screened using the criteria of environmental sustainability,
social equity and economic competitiveness. For each of these criteria, some sub-criteria
were developed by the team which were further modified by the stakeholders during the
screening exercise. The details of the criteria and the justification for their choice are
presented in Chapter 7. Differential weights were given to the criteria on the basis of their
perceived relative importance. Scoring was done for each development strategy against each
criterion by using a maximum score of ten. Weighted scores were then calculated by
multiplying the original score by the weight given for each criterion. The final weighted
scores were compiled for all the three broad criteria and then an average from the three
screening exercises was calculated, i.e., with stakeholders (other than farmers) and with
farmers at irrigated and at rainfed sites.
2.9
Identification and prioritisation of research and development options
Some researchable areas (research options) and development activities (development options)
were identified by the team for the identified development strategies. Some of the
development strategies were selected after screening, and the research and development
23
(R&D) options of these selected strategies were prioritised. In a separate meeting, the criteria
for prioritising research and development options proposed by the team (see Chapter 7), were
refined by stakeholders representing research, extension, development organisations and
farmers. Depending on their relative importance, these criteria were weighted by the
stakeholders. Using a weighted scoring matrix, the research and development options were
prioritised by the stakeholders with facilitation from the team.
2.10
Identification of potential partners for implementing prioritised research and
development
The identification of potential partners that CBUD could work with was an important
preoccupation of the team. The team invited participants at the stakeholders meeting to
identify potential partners who could play a role in the implementation of the prioritised
research and development options. For each research or development option, a number of
institutions and organisations were identified and recorded (see Chapter 7).
2.11
Formulation of research plans and proposals
The formulation and writing of research proposals on the prioritised research areas was not
undertaken by the team. This activity was left to the host institute, CBUD, as it had to take
into consideration project formats and requirements of its benefactors, the Royal Netherlands
Embassy and available financial and human resources.
2.12
Final workshop
A final workshop involving all the relevant stakeholders was held. The objective of the
workshop was to:


share the findings of the study with and obtain feedback from the stakeholders
create a sense of ownership of the study among the stakeholders to ensure effective
follow-up
Useful comments obtained from the participants were incorporated into the final draft report.
2.13
Seminar at the host institute (CBUD)
A seminar was held at the host institute, CBUD in Kumasi, to present the findings of the
study and to share the way forward with other stakeholders in the south of the country. The
audience of the seminar was the academics in different agricultural fields and research staff of
the KNUST. The seminar aimed at creating an insight on the importance of ILVs and draw
more attention to the crop.
24
2.14
Report writing and editing
The task of report writing was shared among the team members. Report writing was
progressively done, usually after some data analysis was completed. The team met frequently
to monitor progress and to make the necessary corrections and/or amendments. Two team
members were given the task to edit the draft. A draft copy produced after editing was
presented to the team for comments. Any errors noticed were corrected or revised by the
team’s editors. The corrected version was then sent to the reviewer for comments. The
comments of the reviewer were incorporated into the report.
25
26
3
INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES IN THE UPPER EAST
REGION
3.1
Contextual analysis
A diagrammatic presentation (Fig 3.1) of the broader context of the problem under study was
developed on the basis of secondary information. The initial rich picture assisted the team to
come to a common understanding of the problematique. This rich picture was refined during
the study as more insights were gained.
The conservation and continued utilisation of indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) in the
Northern Ghana farming systems is of primary concern. The important dimensions of the
context of the problem were identified i.e.: conservation, production, processing, marketing,
research, policy and socio-economic environments. The importance of this crop was always
underestimated. Environmental degradation, ethnic preferences, changing eating habits
among others expose the crop to the danger of going out of cultivation.
Farming households consider ILVs as an important component in their diet and a considerable
source of food, especially in the dry season where cereals are in short supply. It is also an
important source of income for farmers. Women are the major producers of ILVs for home
consumption. Cultural diversity and ethnic preferences for different ILV species affect the
conservation of species, with less preferred species under threat.
The production of ILVs in the UER is dependent on rainfall and some external inputs. Only a
few households produce ILVs under irrigated conditions. ICOUR and other NGOs like
Catholic Diocese, Action Aid and ADRA who support farmers in the area, have tried to
increase the area under irrigation. Due to the limited extent of irrigable area, most households
do not have access to it. Under large-scale irrigation schemes like Tono and Vea a fee has to
be paid for land and water use. Low-income families, therefore, have a limited access to
irrigated land.
Although the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) is responsible for the development of
agriculture in the area, ILVs have not been given any priority in their programmes and the
production is still predominantly based on indigenous knowledge vested in the older
generations. No research and extension activity is being carried out on ILVs by any of the
organisations. CBUD, with a mandate for bio-diversity conservation, emphasises the need to
conserve the indigenous knowledge as well as ILV diversity in the area.
Financial institutions such as Rural Bank, Agricultural Development Bank and organisations
like World Vision and RUWA who are offering credit for agricultural activities, are interested
in supporting ILVs. They are wondering though whether farmers will be able to repay their
credits for ILVs. NGOs like ADRA, Technoserve and TRAX, working in agricultural
development, assist farmers in constructing bore holes that can be used for ILVs cultivation.
In addition they help farmers with capacity building and strengthening farmer’s organisations.
27
28
Women with other family responsibilities might not have sufficient time to work on more
commercial production. On the other hand men might take over the production once it is
commercialised. The promotion of indigenous leafy vegetables may help households in
achieving food security and in improving the family income.
The potential of ILVs for commercialisation needs to be assessed. Although traders are
involved in ILVs marketing in local and urban markets, the financial benefits and
competitiveness of the crop is under-estimated. Co-operatives and Farmers’ Associations in
the area responsible for marketing of agricultural produce are so far not involved in the
marketing of ILVs. The questions here might be, is there a need for networking to promote
and support of the marketing of ILVs? Will good prices for ILVs motivate farmers to produce
commercially?
NGOs, in the region, play an important role in the improvement of farming by working
closely with small-scale farmers. They provide advice on livelihood improvement of the
farmers. They supply inputs, provide credit, and basic knowledge on soil and water
management and insects/pests and disease control measures. They are actively involved in
community empowerment with special reference to women.
Research institutions in the region try to address farmers needs in a holistic manner. UDS,
SARI, SRMP and IRNR have shown a keen interest in the conservation of ILV species.
CBUD in collaboration with ICRA, is trying to determine the potential of commercialisation
of ILVs in UER. The exploitation of their commercial potential is considered important for its
sustainable utilisation. MoFA is willing to promote ILV production in UER by providing
extension services. However, knowledge on ILVs production and processing is limited in
comparison to indigenous knowledge. Tapping this valuable knowledge will enhance the
conservation and sustainable utilisation of ILVs and thus their development.
3.2
Definition of the system of interest
Following the development of the initial contextual analysis, the relevant system of interest
was defined on the basis of the Terms of Reference (TOR). Defining the system of interest
required, applying the systems approach taking cognisance of the complexity of the various
components and interactions of the system.
3.2.1
Central theme
The central theme was derived from the Terms of Reference (TOR) agreed upon by ICRA and
the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD). The central theme for the
study was defined as “Conservation and sustainable utilisation of Indigenous Leafy
Vegetables (ILVs) in Northern Ghana”. .
3.2.2
Main components
Four main components were considered important in characterising the system of interest i.e.:
conservation, production, processing and marketing.
29
Conservation of ILVs
Conservation is viewed from the standpoint of conserving indigenous knowledge on the ILVs
of the study area. This aspect examined the traditional production systems, medicinal values
and nutritional values in particular. Environmental sustainability and conservation of the
ILVs, which are going out of production or disappearing from the study area, were important
considerations of the study also.
Production of ILVs
Low yield of most ILV species was identified as one of the main issues, in relation to
production of ILVs in the study area. Under production aspects of ILVs the following areas
were identified as major concerns of the study:
Species: Two broad categories of ILVs were identified and described as wild ILVs or
cultivated ILV species. In each of the category a number of species are utilised.
Production system: The production system is influenced by the rainfall pattern (rainfed
production system) or by irrigation or watering during dry spells (irrigated production
system). The scale of production may be subsistence or commercial.
Soil fertility: Poor soil fertility has been identified as one of the major factors contributing
to low yields of ILVs. The use of fertlisers, compost and manure is the main issue of
concern under this problem category.
Production inputs: The use of seeds, chemical fertilisers, manure, pesticides and
herbicides and irrigation facilities are important aspects of the system of interest.
Plant protection: This encompasses aspects of insect pests and disease control using
indigenous knowledge, chemicals, natural or biological control measures.
Processing of ILVs
This aspect examines existing local processing techniques, and also whether or not any
modern processing techniques or processing industries of ILVs exist in the area.
Marketing of ILVs
Market related issues such as marketing channels, price, demand and supply of ILVs, source
of supply, local and external markets, co-operatives and other farmers’ associations involved
in marketing were identified by the team as part of the system of interest. After analysing all
these aspects, some suggestions were made for conservation, commercialisation and
sustainable utilisation of ILVs in UER of Ghana.
3.3
Types of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables
Farmers of UER have been cultivating and collecting several types of ILVs for as far back in
time as they could remember. Nineteen different species of ILVs are cultivated by farmers in
UER, while 38 species of ILVs are collected by the farmers from the bush in this region. The
30
team tried to find out the common names and scientific names of these cultivated and
collected species but it was not possible for all the species. Therefore, the local names of these
species as they are referred to in different villages are presented in Appendices 7 and 8. There
could be some duplication of the same species with different local names and this was
verified with the help of experienced botanists collecting samples from different villages and
then identifying the species. The types of ILV species cultivated by farmers in the field and
collected from the bush in different villages representing different farm types are described
below. The changes that occurred over time are also presented.
3.3.1
Cultivated species
Information collected through focus group discussions (FGD) in the six study villages
indicated that Bito (Roselle), Berese (Kennaf), Bento (Cow pea leaves), Maana (Okro),
Yogvoro (Pumpkin leaves), Alefu (Amaranthus), Neri (Sama), Ayoyo (African Sorrel) and
Langina (Spiderplant) are popular species that are grown at all the sites. There are some
minor differences in their popularity due to ethnic preferences. A detailed list of ILVs
produced at each site with their ranking on the basis of popularity is presented in Appendix 9.
The respondents from the individual household survey conducted in six villages indicate Bito
as the most popular species being grown at all the sites by 100% of the households, followed
by Berese (96%), Bento (93%), Alefu (82%), Maana (75%), Yogvoro (51%), Ayoyo (36%),
Langina (35%) and Neri (20%) (Table 3.1).
The species called Sambola (Lufah sponge) is grown in four of the six villages studied
(Sherigu, Kandiga, Gaani and Bongo), whereas Kumvoro (Sherigu and Bongo) and Chimvoro
(Kandiga and Gaani) are grown in two villages each. The species Nyembule, Lohit and Imbut
are specific to Binaba, Benvoro to Sherigu and Saat to Widnaba. There is not much difference
in choice of species between the two production systems (rainfed and irrigated) but the choice
of specific species in different sites reflects the ethnic preferences.
The rankings done through FGD (Appendix 9) and through the household survey (Table 3.1)
differ because the former is based on the collective opinion of a group of people while, the
latter is based on the opinion of 10 respondents from each village who are actually growing
the particular species.
3.3.2
Changes over time for cultivated species
The Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) are used to identify trends in ILVs production over
more than twenty years in: the choice of species, the extent of cultivation (number of
households involved and quantity of production), season of cultivation, scale of production,
use of inputs, involvement of gender and age groups and the use of ILVs. The changes in
these aspects of cultivated species of ILVs are described in this section.
31
Table 3.1
S.N.
Species of ILVs cultivated in the Upper East Region of Ghana
Species
Percentage of respondents growing ILV species
Rainfed villages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Bento
Berese
Bito
Maana
Alefu
Yogvoro
Ayoyo
Langina
Sambola
Nyembule
Lohit
Imbut
Neri
Samvebed
Lohara
Kumvoro
Benvoro
Saat
Chimvoro
Kandiga
(1)
80
100
100
70
50
40
10
60
10
30
Widnaba
(2)
100
100
100
86
86
14
71
43
14
28
14
Irrigated villages
Sherigu
(3)
88
77
100
66
100
88
11
22
33
11
Gaani
(4)
100
100
100
88
77
55
11
22
22
22
Binaba
(5)
90
100
100
60
80
20
100
30
20
10
10
30
22
22
Average
Bongo
(6)
100
100
100
80
100
90
10
30
30
10
93
96
100
75
82
51
36
35
20
10
16
10
22
Note: (1) = Rainfed and subsistence; (2) = Rainfed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rainfed,
commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with limited
access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market farm types.
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Households Survey of 55 households from six villages.
Changes in species
So far no species were found that were not cultivated anymore. Moreover, three species,
Imbut, Alefu and Ayoyo were introduced in the UER in different years at various places and
they are still under cultivation.
At Widnaba and Sherigu, a total of twelve ILV species are cultivated by farmers (Table 3.1).
Farmers are still growing all the species that they used to grow from before 1980. At Binaba
farmers are cultivating twelve ILV species of which the same species continued across the
years except Imbut, which was introduced by Bisa community (migrated from Burkina Faso)
around 1990. A total of eleven species are grown by farmers at Kandiga of which nine other
species were available in 1980 except Alefu and Ayoyo, which, according to respondents, were
introduced in this village during 1990. Similarly, wild Alefu was cultivated in 1980 at Bongo
Central, which was dark in colour and had low consumer preference. The present edible Alefu
was introduced in about 1994 at Bongo Central. The other ten species, which are being
cultivated at present, were also cultivated in 1980 or before. In Gaani, out of eleven species,
which are grown by farmers, ten species were available in 1980 except Alefu which, was
introduced in this village in 1990.
32
Trends in the cultivation of ILVs
The team tried to collect quantitative data through FGD on trends in the approximate number
of households involved in cultivation and the quantity of ILVs produced during the last two
decades in the six study villages. However, respondents were unable to quantify the area
under cultivation and the total production of ILVs. Also, no secondary data is available to
provide such information. Therefore, only an indication of positive and negative trends in the
number of households involved in cultivation and the quantity of ILVs produced could be
elicited.
The number of households involved in ILV cultivation increased from 1980 to 2002 in all the
villages. With the continuously increasing population, the number of households increased
correspondingly. ILVs, being an important component of diets of the people in UER, more
and more households are getting into ILV production to fulfil their food requirements.
Though there is no hard data to support this statement, farmers responded that increasing
realisation of the nutritional importance of ILVs among the people resulted in an increased
market demand for these vegetables and this encourages people to grow ILVs for income
generating purposes. Moreover, ILVs are easy to cultivate and being short duration crops they
give more quick results in food and returns than other crops. All these factors contribute to an
increased number of households taking up ILV cultivation.
The total production of ILVs in all the villages is increasing as compared to the past because
of the increased number of households and a larger area under ILV cultivation. According to
the respondents, as the households divide, each units also starts growing ILVs for their own
family separately for food and for income and hence area under production and the total
production increases accordingly. However, no evidence was available to indicate the increase
in yield of ILVs.
Changes in season for cultivation
Currently, cultivation of ILVs in UER is mainly rainfed, from May to October with some dry
season farming under irrigation in the villages having access to small, medium and large-scale
irrigation schemes. Changes in the season of cultivation of ILVs observed across the years at
some villages, was made possible through access to irrigation.
At Kandiga ILVs is grown during the rainy season since before 1980. From 2000 onwards,
however, a few people started to grow ILVs in the dry season even, using water from dug
wells along the riverside. This practice is increasing year by year seeing the impact of ILVs
on income generation in nearby villages under the Tono irrigation scheme. ILV production at
Widnaba is still entirely rainfed since there is no access to irrigation for the farmers to grow
ILVs in the dry season. At Sherigu, cultivation of ILVs is predominantly rainfed. However,
about 130 households out of approximately 500 have access to a dam constructed in the
village in 1963 and they are growing some ILVs in dry season near the dam since its
establishment.
Until 1995 farmers at Binaba cultivated ILVs only in the rainy season. Although the Binaba
Dam-2 irrigation scheme was established in 1965, the people did not consider using irrigation
for ILVs and used it mainly for rice. But because of the awareness created by extension, they
started growing ILVs the in dry season after 1995 using irrigation from the dam. At Gaani
33
since the farmers have access to irrigation, though on a limited scale from the Tono irrigation
scheme, they have been producing ILVs in both rainy and dry seasons. A dam was
constructed in Bongo in 1960 after which they started growing ILVs in the dry season in
addition to what they produce in the rainy season.
Changes in scale of production
Farmers in UER produce ILVs on either subsistence or commercial scale. In subsistence
production, ILVs are mainly used for home consumption but part of the produce may be sold
when the need arises. In commercial production farmers grow ILVs mainly for the market to
earn an income. Some changes were observed in the scale of production of ILVs at some sites
with the improvement in irrigation facilities, accessibility to market and increased market
demand.
At Kandiga ILVs were always grown as a subsistence crop and the same trend continues with
the exception of very few farmers who started growing ILVs on a commercial scale using
water from dug wells along the riverside. Although farmers at Widnaba are producing for the
market, because of the limited access to the market, the total production is not much and there
was no change in the scale of production at this site since 1980. ILV production at Sherigu is
commercialised since 1980 because of easy access to the Bolgatanga market and farmers
produce a large quantity of ILVs for sale.
At Gaani, farmers are producing ILVs mainly on a subsistence scale since 1980. Having
gained access to irrigation canals from Tono Irrigation Project some farmers (about 20%) who
can afford the water charges, started cultivating ILVs on a commercial scale since the year
2000. Binaba farmers used to grow ILVs on a subsistence scale only in the rainy season until
1995. After 1995 they started producing ILVs in the dry season near a dam on a commercial
scale. According to the farmers this change occurred because of the awareness created by
extension (MoFA) staff. Similarly, at Bongo farmers were producing ILVs on a subsistence
scale up to 1990, but after that they started growing it on a commercial scale as they realised
that ILV production creates an additional source of income. A commercial scale of production
at Bongo is highly favoured by the accessibility to the irrigation dam for dry season
production and easy access to the Bongo, Bolgatanga and Guelwongo (in Burkina Faso)
markets. It clearly indicates that irrigation and market accessibility determine the scale of
production.
Changes in use of inputs
Prior to 1990, farmers were using only manure and no chemical fertilisers or other chemicals.
This trend continues at all rainfed sites. However, at irrigated sites such as Gaani, Binaba and
Bongo Central farmers started using small quantities of chemical fertilisers for commercial
scale production after 1990. The reason for using small quantities is the high costs, because of
removal of fertiliser subsidy by Government in the year 1988. However, due to the limited
availability of manure and declining soil fertility farmers are forced to use at least a minimum
quantity of chemical fertilisers. Before the year 2000 no pesticides were used in the study
area. Some farmers from Gaani and Sherigu reported that they started spraying pesticides
after 2000 to control insects/pests on ILVs because of the increased attack of insects/pests and
diseases.
34
Changes in involvement of gender and age groups in ILV cultivation
The cultivation of ILVs is generally considered to be women’s responsibility. However,
men’s roles are also vital for some of the activities like land preparation, watering, weeding
and manure/fertiliser application. It was observed during the field study that men are mainly
interested in cash crops and once ILV production moves towards commercialisation, men
tend to get involved. Similarly, the area under production also influences the involvement of
men. Where the area is too large for women to handle alone, men tend to come in.
FGD with farmers indicated that before the year 1990 in all the study villages the women
were mainly responsible for ILVs production. Since the last decade both men and women are
involved in ILV production in all the villages as the production size increased to fulfil the
increased food requirements and also for income generation. Sometimes both men and
women are involved in producing some ILVs but for different purposes. For instance Berese
(Kennaf) is produced by women for leaves and while men are interested in the fibre.
No change was observed over time in the age of people involved in ILV production.
According to the respondents at Widnaba, Binaba, Sherigu and Gaani generally both men and
women of age 18 years or above cultivate ILVs. Whereas, according to the farmers at Bongo
Central and Kandiga, men and women are involved in ILVs production once they are 15 years
of age.
3.3.3
Collected species
Focus Group Discussions in six villages revealed that Tokara (Baobab) is the most popular
species collected by farmers at all the sites. This species is popular because of its good taste
and high nutritional value. A species called Bongto is highly preferred by people at three
villages Kandiga, Gaani and Bongo and this species was ranked as the most preferred and
widely collected species in these three villages. However, this species was not found in other
villages, which indicates the ethnic preferences for the species. Similarly, Ogla is also one of
the most popular species collected by people at four villages namely, Kandiga, Sherigu, Gaani
and Bongo. Bongto and Ogla are collected both for consumption and sale. These species have
good taste, are in high demand in the market and are easily available everywhere. According
to Kandiga farmers, Bongto is a highly preferred cultivated species because of its tenderness
like Maana. According to them, these two species can be eaten as main course with no millet
or other staples required and the hunger satisfying feeling is longer. Bauda and
Voa/Voba/Voong are other popular species, which are collected by people at three villages.
There are some other species collected at some villages according to their ethnic preferences.
A detailed list of ILVs collected at each site with their ranking based on popularity is
presented in Appendix 10.
Though the FGD indicated that 38 species are collected in the study area, the household
survey in these villages showed that only 27 species are collected. The difference in the
number of species could be the result of the sampling, reflecting the perception of the
respondents. The household survey conducted also indicated Tokara (Baobab) to be the most
popular species collected at all the sites by an average of 66% of the households (Table 3.2).
The average of all the six sites indicated Bongto (38%) and Ogla (18%) as the other two
popular species collected by people.
35
There is a large variation in ethnic preferences observed in case of collected species of ILVs
across the sites. The species Kelpomvoro is one of the highly preferred species at Gaani being
collected by 78% of the respondents. Kapok and Bogosid are highly preferred species at
Widnaba being collected by 71% of the respondents. Similarly, Guwara and Bogosid are
highly preferred species at Binaba being collected by 70% of the respondents. A detailed
reaction of respondents by site wise is presented in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2
S.N.
Species of ILVs Collected from Bush in Upper East Region of Ghana
Species
Percentage of respondents collecting ILVs species
Rainfed villages
Kandiga
(1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Kapok
Bogosid
Bauda
Matingama
Sambema/wild ayoyo
Langenda
Guwara/Gowara
Vuara
Tokara/Baobab
Samveibit
Saalum
Ogla
Samparaga
Vomwama
Kulgonga
Bongto
Firikayua
Kelpomvooro
Tingabongto
Arvoro
Kulyogro
Virivoro
Voba
Jamasoni
Ziphoyong
Bitter leaf
Pusgavoro
Widnaba
(2)
71
71
Irrigated villages
Sherigu
(3)
Gaani
(4)
22
43
28
57
14
60
10
10
50
10
40
86
57
11
44
44
44
44
11
33
44
Binaba
(5)
10
70
30
20
20
10
70
50
100
Bongo
(6)
60
22
30
30
10
100
80
78
56
11
22
50
30
11
10
10
11
Note: (1) = Rainfed and subsistence; (2) = Rainfed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rainfed,
commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with limited
access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market farm types.
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Households Surveys with 55 households from six villages.
36
3.3.4
Changes over time for collected species
Information on changes during the last 20 years or more in species that are collected, trends
and extent of collection, season of collection, involvement of gender and age groups and
consumption patterns was collected through FGD from the six villages. Changes observed
with regard to these aspects are described below.
Changes in species
The collection of ILVs from the bush has been found to be affected by factors like ethnic and
individual preferences, availability of the species, availability of alternatives, seasonality and
distance from house to bush.
At Kandiga people were collecting 13 different species of ILVs (Appendix 10) from the bush
in 1980 and all these species are still found but the quantity collected is decreasing because
people collect according to individual preferences. According to the respondents at Kandiga,
Kelpomvooro is a fast disappearing species followed by Kulgonga. At Widnaba village a total
of ten ILV species are collected by farmers, all of which were available in 1980 and before.
However, farmers reported that the availability in terms of quantity is decreasing over the
years because of a change in climate and heavy pressure on the bush. At Sherigu households
currently collect nine species, which they were also collecting during 1980 and before.
According to the farmers a species called Ziyongu used to be there before 1980 but it has
disappeared now. The species called Samparaga is becoming scarcer fast because of low
rainfall. Hence dispersal of its seed is not taking place for further propagation.
Farmers were collecting a total of eleven ILV species in 1980 and before (Appendix 10) at
Gaani and all these species are still available in the bush but people are mainly collecting:
Bongto, Kelpomvoro, Ogla, Tingabongto and Tokara because these are the most preferred
species for them. All the 14 species collected by farmers in 1980 are still found in the bush at
Bongo Central but people are collecting mainly Bongto, Tokara, Ogla, Virivoro, Samparaga
and Voba because these are the most preferred species. At Binaba people used to collect and
eat two species called “Lalaruk-Zeuk and Zoos” before 1980 but nowadays they do not
consume these anymore, though they are available, because of their poor taste compared to
other collected and cultivated species available in the village. However, the other nine species
continue to be collected over the years.
Trends in the collection of ILVs
It was almost impossible for farmers to give the exact number of households involved in the
collection of ILVs and the total quantity they collect. Therefore, only an indication of positive
or negative trends could be obtained. The number of households involved in collection of
ILVs from the bush was found to be increasing at Widnaba. The main reason for this was the
limited cultivation of ILVs at this village as an alternative source to replace the collected
species for consumption. This is because of limited access to water in the dry season and poor
soil fertility. Similarly, there is food scarcity especially at the end of the dry season up to the
harvesting of cereals/food crops (April-July) and hence people are forced to collect ILVs from
the bush to fulfil their food demand during this period. As families divide, the number of
households collecting increases as they start collecting for their own family consumption.
37
At other study sites the number of households involved in ILVs collection was found to be
decreasing, mainly due to:





most farmers started cultivating ILVs as an alternative,
changing eating habits of people where they prefer cultivated species to collected species,
limited demand for collected species in the market,
women not having time to go for collection because they are busy in the garden
(compound farming) and the bush is far, and
most children going to school and hence can not go for collection.
Farmers also responded that the processing of collected species for consumption is difficult
whereas, it is very easy to cook the cultivated species. This is also affecting the quantity of
ILVs collected by households from the bush. Similarly, the total quantity of collected ILVs is
decreasing because of:



a decrease in availability of the wild species in the bush,
bush burning and clearing of bush for cultivation and increased fire wood collection from
the bush and
over grazing/browsing of the bush by livestock because of the shortage of pastureland and
a minimum practice of cultivating green fodder crops for livestock feeding.
Sometimes the livestock from Burkina Faso border enter some villages near the border to
graze. The low and erratic rainfall also causes poor growth of the wild species leading to
reduced availability of collected ILVs in the bush.
Changes in season for collection of ILVs
Most of the ILV species are available in the bush from the beginning of the rainy season (May
to October) with some exceptions. Bogosit and Goara are available in the dry season from
January-March. Similarly, Samparaga, Kulgonga and Vomwame are available throughout the
year and Ogla is available from April-June. There has been no change over the years in terms
of season of collection of ILVs from the bush as it is dependent on the season of availability.
Changes in the scale/purpose of collection of ILV
ILVs are collected from the bush for both consumption and sale in the market. Ability to sell
in the market depends on the market demand for particular species at a particular time of the
year.
At Kandiga before the year 1980 ILVs were mainly collected for consumption and not for
sale. There was no market demand for these collected species because plenty of them were
available and all households could collect from the bush. As the demand for some species
increased, from 1980 onwards farmers start selling some species in the market like Bongto
(only dried) and Kelpomvoro (fresh and dried). ILVs were collected mainly for consumption
at Widnaba before 1980, but afterwards they start selling as the demand increased for ILVs.
At Sherigu, the amount collected was very low, because of the cultivation of large quantities
of ILVs which were preferred over collected species. There has not been any change in this
trend for more than 20 years.
38
At Gaani, Binaba and Bongo Central, ILVs were collected mainly for home consumption
before 1990. Afterwards they also started selling some collected species as there was demand
in the market. At Gaani farmers sell all the collected species in a fresh form and they also sell
dried Tingabongto, Ogla, Tokara and Bongto. At Binaba as there is a good demand for
Tokara, Bogosid and Goara, farmers collect these species from the bush and sell it in the
market. Farmers from Bongo Central sell Bongto and Ogla in dry form, as only these two
species are in demand in the market.
Changes in involvement of gender and age groups for collection of ILVs
Generally the collection of ILVs is considered to be a women’s responsibility. However, men
and children sometimes assist women in the collection of ILVs from the bush. At Binaba,
Kandiga and Bongo Central women and girls have always been collecting the ILVs and the
same continues. Whereas, farmers from Widnaba, Sherigu and Gaani responded that men are
involved also in ILVs collection when they work near the bush. Similarly, both boys and girls
assist women in collection of ILVs from bush. This practice was there even before 1980 and
is still continuing at these villages. Often boys and girls of 10 years of age or more are
involved in collecting ILVs from the bush but sometimes children of about seven years age
also assist in ILVs collection. This trend has been persisting for the last 20 years or more.
Changes in the form of ILV consumption
Some species of ILVs are collected and only consumed fresh whereas, other species are
consumed both fresh and dried. The same applies to market sales.
At Kandiga, people cook and consume all the collected ILV species fresh but they consume
Bongto and Kelpomvoro in a dried form. Similarly, at Gaani farmers consume fresh of all the
species that they collect and also consume Tingabongto, Ogla, Tokara, Bongto and
Konpongvoro in a dried form. People at Widnaba, Binaba and Sherigu consume both fresh
and dried forms of all the ILVs that they collect. At Bongo Central, people cook and consume
all the collected ILV species fresh but they also consume Bongto, Ogla and Furkayuwa in
dried from.
3.4
Agro-ecological features of Upper East Region
The agro-eco system analysis in the present study was done at village level. Transcets were
used to observe agro ecological features of the villages. Transect walks facilitated the
discussion on the present situation and the changes that were observed. Figure 3.2 visualises
the trans section of the agro-ecological features of Binaba Village. The general agroecological and natural resources of the study area as represented by these six villages are
discussed in this section.
3.4.1
Water resources
In the study area, a number of seasonal rivers and dams are used for dry season vegetable
production. Small and medium scale dams supply irrigation water for a limited period
(November up to March). The large-scale dams (Tono & Vea) supply irrigation water
throughout the dry season. Gaani village benefits from this and here production of rice,
tomato and onion is followed by indigenous leafy vegetables up to May. In some areas
(Gaani, Sherigu and Binaba) a number of dams and lakes are no longer reserving water due to
39
40
silt deposition. Dry season production however is not restricted to areas with dams, but is
also practised in villages where the groundwater table is high, through dug wells (Widnaba)
or in river beds (Kandiga). Although the study area is well covered with water sources, yet
water is the major constraint for development activities. Households are supplied with
drinking water from boreholes provided by different organisations ranging from religious,
NGOs to government organisations/projects. The dams in some cases are reserved for specific
purposes like livestock watering, crop irrigation and social activities like construction of
houses. Use of this water for other purposes is restricted. This limits dry season crop
production. For example, in Kandiga utilisation of water from the only dam is limited to
livestock watering, tree/vegetable nursery irrigation during dry season and house construction
work.
3.4.2
Land resources and soil types
In the study area, uniform soil types were observed. Zigi soil occurs in all the six sites, while
Bonk and Yaak are also present in most of the sites with the exception of Gaani and Sherigu
respectively. However Tontonbisigo and Sabuliga are not seen in Widnaba and Binaba while
Sabuliga is not indicated at Gaani and Bongo Central. The differences in soil types could be
due to different names given to similar soils as the team didn’t recognise much difference
between soils. For example Boling and Tombisiga have more or less similar characteristics,
they might be similar soils in different villages. Table 3.3 shows the soil characteristics and
the crops grown on it.
3.4.3
Trees
The study area is well covered by trees of different species like Baobab, Kapok, Sheanuts,
Neem, Dawadawa, Acacia and Mango which have economic value as they supply vegetable,
fruits, medicine, spices, nuts, cooking oil as well as animal feed. However the natural
savannah woodlands in the area are depleted. The situation is being combated by the move
towards afforestation whereby some areas have been protected as forest reserves as indicated
in map of Widnaba (Fig 3.3). On the other hand, culture and customs of the natives contribute
towards forest conservation through sacred groves where tree species are protected from
harvesting and bush burning. In some areas development projects and NGOs promote tree
planting. For example, ICOUR in Gaani has planted trees like cashew nuts in the project area
to conserve water.
3.4.4
Crops
Land holdings in the study area are getting smaller and smaller due to the increasing
population pressure. Communities have access to additional land outside the villages, which
contribute, to an average farm size (total) in the study area per household ranging from 3.04
acres at Bongo Central to 6.1 acres at Gaani. It is interesting to note that the two irrigated sites
(Binaba and Bongo Central) have smaller average farm sizes, though in Bongo the biggest
farm size was 6.125 acres. Compound farms in the area are used to produce food crops,
livestock and vegetables. In these farms crops like sorghum, millet, maize, sweet potatoes,
frafra potatoes, groundnuts, beans, round beans and soybeans are commonly intercropped
with indigenous leafy vegetables namely: Ayoyo, Alefu, Langina, Bento, Yogvoro, Bito, Neri,
Saat and Berese. Other crops that are produced are rice and watermelon. Bush farms are used
to produce similar crops as those in compound farms with the exception of early millet and
red sorghum.
41
In areas where irrigation water is available, crops like rice, vegetables like cabbage, lettuce,
pepper, tomato and onion are relayed with Berese, Langina, Bito, Alefu, Beans, Maana,
Samvebed, and Ayoyo. Onion, pepper and tomatoes are mainly produced for commercial
purposes whereas indigenous leafy vegetables are produced partly for commercial and partly
for home consumption.
Table 3.3
Soil type
Bonk
Zigi
Boling
Yaak (Clay)
Tombisiga
(Sandy soil)
Sabuliga
(Loamy)
Soil characteristics of the Upper East Region
Characteristics
 Found in low land areas (marshy) with high clay content
 Dark in colour
 Cracks during dry season and difficult to work
 Crops: rice, sorghum, early millet, maize and straw grass (used to
make hats)
 Gravelly with poor fertility
 Very poor water holding capacity and as a result crops wilt fast
during prolonged drought.
 Supports crops when there are enough rains (soil moisture).
 Crops: sorghum, millet, groundnut, maize, beans, bambara beans,
soybean, ILVs (Bito, Berese, Neri and all others), sesame
 Soft white or pale sand
 Possesses characteristics of cement and is used for plastering walls
 Low water-holding capacity, but loose when wet
 Poor fertility
 Crops: groundnut, soybean, maize, sorghum, millet (early and late),
beans, ILVs
 High clay content, sticky and cracks when dry
 Colour varies from brown to deep black
 When pressed by hand it makes a ball
 High water holding capacity
 Used to make pots/bowls
 Crops: sorghum, millet, groundnut, maize, soybean, ILVs (Berese
or Bito), paddy (in low land).
 Sandy without stones
 Poor water holding capacity
 Poor fertility, thus not good for cereals
 Crops: groundnut, Maana, bambara beans/cowpea, beans, ILVs
(Berese, Bito, Maana)
 More water holding capacity than Tombisiga but not water logging
 Fertile soil
 Crops grow well, best for ILV production
 Crops: rice, sorghum, millet, Berese and other ILVs
Source: ICRA 2002 Field Study, Focus group discussions in six villages
42
43
3.4.5
Livestock
Communities rear livestock like goats, sheep, cattle, pigs, chicken, guinea fowls, rabbits, dogs
and donkeys which play a vital role in soil fertilisation and draft power. Mixed farming is the
major system followed in the study area. Animal management is by free grazing during dry
season. In the rainy season pigs and poultry are confined while children (boys) supervise
ruminants to the communal land for daytime grazing.
3.4.6
Major constraints
The agro ecological constraints observed in this area include small land size, poor soil fertility
due to continuous cropping, limited access to irrigation water and unreliable rainfall. There is
silt deposition in many of the small and medium dams, caused by run off water and erosion.
Water logging conditions on millet farms is also considered as an important constraint for
food crop production.
3.5
Production systems in the Upper East Region
In Upper East Region there are two distinct seasons that relate to rainfall availability, and
therefore determines to a large extent the existing production systems. The two main crop
production systems are the rainfed and irrigated production systems. However, there is no
area in Upper East, which represents a typical production system mentioned above. The ICRA
field study in 1999 in the UER found that no area was exclusively under irrigation. It is
clearly shown that there is a remarkable overlapping in the production systems of the study
area. Still, it is important to distinguish the two as the systems have a distinctive effect on
indigenous leafy vegetable cultivation and commercialisation.
3.5.1
Rainfed system
In the rainfed system, mixed farming is practised with crops, vegetables, livestock and their
interactions forming the main components of the system. The production in this system is
limited to the rainy season (May - September), with the rainfall pattern of the region noted to
be erratic with an average annual rainfall of 1,044 mm (ICRA 1999). The two different types
of farms under which agricultural production takes place are the compound and bush farms.
Compound farm
This is essentially a farm around the homestead with food crops and livestock. In general, the
size of land holding in the study area is very small due to large population and the compound
farm forms a part of it.
Cereals such as early and late millet, rice and sorghum are commonly produced in all the
three villages studied as part of the rainfed system. They form the main component of the diet
(staple food). However maize is commonly grown in Widnaba (71% respondents) followed
by Sherigu (44%) but it is not grown in Kandiga due to comparatively poor soils and drought
conditions.
44
There is a well-established crop and livestock interaction in the rainfed farming system. Crop
residues from the compound farm are harvested and stored for dry season animal feeding. The
parts that are not consumed by animals are used as bedding for animals. It is kept for one year
to mix with animal manure. The compost is applied on rotational basis annually on farm plots
based on the soil status of the plot, which is indicated by the crop yield. Manure is considered
important as soils are poor and the communities cannot afford fertiliser. As Mr Abane
Awalem (farmer at Sherigu) points out, livestock is reared for social purposes like funerals
and paying dowry as well as for their manure.
Bush farm
As the size of compound farms in the study area is small, the strategy adopted by the people
in this area is to look for farms outside the village boundary where more food crops can be
produced. Bush farms are normally located at a distance from the village, which sometimes
can be as far as 10 km away (ICRA 1999). Bush farms are relatively larger pieces of land (36 acres) that can be acquired for farming purposes. Almost all households own a bush farm.
Normally drought-resistant and low input-requiring crops are produced on bush farms. These
include sorghum, late millet, soybeans, round beans and groundnuts. Indigenous leafy
vegetables like Bito, Berese and Maana are grown as border crops in these farms.
Production of indigenous leafy vegetables
In the Upper East Region of Ghana indigenous leafy vegetables are widely produced and have
great diversity within species. Mostly the production is for home consumption and contributes
to a lesser extent to household income (Agamba, 2001). In the current study a total of
nineteen species (Table 3.1) were found being cultivated in the area, with minor differences
between the villages which could be attributed to ethnic preferences.
Land preparation is initiated only after the onset of the rainy season, as it is difficult to take up
any operations before this due to the compact nature of soils. The preparation starts with
clearing and burning followed by tillage using either bullocks or hand hoe. The ownership of
or access to bullocks is limited to a small section of the communities in the study area. For
example in Widnaba, 72% of the respondents indicated limited access to bullocks, which
results in delayed crop planting. In places like Kandiga, bullocks are not considered a limiting
factor as their soil can easily be managed by hand tools.
Mixed and intercropping are highly favoured in this production system. Seeds of the main
crop, early millet are mixed with seeds of Bento and Neri while seeds of late millet and
sorghum are mixed with seeds of Bento and Bito before planting. Early millet is then intercropped with sorghum and late millet. Small quantities of maize, soybeans, bambara beans,
and groundnuts are also mixed or intercropped with indigenous leafy vegetables (Bito, Berese,
Leba, Bento, Alefu, Yogovooro, Ayoyo and Neri). The mixing of different crop species in one
hole might affect the crop performance. Farmers prefer to mix the crops to spread risks due to
uncertain rainfall and due to limited labour availability. Indigenous leafy vegetables occupy a
minor position in this production system compared to cereals and leguminous crops.
45
Cropping systems followed in this system can be categorised into three:



Production around the house where a small plot is separated and planted with a single
stand of Leba, Alefu or Bento while Berese and/or Bito are planted around this small plot.
In the main compound farm early millet is mixed with Bento and Neri on the main ridges,
while in between the ridges sorghum mixed with Bento and Neri are intercropped. Berese,
Bito and/or Maana are planted on the border.
In the bush farm, late millet and sorghum are intercropped with soybeans and bambara
beans and groundnuts. Indigenous leafy vegetables, mainly Bito and Berese, are planted
around the farm.
Production under the rainfed system is characterised by low input use, supplemented by
farmyard manure by direct application or through animal grazing on cropland. Even with this
low input level, there is no indication of poor productivity of the vegetables.
Cropping pattern
The sequence of crops that are grown in a year in this production system varies with the soil
on which they are produce. Four different cropping patterns are followed in two of the rainfed
sites (Widnaba and Kandiga) while in Sherigu only two are followed. The indigenous leafy
vegetables are produced following the cropping pattern as indicated in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4
Cropping patterns in the rainfed production system
Rainfed commercial limited
market (Widnaba)
Early millet + guinea corn +
ILVs – fallow
Rainfed commercial with
market (Sherigu)
Early millet + late millet +
sorghum + ILVs – fallow
Sorghum + ILV – fallow
Early millet + sorghum +
ILVs – fallow
Rice (upland) – fallow
Soybean + Maana – fallow
Rainfed subsistence
(Kandiga)
Leba (may-june) + Beresi
(May-Nov) + pumpkin +
calabash
Early millet + sorghum +
ILVs – fallow
Groundnut + bambara beans
+ cow pea/beans + Bito –
fallow
rice + Maana + Berese –
tobacco - fallow
Source: ICRA field study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages
At Widnaba the ILVs are produced around the farms and no intercropping of vegetables with
other crops was observed on compound farms. The pattern could probably be explained by
the limited access to the market and processing technology. On the bush farm, Maana is
intercropped for fruits and not leaves.
At Sherigu the ILVs are intercropped throughout the farm in every alternative ridge of main
crop and some of them are produced around the farms. Although farm size is limited, farmers
manage to produce more following this cropping pattern. The production is also favoured by
easy market access, as the village is located at a short distance from Bolgatanga town.
46
The pattern however changes at Kandiga. A small piece of land around the house is assigned
to ILVs exclusively throughout the rainy season. In this plot vegetables are produced as a
single stand, while others are grown around and at the corner of the plot due to their creeping
nature. Pumpkin for example is grown at the corner due to its spreading nature. Few rows of
ILVs are planted at certain intervals and as a border crop as well in the main farm, whereas in
bush and rice farms ILVs are produced around the farms. Although the village represents the
rainfed subsistence type, it seems that the extent of ILV production is high as compared to the
other two villages. This can be explained by the location of Kandiga (along a main road)
which suggests easy access to Navrongo and Bolgatanga markets.
3.5.2
Irrigated System
In the irrigated system, farming is similar to the rainfed system except that in irrigated sites
there is an additional component of dry season crop production. Therefore, only the pattern of
production on irrigated farms in the dry season is explained in this section. Three villages
(Binaba, Bongo central and Gaani) represent this production system in the current study. It is
important to note that the rainfed system co-exists with the irrigated system even in the
villages representing the rainfed system. The only difference between these two systems is the
size of the irrigation scheme. The scale of irrigation is determined by the sources of irrigation
water, which are large and medium scale dams, rivers, streams and dug-wells.
Large scale irrigation
There are two national projects in the UER, Tono and Vea, managed by the Irrigation
Company (ICOUR). According to the study done the ICRA 1999 team, these two dams serve
16 villages covering 1.1 % of the total cultivated area in Upper East Region. Tono dam
services one village (Gaani) in the current study.
Land tenure under this irrigation scheme is taken care of by ICOUR and land allocation is
based on the payment of a land use fee, which is used for dam maintenance. The fee varies
with the type of crop produced. For example, fees of 100,000 Cedis, 130,000 Cedis and
65,000 Cedis per acre are charged for rice, tomatoes and indigenous leafy vegetables
respectively. The size of land holdings varies depending on the individual capacity to pay the
fee. An average holding size of 0.5 acre was observed under large-scale irrigation.
Medium scale irrigation
Small dams and dugouts are used for irrigation purposes in many of the villages. The ICRA
field study in 1999 reports that the medium scale dams and dugouts were built some 30–45
year ago and that their condition was deteriorating. The LACOSREP I project under MoFA
rehabilitated 36 dams and 8 dugouts. Yet there are a number of dams and dugouts that are still
silted (4 dams in Sherigu, 2 dams in Binaba, 1 dam in Gaani and 1 dam in Sherigu).
The Water Users Association (WUA) has the responsibility of allocating land to people who
want to cultivate. A small fee of 5,000 Cedis is paid to the association to take care of dam
maintenance. Due to high demand for land under irrigation, the holdings are very small
ranging from 0.125 to 0.5 acre. Villages that are under this scale of irrigation include Bongo
Central and Binaba.
47
Rivers and streams
A number of seasonal rivers and streams are found in the study area. In almost all villages
under study there are one or two seasonal rivers. Although these rivers and streams dry up, the
water table on the river floor is high which facilitates hand dug wells that are used for
irrigation purposes. This is the case at Kandiga and Sherigu. The size of land holdings under
irrigation is limited by the amount of water available in these rivers or dug wells.
Hand dug wells
Hand dug wells are constructed manually by farmers in villages where the water table is high
(ICRA, 1999). In the current study, this was found in Widnaba village where only one farmer
dug a well on his farm to cultivate one-eighth of an acre.
Crop production
Dry season production is limited to the areas where irrigation water is available, mainly from
October – May. Due to the limited availability of irrigable land, the majority of the
households do not benefit from the dry season production. Land holdings under this system
are very small as explained in the previous section. However, land allocation (by ICOUR and
WUA) is done fairly as no conflict was reported concerning land allocation in the production
sites. Due to the small farm size and the cost of land, crops of high economic value such as:
tomatoes, onion, rice, pepper, cabbages, lettuce and indigenous leafy vegetables are
commonly produced.
Production of indigenous leafy vegetables
Indigenous leafy vegetables grown in this system are generally those that have market
demand. Production of ILVs in this system is mainly for commercial purposes and to a lesser
extent for home consumption. Eleven species are being produced under this system (rainfed
and irrigated) while nine are produced under irrigation for the market with five of them being
commonly sold (Table3.5).
Table 3.5
ILV species
Bento
Bito
Berese
Maana
Alefu
Yogovooro
Langina
Ayoyo
Vegetable species commonly sold under irrigation system
% respondents on vegetable sale in irrigated sites
Commercial with
Commercial with
Subsistence
limited market
market (Bongo
(Gaani)
(Binaba)
Central)
50
80
44
70
90
66
80
90
66
40
50
44
40
80
55
NA
50
33
20
20
NA
40
NA
11
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages
48
From the above table, it is clear that households sell more Bito and Berese due to their high
market demand, short production time and ease of production and low pest and disease
attacks. The table also reflects the effect of market access on sale of vegetables. In areas
where market is easily accessible, more households sell vegetables as indicated in Bongo
Central village as compared to Binaba village. Although vegetable production in Gaani is
more on a subsistence scale, some respondents do sell vegetables for various reasons.
Land is utilised in this system usually throughout the year. Land preparation for the dry
season starts in October, hand in hand with nursery management of exotic vegetables.
Depending on the scale of irrigation, tractors or bullocks are used for land tillage. As
indicated in the previous section, access to bullocks affects land preparation. In Bongo
Central 70% of the respondents indicated that they have limited access to bullocks for land
preparation while in Binaba the hand hoe is commonly used. In Gaani, where land preparation
is organised by ICOUR (as a form of credit), access to bullocks does not seem to affect land
preparation (Appendix 11).
Single stands, and sometimes relay cropping, is followed in this production system. After the
main crops like rice, tomatoes, onion and pepper, indigenous leafy vegetables are planted in
small separate beds. Input use in this production system is relatively high compared to the
rainfed system due to the high cropping intensity. Nutrient recycling is limited as the
farmlands are often far from the home (difficulties in transporting manure). The year round
crop production limits livestock from grazing.
Cropping pattern
Four different cropping patterns are followed in Bongo Central, while Binaba and Gaani
follow only three. The indigenous leafy vegetables are produced following the cropping
pattern indicated in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6
S/N
Cropping patterns in the irrigated production system
1.
Irrigated commercial
limited market
(Binaba)
Paddy – fallow
2.
ILVs – fallow
3.
Onion – maize or rice
4.
Irrigated commercial
with market (Bongo
Central)
Tomato – ILVs – sorghum
+ early millet or rice
Pepper – ILVs – sorghum
+ early millet or rice
Lettuce or cabbage – ILVs
– sorghum + early millet
or rice
ILVs – sorghum + early
millet or rice
Irrigated subsistence
(Gaani)
Rice + ILVs – fallow
Soybean + ILV – fallow
ILVs or onion or tomato or
pepper – maize or millet
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages
49
In these sites ILVs are produced under rainfed and irrigated conditions, but the explanation
here is based on the irrigated farms alone, as no major differences were observed in the sites
with regard to the rainfed cropping pattern. At Binaba the farm plots are divided among
individual crops right from the beginning of the dry season production as the supply of
irrigation water lasts within short period of dry season (Nov – March). It seems indigenous
leafy vegetables receive less priority for land allocation in Binaba than in the other villages
(Bongo Central and Gaani). This could be explained by the limited market access. At Bongo
Central and Gaani indigenous leafy vegetables are part of all cropping systems, although the
production of exotic vegetables and other crops receives more attention than indigenous leafy
vegetables.
“This year I had more money from Bito and Bento because there was not much
competition in the market for these vegetables. I decided to produce them because I
was late in planting tomato. But I would prefer to produce tomato to Bito and Bento.”Mr Nkoo Akake
“If I had a larger plot I would produce pepper because pepper gives more money than
any other crop.” - Mr Abugre Azua
The cropping pattern does not allow land to remain fallow for a long time and sometimes
there is no fallow at all. There is no indication of mixing or intercropping with other crops to
improve the nutrient balance. The system therefore relies on the use of external inputs for
nutrient supplements. It is only in Gaani that soybeans are found in the cropping pattern.
3.6
Seasonal calendar
Women seem to be occupied throughout the year, by their involvement in farming, income
generating and household activities (Figure 3.4). Women have specific responsibilities like
plastering houses, rainfed ILV production, trading and household activities like cooking and
family care. Men are responsible for roofing, land preparation, ploughing and livestock
rearing activities. Most of the activities are shared among women and men.
Nevertheless, women have a higher work load, especially in the rainy season (May to
December). In areas where dry season production is not practised, the workload of women is
lower in March. The labour demand pattern suggests that from May to December, the
communities will not be able to spare much labour for any new activities unless they give up
some of the current activities or are able to hire labour.
3.7
Strengths and weaknesses of the existing production systems
The strengths and weaknesses of the production systems are presented in this section. The
strengths here suggest the need of maintaining these conditions for continued production
while the weaknesses suggest the need to overcome these weaknesses through some
interventions aimed at improving the sustainability of the systems.
50
3.7.1 Rainfed system
Strengths
The majority of the farmers produce food crops with ILVs under the rainfed production
system. The strengths of this system can be summarised as follows:




Diversification of food crops, which include cereals like early and late millet, sorghum,
maize, soyabeans, bambara beans, groundnuts and indigenous leafy vegetables. This
minimises the risk of crop losses in bad years in terms of rain failure as well as pests and
disease outbreaks in a certain crop;
Intercropping of ILVs with leguminous crops is considered important in this system as
leguminous crops fix atmospheric nitrogen, a part of which can also be used by
indigenous leafy vegetables and other crops;
The rainfed production is mainly on compound farms where livestock is also kept. There
are well-established nutrient recycling systems where manure is applied on the crop plots
where ILVs are produced. While some crop residues especially, cowpea straw is fed to
livestock in fresh or dry form;
The indigenous leafy vegetables under this system have low costs of production as they
mainly utilise locally available materials like manure/compost for fertilisation and
materials like ash and neem leaf extracts for pest and disease control.
Weaknesses
Weaknesses of this system with a focus on ILVs are summarised as follows:





Indigenous leafy vegetables are considered as a minor crop in the production system and
as a result little attention is paid to it in terms of input supply and, labour and land
allocation;
Mixed seeding of ILV with cereal crops before sowing could be an obstacle to better
yields of ILVs. Mixing crops with different nutrient requirement in one planting hole
might have an effect on plant productivity due to nutrient competition;
Appropriate plant spacing is not followed due to the practice of mixed seeding which
leads to overcrowding of crops and competition for nutrients. Where millet and
indigenous leafy vegetables are mixed in this manner, it is disadvantageous to ILVs as
they will not be able to compete for sunlight;
Small farm size and the high food demand results in limited crop rotation on the
compound farms, which with time leads to depletion of soil fertility;
In the first half (May – August) of the rainy season where rainfall is normally high with
limited sun shine, drying of vegetables becomes difficult resulting in high post harvest
losses.
51
Fig 3.4
Seasonal calendar for labour utilisation in the Upper East Region
Activity
Nursery of onion of tomato, onion,
cabbage, pepper and lettuce and ILVs
Transplanting onion of tomato, onion,
cabbage, pepper, lettuce and sowing ILVs
Watering and weeding on irrigated farm
Plastering of houses and making floor
Harvesting rainfed ILV
ILV harvesting and drying
Harvest of onion, tomato, onion, cabbage,
pepper and lettuce
Sowing of corn, sorghum, G.nuts, millet
and ILVs
Dry season ILV production
Building house
Land preparation and Ploughing
Weeding of cereals and legumes
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
OCT
NOV
DEC
***

***

***









***


***


***

***

***
***
***

***
***

***

Harvesting of cereals and legumes
***
***

Weaving grass for roofing
Cutting grass for roofing
Weaving of Kujoto and livestock rearing
Fetching water for mud works
Household responsibilities
Trading and handicraft
***



Note:  = Women
*** = Men
***

***

***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***






















Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages
52
SEP
3.7.2
Irrigated System
Strengths



Out of season production of vegetables and other food crops due to the availability of
irrigation water from different sources. Off-season production in the UER is important due
to the rainfall pattern as well as the small farm size. This helps address the food shortages
that the region experiences during the dry season;
The production of ILVs in separate plots as mono crop has implications for crop
management, supply of inputs and thereby the returns from these crops. It also facilitates
intensive production of ILVs for commercial purposes;
Dry season production is limited to a small section of the community, which leads to a
limited supply of fresh indigenous leafy vegetable in the dry season. This offers a good
market for the produce.
Weaknesses



With irrigation the soil nutrient uptake by plants is high and but the leaching is high as
well, which results in poor soil fertility and calls for more inputs like chemical fertilisers.
On the other hand the production under irrigation is more commercially oriented, thus pest
and disease control become necessary for ensuring a quality product;
The acreage of indigenous leafy vegetable production grown under irrigated conditions is
very small. Either the high demand for land or the limited capacity to pay the land usage
fees limits the expansion of irrigated land for ILV production;
Limited irrigation water supply (Nov – March) in medium irrigation schemes limits the
crop production.
3.8
Livelihood systems
The sustenance of the people in the Upper East Region is largely dependent on farm activities,
which are affected by social, economic and cultural factors as well as the biophysical and
policy environment. In this section an analysis of the livelihoods of households in the Upper
East Region is presented.
3.8.1
Role of food/cereal crops in livelihoods
Agricultural production including crop, livestock and horticultural enterprises is the major
component of the livelihoods in the region. While, millet and sorghum are the main cereals
produced for household consumption, other crops like beans (soyabeans and bambara beans),
rice and groundnuts are produced partly for household consumption and partly for the market.
However farmers do sell cereals during critical conditions when money is needed in cases of:
sickness, funeral performance, payment of school fees etc.
53
3.8.2
Role of livestock in livelihoods
Livestock are normally kept for social purposes such as dowry, as a sign of wealth, and as
savings. Livestock such as cattle, sheep, goat and their products are not used for household
consumption, and only used for social obligations like dowry or other rituals. Poultry is
usually for home consumption as well as for sale. Livestock plays an important role in times
of food shortage as well as in crop cultivation. It is sold and the money obtained is used to
buy food items and farm inputs like chemical fertiliser. The magnitude of the problem or the
amount of cash required determines the choice of livestock species to be sold. Manure is an
important farm input as the soils in the region are poor.
3.8.3
Role of indigenous leafy vegetables in livelihoods
Indigenous leafy vegetables play an important role in the livelihoods of the people in the
study area, as described below.

Indigenous leafy vegetables are mainly produced for home consumption and form an
important component of the diet. The local staple food is Tuo-Zafi (TZ), made from millet
or sorghum and maize and served with indigenous leafy vegetable soup. It is eaten at least
once a day;
“Two bunches of Bito or Berese can be enough for one meal of an average family
with six members. In the market, one bunch of Bito or Berese weighs approximately
between 0.6 to 0.76 kg. So, the amount consumed is approximately 1.5 kg vegetable
at a cost of 1000 Cedis daily.”- Mr David Adakabla




Indigenous leafy vegetables provide households with a constant flow of income as they
can be sold throughout the year in either fresh or dried form. The money is used to meet
other family needs;
Some indigenous leafy vegetables have medicinal value. For example, bito seeds are used
to treat stomach problems and its leaves are used in case of allergic conditions. Berese is
used to stimulate lactation in nursing mothers;
From May – July when the region experiences food shortages, indigenous leafy
vegetables (cultivated and collected) play an important role as hunger gap fillers as they
are solely eaten as a daily diet or are eaten in a large quantities with a small portion of TZ;
Indigenous leafy vegetables also play an important role in social relations especially
during the first harvest of early millet where it is used as part of a sacrifice before
harvesting. Furthermore, it strengthens social relations when it is given out to relatives
and neighbours who are in need.
From Bito and Berese fibre rope is made, which is used for basket and hat making and
weaving of roofing materials. Dried Bito, Berese and bean straw are fed to livestock in the dry
season. Bean straw has high market demand and as livestock feed and can be sold for a price
of up to 30,000 cedis per cartload.
Traditional food storage structures are used to store food that is harvested during rain season.
Indigenous leafy vegetables are sun dried and stored in sacks hanged in the house. When food
reserves are exhausted, livestock may be sold and money used to buy food. Some families
receive food from relatives, while old people and poor get food aid from Anglican Mission
and Catholic Food Relief Service.
54
3.8.4
Sources of household income
Households in the Upper East Region are mainly involved in on-farm activities and to a lesser
extent in off-farm activities for income generation.


On-farm activities contributing to the income include crop, livestock and horticultural
production (both indigenous leafy and exotic vegetables);
Off-farm activities contributing to the income include trading (sale of parboiled rice, shea
butter, gari, charcoal and cooked food), brewing local liquor (Pito), salaried employment,
collection of firewood, off-farm labour, and handicrafts (basket and hat making).
The household interviews revealed that almost all the respondents earn their cash income
from on-farm activities, though the production is mainly for subsistence. Sale of livestock
(poultry) and indigenous leafy vegetables are a common source of income to a large
proportion of households (ranging from 55 to 100%). In irrigated production however, exotic
vegetables are produced for commercial purposes. The main vegetables produced are onion,
tomatoes, pepper and to a lesser extent cabbage. Under irrigation, indigenous leafy vegetables
though considered a minor crop, are also produced for commercial purposes after the main
crop. Farmers know that the costs for production of exotic vegetables are higher than those for
ILVs but the former fetch higher prices in the market. Although ILVs get lower prices in the
market, its production is important as it gives quick returns due to the short production period.
The off-farm sources of income for the households interviewed were found to be limited to
trading, pito brewing, sale of firewood and off-farm labour.
It should be noted that the contribution of indigenous leafy vegetables to household income
and livelihood security are overlooked due to the minor position it is accorded in the farming
activity. Its contribution has been grossly underestimated. A farmer indicated that he sells
indigenous leafy vegetables more frequently than any other farm produce but he can not
estimate how much money he makes. As he went on accounting, he realised that the
contribution of ILVs to the total income was as high as 50%. In the household surveys, ten
farmers who were interviewed indicated that indigenous leafy vegetables are an important
source of income (Table 3.7).
Table 3. 7
Percentage contribution of ILVs to household income
Farmer
Livestock
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Average
55
15
NA
NA
25
25
5
15
50.2
57.9
24.8
On-farm sources
Other
Grain
vegetables
NA
NA
25
NA
50
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
7.6
15
5
3
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2.9
8.9
3.5
ILV
Fire
wood
20
55
42
67
25
50
67
50
6.2
7.9
39.1
5
5
NA
NA
NA
NA
10
15
NA
2.0
3.8
Off-farm sources
Labour
Handicraft
NA
NA
10
NA
NA
15
NA
20
NA
NA
4.6
NA
20
15
NA
NA
NA
18
NA
40.7
22.1
11.6
Trade
NA
NA
5
33
NA
10
NA
NA
NA
1.2
5.0
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Random sample of ten farmers from three villages.
55
The monetary contribution of ILVs to household income varied from 6.2% to 67%. The wide
range could be explained by differences in market availability and the purpose of production.
Figure 3.6 and 3.7 summarise the proportions of household income from various sources for
average farmers in rainfed and irrigated area respectively. On an average, the contribution of
indigenous leafy vegetables to the household income seems to be very high compared to the
other components in both rainfed and irrigated production systems. This might be due to the
fact that not all households take up other income generating activities and this gets magnified
in the average. Despite that, indigenous leafy vegetables do exhibit great potential as an
important source of household income due to the possibility to sell it.
Fig. 3.6 Sources of household cash income at rainfed sites (Sherigu village)
Other
Vegetables
7%
Off-farm 25%
Cereals 4%
ILVs
39%
Livestock
25%
Fig. 3.7 Sources of household cash income at irrigated sites (Bongo Central village)
Other
Vegetables
Off-farm
17%
20%
ILVs
Cereals
21%
Livestock
20%
56
22%
Sources of family income at the irrigated sites show that indigenous leafy vegetables are the
second important source for household income. Although the site provides other opportunities
for sources of income, in Bongo Central for example one has access to large farm sizes in the
bush where more cereals are produced. The production of other vegetables (onion, tomato,
pepper) with relatively high market values adds up to their income sources. Yet the
contribution of indigenous leafy vegetables to cash income ranked second. This may be
attributed to the early maturity nature of these vegetables, which offer many production cycles
and multiple harvests in one production season.
When sources of income in irrigated systems are compared with those in rainfed systems, it is
obvious that indigenous leafy vegetables play an important role in household income.
Although livestock and cereals offer high returns when sold, they are not produced for
commercial purposes. Sale of these products is in response to the household’s urgent cash
needs. This makes indigenous leafy vegetables very important, as it is the only commodity
that frequently brings money into the households.
The above findings are confirmed the information given by a key informant (Mr David
Adarkabla from Pwalugu village, Bolgatanga district) who produces ILVs as a minor crop
(after exotic vegetables) for commercial purposes. On his farm ILVs rank second with a
contribution of 20% (Fig. 3.8) after exotic vegetables, which contribute 32% to the total
household income. Other sources of his income are fruits (16%), livestock (4%), crops (12%)
and off-farm activities, which include hiring out of an irrigation pipe and a groundnut shelling
machine and, trading of honey (16%).
Fig. 3.8 Sources of household cash income (Case study in Pwalugu village)
Fruits
16%
Other
Vegetables
32%
Off-farm
16%
Cereals
12%
ILVs
20%
Livestock
4%
The contribution of indigenous leafy vegetables to the household income, no matter how
small it is in monetary terms, should not be underestimated as it plays an important role in
other social functions as stated earlier.
57
3.9
Economic resource flow
In farm production the farmer’s primary objective is to ensure food security for the
household. The cash income comes from sale of farm produce and off-farm activities. The
household expenditure can be divided into two major categories which are investments (farm
inputs) and, consumption needs and social obligations. The investments are mainly in the
form of purchase of seeds of different crops, including ILVs. As many as 80% of the farmers
from Bongo Central buy seeds of ILVs from the market followed by Widnaba (57%), Binaba
(50%), Gaani (44%), Sherigu (33%) and Kandiga (10%). Farmers mainly buy the seeds of
Bito, Berese, Langina, Alefu and cowpea. Chemical fertilisers and pesticides are also
purchased but they are mainly applied to the irrigated land where more profitable crops are
grown. Since indigenous leafy vegetables are inter-cropped with them, they also benefit.
“I buy chemical fertiliser and pesticide (DDT) for my tomato plot, but since planted
together with tomato they do get pesticide during spraying.” - Mr Joseph Nyaaba
Almost all households interviewed indicated that they spend money on buying food items,
which include cereals and cooking ingredients (spices, cooking oils and salt), followed by
expenditures on health, clothing and funerals. Schooling and school uniforms in particular, is
indicated by 60% of the respondents as one of the items demanding a good amount of money.
Other expenditures include house maintenance, festivals and utensils.
3.10
Gender roles and division of labour
Gender roles and the task division within households indicate that there is a clear overlap of
tasks between men and women (see activity profile in Table 3.8). Women and men share most
of the farm activities. Women are traditionally responsible for procurement of seeds and other
inputs, harvesting, transporting vegetables to the market, vegetable processing, preservation
and sale of ILVs.
Women are responsible for the production of indigenous leafy vegetables on compound farms
for home consumption. Both men and women are involved in irrigated vegetable production
for commercial purposes. Men produce vegetables like tomatoes, pepper and onions, followed
by indigenous leafy vegetables. But nowadays women are also producing tomatoes, peppers
and onions. Women experience difficulties in getting seeds of onions because they are
available from the farm input outlets in towns only and not in village markets. Though both
men and women produce ILVs in the dry season for commercial purposes, women mainly do
the marketing (buying and selling), as they are considered good at bargaining.
The sharing of the tasks does not stop with farming activities, but is also applied to other
household activities. While men and boys clean outside the house, women and girls are
responsible for cleaning indoors. Washing clothes, childcare, house maintenance and fetching
firewood are shared by men and women. Taking care of the elderly, cooking and carrying
water is done in general by women, however.
58
Table 3.8
Household task division (Activity profile)
Activity
Productive activities
Procurement of seed and other inputs
Land preparation
Nursery *
Direct sowing
Transplanting
Watering
Weeding
Disease and pest control
Fertiliser/manure/compost application
Harvesting
Transportation of ILVs to market
Processing and preservation
Selling produce
Hiring of labour
Other activities
Carrying water
Cleaning house (Inside)
Cleaning house (Outside)
Washing clothes
Cooking
Childcare
Elderly care
Health
Housing maintenance
Fetching fuel wood
Men









Women














Boys























Girls












* Nursery management for Alefu is done by all but only men do it for other vegetables.
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages.
3.10.1 Labour availability
Farming activities in general are limited to family labour as indicated by responses during the
household survey. Average family labour availability in terms of the number of adult
members in the family ranged from 2.4 at Gaani, 3.8 in Widnaba, 3.9 in Sherigu, 5.3 in
Binaba, 6.2 in Kandiga and 6.7 at Bongo Central. In the rainfed production system only 20 –
30% of the households use hired male labour when bullocks are used. Surprisingly, in Sherigu
despite the low availability of family labour, no indication was given for the need of hired
labour. This is probably due to the small land holdings or the limited access to financial
capital to hire labour. In Widnaba and Gaani the labour shortage is reflected by farmers
(43% and 33% respectively), indicating that limited access to labour was a problem due to the
lack of financial capital to hire labour. In irrigated sites the use of hired labour was slightly
higher at 40 – 50%. Labour availability does not seem to be a limiting factor here but labour
cost. The labour costs differ by gender as men are paid more wages than women. While
59
women are paid 4000 cedis, men are paid 5000 cedis per day. In addition to the wage the
labourers, both men and women, are provided with drinks and food, which increases the cost
of hiring. Labour is normally hired for harvesting of groundnuts and other crops, land
preparation, sowing and weeding. Farmer groups sometimes provide labour at a cheaper cost
with only drink and food offered. In Widnaba and Sherigu under-utilisation of land has been
observed due to limited access to labour.
A number of farmers associations are organised around farming activities to help each other.
Some women associations (e.g. Kandiga women association and Binaba Alamtaba)
commonly produce and store sorghum, millet, groundnuts and indigenous leafy vegetables
especially Bito and Berese for sale during scarcity. Reasons given for limited men’s
organisation were lack of good leadership and temporary migration of men during the dry
season.
3.10.2 Access and control over resources
Household resources include land, irrigation water, labour, traction, livestock, manure, seeds,
food crops and the market. The access to and control of these resources are presented in
Table 3.9.
Table 3.9
Access and control of household resources
Main resource
Land (farming area)
Irrigation water
Labour
Traction
Livestock
Cattle, sheep and goat
Poultry
Manure
Food crops
Cereal
Vegetables
Household income
Access
Men
Women


















Control
Men
Women










Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus group discussions in six villages
Though women have access to resources like land, irrigation water, manure and labour they do
not have control over these resources. Men have control over all these resources and hence
have access as well. It has been noted that in female-headed households, women have control
and access over the resources (ICRA 1999). Slightly different information was obtained at
Bongo Central, Widnaba and Kandiga that even in the female-headed households, their
brothers, male-in-laws or the sons have control over the resources.
The lack of control over resources by women affects the production of indigenous leafy
vegetables. Men, having the control over land, decide on land allocation for various crops with
food crops like millet, sorghum, beans and groundnuts receiving priority. Indigenous leafy
vegetables are considered a minor crop, and hence allocated to marginal lands. In production
60
under irrigation, especially in medium scale irrigation schemes where women are not members
of the water users association, land and water allocation affects ILV production as men take all
the decisions.
3.11
Agricultural Knowledge and Information System
The agricultural knowledge and information generation and sharing in the Upper East Region
with regard to production of indigenous leafy vegetables are presented in this section.
Information and knowledge within the communities and the way in which it is passed on from
one generation to another is important for agricultural development. The sources of
information on indigenous leafy vegetables were identified and are presented in Table 3.10.
3.11.1 Sources of information
During household surveys farmers indicated the sources of information where knowledge
about agricultural production is obtained and shared (Table 3.10). It should be noted here that
farmers could not differentiate sources of knowledge on indigenous leafy vegetables from
other crops. Almost all households indicated that agricultural extension officers were the most
important source of information and they trust the extension service greatly. The elderly also
provide indigenous knowledge on production as well as on plant protection and processing.
Very few farmers (20%) from Binaba village indicated that they got agricultural information
through television. This may be due to lack of electricity in the other villages. In Kandiga,
Bongo Central and Gaani, around 44 to 60% of the respondents indicated that fellow farmers
contribute to their agricultural knowledge. Surprisingly at Bongo Central and Gaani very few
farmers (10% and 22% respective) said they get information from the elderly. This may be
due to their reliance on and good relations with agricultural extension and other organisations
(World Vision International and ICOUR) who advise on technical aspects of vegetable
production.
Table 3.10
Source
Agricultural
Extension
Elderly
NGOs *
Rural Radio
Other farmers
Television
Friends
Parents
Husband
ICOUR
Sources of Agricultural Knowledge and Information
Widnaba
Binaba
Sherigu
Kandiga
Gani
90
Bongo
Central
100
71
100
100
71
28
14
NA
60
NA
60
NA
20
77
11
NA
NA
60
NA
10
50
10
60
NA
60
22
33
11
44
77
20
30
20
60
* NGOs include Word Vision International at Bongo, World Neighbours at Gaani, ADRA and GAS at Widnaba
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Household survey with 55 households from six villages
61
3.11.2 Research service
Indigenous leafy vegetables are one of the agricultural commodities in the area, which is very
important for the livelihood of the farmers in terms of its contribution towards both food
security and household income. However, the crop has been receiving little attention from
research institutions probably due to its low market value. From the discussion held with
Savannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), it was evident that there has been no
research undertaken yet on ILVs in the region. Very little technical knowledge and
information on indigenous leafy vegetables, therefore, has been generated so far.
3.11.3 Extension service
The agricultural extension service has the mandate to provide technical and advisory support
to farmers on crop production. However, indigenous leafy vegetables are not considered a
priority crop under the agricultural development programmes of MOFA and other
organisations. Therefore no information targeting indigenous leafy vegetables is passed to
farmers. This does not mean that village extension officers are not addressing the crop when
they provide services to the village. Extension workers do provide general knowledge and
information about crop production as well as plant protection.
A number of NGOs (World Vision, Catholic Diocese, ADRA, World neighbours) working in
agriculture are offering extension services to farmers in agricultural production including
indigenous leafy vegetables. Government institutions like Irrigation Company of Upper East
offer land and irrigation services as well as agricultural technical knowledge for the
improvement of the crop.
3.12
Social organisation
Social organisational arrangements include a village chief who has full authority in the
community and an Assemblyman. A Tindana (religious leader) is responsible for solving
traditional land disputes. Community organisation is limited to group work (Susu at Sherigu)
around farming activities, women associations (Towongo Association at Kandiga, Aleba at
Bongo Central, Aziayire Women’s Association at Gaani) where women work together in
income generating activities such as pito brewing, malt for pito, Shea butter and rice
parboiling and trading. In some areas (Kandiga and Gaani) women operate milling machines.
Water User Associations in places where medium irrigation schemes operate are involved in
the maintenance of the dam and land allocation for dry season production. Youth Associations
(Gaani, Bongo Central and Widnaba) work for youth welfare. They organise themselves for
various agricultural activities such as rice, groundnut and vegetable production for income
generation.
It was observed that many farmer organisations are found at Gaani (Gaani Farmers’ and
Traders’ Association, Gaani Farmers’ Association, Aziayire Women’s Association and Youth
Association). This may be the result of the organisational support offered by ICOUR to the
villages under the Tono project. These associations are mainly involved in saving and credit.
They buy rice or other crops after harvest, store and sell when there is scarcity in the market.
Some are involved in livestock marketing. They buy animals (goats and sheep) from Gaani
and nearby villages and sell them in the Navrongo market.
62
Many of the villages in the Upper East Region have a market of their own, which supports the
marketing of ILVs especially in the dry season when vegetable production is limited to a few
farmers who have access to irrigation water. In villages like Bongo Central and Widnaba, the
village market is patronised by households from some villages on the Ghana-Burkina Faso
border. At Binaba, the village market serves as an outlet of ILVs but unreliable transport and
high transport costs to nearby Zebilla market limits marketability. Villages like Sherigu and
Kandiga that are near towns, exploit the town markets. The dry season vegetable production,
though limited due to the small size of the dam and hand dug well respectively, offers a great
opportunity to the community as the village can easily access big markets. Rainfed vegetable
production is therefore as important as dry season vegetable production.
3.13
Indigenous knowledge on leafy vegetables
3.13.1 Sources of knowledge
Indigenous knowledge on ILVs in the Upper East region of Ghana remains largely
undocumented. Little or no research has been conducted to study this rather important aspect.
The information on indigenous knowledge remains fragmentary and anecdotal. The elderly
constitute the main source of indigenous knowledge and the channel along which such
knowledge can be gradually disseminated to posterity. This section therefore seeks to bring
into focus some of the issues related to indigenous knowledge and how such knowledge has
been applied in resolving problems related to nutrition, medical problems, preservation, insect
and pest control, cultivation and conservation of ILVs. The various aspects of indigenous
knowledge on ILVs in the Upper East region are described below.
3.13.2 Knowledge on properties of ILVs
Nutritional aspects
There is ample evidence to suggest that natives in the study area and farmers of ILVs are
aware of the nutritional benefits of these food resources. Such knowledge has been passed on
from earlier generations, peers, or from parents to their children.
Information on indigenous knowledge gathered during this study suggests that indigenous
leafy vegetables are important sources of Vitamin A and B. For example, Hibiscus
cannabinus, locally called “Berese”, is said to improve night blindness and to provide a
healthy, rash-free skin. These findings were particularly interesting because conventional
science confirms that vegetables remain an important source of Vitamin A. The Vitamin B
content of the vegetables also agrees with results of studies by the Asian Vegetable Research
and Development Centre (AVRDC) which screened over 100 tropical vegetables for their
folate content in the year 2000. Results showed that Amaranthus, Abelmuscus esculentus and
Asparagus among others were the best sources of folate (B vitamin).
It has been
demonstrated that a deficiency of folate is a leading cause of birth defects and infant
mortality. Other indigenous knowledge related to nutrition has been described as follows:


ILVs promote good health and replenish energy cowpeas;
ILVs treat anaemic conditions (perhaps they contain iron and other related nutrients for
blood formation). Indeed, Hibiscus sabdariffa, (locally referred to as “Bito”, also
63





commonly called Roselle) and Luffa aegyptica have iron contents of 1.5 and 11.5 mg per
100g edible portion respectively (Agamba, 2001);
Both Vigna unguiculata or cowpeas leaves and Hibiscus sabdariffa contain body building
substances or protein;
Both Roselle or Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa) and Kennaf, or Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus)
promote lactation in nursing mothers. They are therefore used in soups for nursing
mothers;
ILVs improve appetite in convalescing patients, especially Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
soups;
Improves resistance to disease; e.g. Alefu (Amaranthus cruentus). Regular consumption of
Amaranthus cruentus promotes health and avoids falling sick;
ILVs give strength and vitality to men; e.g. Bito-Neri admixture soups improve strength
and vitality to cope with sexual demands of men after a hard day’s work.
Medicinal aspects
Considerable indigenous knowledge on the medicinal properties of ILVs is present among the
population. The following ILVs were mentioned as being useful in treatments of diseases or
improving health conditions:








Maana leaves (Abelmuscus esculentus) and seeds homogenised with the bark of
mahogany can be applied to treat boils on the skin;
Ayoyo (Corchorus olitorius) leaves macerated and homogenised in water can be used to
de-worm animals;
Boiled concoctions of leaves of Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Abelmuscus esculentus and
Kennaf or Berese (Hibiscus cannabinus) can cure malaria fever while the soup of the
latter can also improve appetite for food;
Langina (Cleome gynandra), Amaranthus cruentus, Hibiscus cannabinus and Hibiscus
sabdariffa treats an anaemic condition in patients.Hibiscus sabdariffa leaves boiled in
water and cooled can be used for de-worming livestock or farm animals;
Homogenised leaf extracts of Hibiscus sabdariffa can be used for treating abrasions and
cuts;
Cowpea leaves can be ground into a paste or macerated and the sap used to treat fresh
wounds;
Hibiscus cannabinus may be used to treat dysentery, stomach upsets, bloated stomach,
anaemia and diarrhoea. Bito (Hibiscus sabdariffa) can also be used to treat diarrhoea;
The leaves of Baobab (Adansonia digitata) are used to prepare a delicious and vitaminrich sauce and as a medicine to treat dysentery, fever, asthma, and stomach ailments.
Rural industry
The roots of Adansonia digitata may be crushed to make a dye for textiles and paints.
3.13.3 Indigenous production, processing, and conservation practices
Although modern agricultural technology for production has been given considerable
publicity by past governments, there are still in practice several indigenous practices. The
sections that follow describe these.
64
Cultivation practices



Use of bullocks in ploughing: this was preferred to tractor-mounted ploughs because it
was thought to minimise erosion of their soils. However, it may well be that the use of
tractors was rather expensive and not affordable;
Boundary cropping with ILVs to demarcate boundaries and possibly to maximise the use
of land on the farm;
Broadcasting seeds instead of nursing and transplanting; e.g. Ayoyo (Corchorus olitorius)
Corchorus olitorius seeds are known to survive in soil for several years. Broadcasting
therefore facilitates dispersal and conservation.
Harvesting
Knowledge on when and how to harvest, periodic pruning; e.g. start of flower bud formation,
branches formation, tendril formation, onset of creeping of stems, enlargement of leaves to
maximum size etc. Such knowledge is known for each vegetable and is passed on to younger
generations either deliberately or fortuitously. For example the beginning of the first harvest
for Cucurbita pepo is when tendrils form or when the stem of the plants creep. During this
time the rooting system of the plant is well established and harvesting by plucking the leaves
does not kill the plant; so it can be harvested again later.
Processing techniques




Sun-drying: whole leaves or sliced leaves
Shade-drying to maintain nutrient value
Parboiling to soften thick, hard parts of the vegetables to enhance the drying process
Powdered or ground leaves for ease of food preparation
Storage techniques for processed ILVs
Processed ILVs may be stored in the following ways:
 In gourds/calabashes with covers or lids to keep out insects and with tight-fitting lids.
 In earthen pots that are securely covered
 In water-repellent and insect-resistant sacks or bags
Control of insects pests:



Wood ashes sprinkled on leafy vegetables each morning
Neem (Azacdiracta indica) leaves extracts are sprayed against insect attacks
Neem leaves and pepper fruit extracts also serve the same function as above
Control of insects pests in storage:


Cow dung application on storage containers to keep insect pests out
Immersion of seeds in organic solvents: Prior to storage seeds are immersed briefly in
kerosene and dried. This provides insecticidal and larvicidal properties that keep out the
pests
65
Seed preservation and conservation
Preservation and conservation of ILVs remain an important pre-occupation of the farmers in
the study area. There is considerable knowledge passed from generation to generation. The
knowledge on seed preservation has, undoubtedly, contributed to the conservation efforts of
the farmers and farming communities. Seed preservation may be achieved by the following
processes:





Heat shock/heat sterilisation: this may involve a quick immersion of seeds in hot, melted
shea butter or hot water for a very brief period prior to storage. These processes kill all
insect pests and their eggs or larvae prior to storage for the next growing season and
prevent re-infestation by the insects;
Seeds kept in bags, tied up and hanging from the ceiling or wooden rafters;
Seeds in pods hanging from tree branches;
Storage of seeds in baskets with cow dung smeared on the outside;
Storage of seeds in stopped bottles.
Conservation strategies




Information/knowledge passed from parents to progeny and from generation to generation
or through peer group interactions. This process could be deliberate but informal or by
chance.
Continuous cultivation of the ILVs facilitates conservation and bio-diversity utilisation
Seed banking for subsequent farming enhances bio-diversity conservation
Observation of traditional norms and taboos; eg rules governing protection of sacred
groves
3.13.4 Homogeneity and extent of knowledge
The most striking observation in the survey on indigenous knowledge was the enormous
similarity in the knowledge that was exhibited. The knowledge on nutrition, medicinal
properties, preservation and processing was strikingly similar in the whole study area and in
the defined typology for all the respondents. Although ethnic differences exist between the
four districts, the similarity in the indigenous knowledge cuts across these barriers and,
indeed, in most cases the same information was repeated again and again. This observation
may be explained by the fact that the people live in close proximity and interact frequently.
Therefore the exchange of ideas or knowledge would be expected to create knowledge that is
similar or the same for all. Indigenous knowledge on the use of Baobab leaves for dyeing
textiles was shown by a participant from the Catholic Diocese (Bolgatanga) during the midterm workshop.
The indigenous knowledge on ILVs is real and there is considerable evidence that gives
further credence to this knowledge base. It would be a good idea to investigate the use of
ILVs in nutritional, pharmaceutical, industrial and medical research to improve the
commercial potential of the vegetables and promote conservation efforts.
66
CHAPTER 4
COMMERCIALISATION OF INDIGENOUS LEAFY
VEGETABLES
Due to the absence of literature on the commercial aspects of indigenous leafy vegetable
production, the team at the start of the study relied on informal personal communication from
various sources. The impression gathered from these sources was that are would be areas or
villages which are purely or exclusively subsistence, with other areas practicing purely
commercial systems of production. Based on this impression, the criteria of scale of
production was used to define the farm typology of the study area. Thus under the rainfed or
irrigated systems of production, study areas fell under one of the following types.


Subsistence, with limited or easy access to market, where production is mainly for home
consumption, and farmers sell surpluses only after meeting consumption needs.
Commercial, with limited or easy access to market, where production is large-scale and
earmarked for sale.
The study revealed that nowhere in the region an exclusive commercial or subsistence system
exists. The two types were found to exist both in all the villages studied.
The factor of accessibility to markets was found to have far reaching consequences on
revenues derived from production, with commercial producers in the study area and in
particular the irrigated areas with limited access to market making operational losses. The
indication and hypothesis is that the sustainability of scale of production is dependent on
market availability.
One major factor uncovered by the study is the incapability of farmers in all the systems to
cultivate ILVs throughout the year. ILV production in the irrigated areas is hindered because
of flooding or it is replaced by rice and other crops in the raining season, thereby confining
production to the rainfed areas. The production in rainfed areas only lasts as long as there is
rain. The introduction of micro-irrigation systems depending on household wastewater for
instance, may help to sustain production for a longer period in the rainfed areas. We were
reliably informed, that portable and affordable micro-irrigation systems have been
successfully introduced to vegetable farmers in Tanzania and Nepal for dry season gardening.
This chapter discusses among others, the identification and prioritisation of ILVs with
potential for commercialisation and for household food security, the marketing of ILVs, and
the problems associated with the marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables.
4.1
Identification and prioritisation of ILVs with potential for commercialisation
To accomplish the above objectives the team adopted the following methods:



Matrix scoring and ranking for both cultivated and collected species, using focus group
discussions.
Benefit-cost analysis, for identifying and prioritising the cultivated species according to
their economic viability.
Market survey to identify the species, processed forms and prices of ILVs that are
marketed.
67
4.1.1
Matrix scoring of cultivated and collected species
Criteria used for scoring were developed from factors that influence participants’ decisionmaking on the cultivation, collection, processing, marketing and utilisation of each species of
leafy vegetables involved. Different sets of criteria were developed for the cultivated and
collected species.
Criteria for cultivated species
High production costs
This refers to the costs involved in financing the production of a specific species. Farmers
observed that the production expenses they had to make on labour, through payments for
tractor services or animal traction used for land preparation, and expenses on planting,
nursing and transplanting, weeding, the purchase and application of inputs and, harvesting
and selling were higher for some leafy vegetables than others. The scores signify the level of
expense attached to each ILV.
High labour requirements
The drudgery involved in ILV cultivation varies with species. Labour intensive activities like
nursing, transplanting or thinning were involved in the cultivation of some ILVs, making their
production more labour intensive than others. It implies that such drudgeries increased the
energy, expenses and time that had to be devoted to some ILVs, thereby, making their
production more difficult than others.
Early maturing
The Upper East Region of Ghana is among the regions with the longest dry season. By the
onset of the rains when planting begins, food supply in households is low and many families
incorporate the early maturing ILVs into the little cereal left in preparing food for the family
while waiting to harvest the new cereals, grains and legumes. Those ILVs, which mature
early, are said to bridge the hunger gap, which occurs between the food shortage and the
harvesting periods. This criterion helped to identify those ILVs, which serve these important
functions for farmers.
Easy to process
The main processing method observed during the survey was sun drying. In addition some
wild species of ILVs had to be parboiled before sun drying. From farmers’ point of view,
ILVs that dried fastest in the sun or in the shade made processing easy in the rainy season.
The peak harvesting period of ILVs coincides with the period of highest rainfall. Post harvest
loses are reduced by fast drying characteristics.
High demand and high price
In addition to their use as food by households many farmers derive income from the
cultivation of ILVs. The two criteria helped farmers to score and identify those ILVs that
attracted many buyers and those for which buyers were prepared to pay high prices.
High nutritional value
Farmers have over the years derived micronutrients of high nutritional value from the
consumption of ILVs. Their definition of high nutritional value was, “ Good blood and good
68
health”. The criteria was used to identify ILVs , which from the farmers experiences were
high sources of energy and body building micro-nutrients which gives good health for both
adults and children. The hypothesis is that ILVs with high nutritional value will have high
market value.
Criteria for wild/collected species
Availability of species most of the year
With the exception of Baobab and Samvama leaves, which were common in processed forms,
a greater number of the wild species, are preferred fresh. The processed forms of most wild
species, are said to lose their essential nutrients and hence were not used for food preparation.
Those who collected such wild species for sale could only sell the leaves in fresh form.
Farmers therefore felt the need to have the wild species available in the bush in fresh forms
for long periods of the year.
Ease of collection
Women and girls typically do the harvesting of wild ILV species. The criterion was used to
identify those species which women and girls find difficult to pick.
Short distance from home
The criterion signified the convenience of having wild species close to the house. Elderly
members of the group recounted the days when many wild species were found close by and
one did not have to walk long distances to go looking for them.
Medicinal value
This criterion was used to identify wild species, which were used to cure ailments in the
communities. For their medicinal values such ILVs provide high income.
Preferences for ILV species
The total score from the six study villages was calculated and used to draw final conclusions
for the cultivated and collected species (Appendix 12 and 13). The ILVs found to be preferred
most for commercialization among the cultivated species are Bito, Berese, Bento and Alefu in
that order The collected species selected are Tokara, Bongto, Ogla and Samvama (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1
Matrix ranks of ILVs
Species/Rank
Cultivated
Collected
1st
Bito
Tokara
2nd
Berese
Bongto
3rd
Bento
Ogla
4th
Alefu
Samvama
(Wild Ayoyo)
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey
Reasons for the low rating of Alefu, include high production costs, high labour requirements,
and the inability of farmers to process Alefu for future use. These problems discourage many
farmers from cultivating Alefu on a large scale even though it was rated as the ILV most in
demand and with the highest price (Table 4.2). Bito, Berese and Bento on the contrary, have
low labour requirements, low costs of production and can be processed and stored for use
during scarcity.
69
Table 4.2
Factors affecting the commercialisation of cultivated ILV species
Criteria
ILVs identified
High production costs
Alefu
Bento
labour Alefu
High
requirements
Maana
Early maturing
Easy to process
High demand
High nutritional value
High price
Not processed
Production, processing, marketing and
utilization characteristics.
High fertilizer and insecticide requirements
High costs of seed
Requires nursing and transplanting or
broadcasting and thinning.
Spines on plant prick the skin during
weeding resulting in painful cultivation
Matures early to help bridge the hunger
gap after planting.
Low water content and dry quickly
Most highly consumed in the Region.
Bento, Berese and
Ayoyo
Bito and Berese
Alefu, Bito and
Berese
Bito, Berese, Alefu Give good health
and eggplant
leaves.
Alefu and Leba Highly priced and provide high income
(local Alefu)
Maana and Alefu
Loss of nutritional value(micro-nutrients)
after sun drying
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey
For the collected species, Baobab leaves known locally as Tokara, ranked the highest (Table
4.1). They are easy to collect, always close to the homes of farmers, available most of the
year in fresh or dried forms, have high demand and provides a relatively high income and is
medicinal with other economic values. Bongto is easy to collect, can be found at short
distances from their homes, has high demand and is also medicinal, while Ogla is highly
demanded and nutritious (Table 4.2).
Table 4. 3
Factors
Collected
species
Factors affecting the commercialisation of collected ILV species
Available
most of the
year
Tokara
Kampomvoro
Sowaka
Easy to
collect
Bongto
Samvama
Jamasoni
Tokara
Short
distance
from home
Tokara
Bongto
Jamasoni
Samvama
Kafrikayoa
High
demand
Medicinal
properties
Tokara
Ogla
Samvama
Sowaka
Bongto
Tokara
Bongto
Sowaka
Jamasoni
High
Nutritional
Value
Sowaka
Ogla
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey
70
4.1.2
Benefit-cost analysis
A benefit-cost analysis was used to determine the economic viability of the cultivated ILVs in
selected farming systems. Benefit-cost ratios of the operations were estimated for large-scale
farmers in each system. An economic verification of the operations of a farmer was conducted
at Pwalugu to provide further insight into the economic viability of ILVs under commercial
management. The species of ILVs studied on this commercial farm are Bito, Alefu and Ayoyo
(Appendix 14). The ratios were estimated from production costs and benefits of farmers for
the 2001/2002 operational season.
Factors of production
For the costing of inputs all factors involved in the production of leafy vegetables in the
different systems were considered. Differences in the use of inputs depended mainly on water
application in each system, with higher quantities of chemical fertilizers and insecticides
applied in the irrigated areas. Family and hired labour inputs were relatively high in the
rainfed systems while tractor services were used more in the irrigated areas (Table 4.4).
Table 4.4
Important cost variables identified for irrigated and rainfed systems
Cost Variables
Land
Land preparation
Seeds
Nursing /transplanting
Planting
Fertilizer/manure/
compost
Costs of
insecticides/ash/
botanicals
1st weeding
2nd weeding
Cost of watering
Depreciation of farm
tools
Costs of harvesting/
selling
Cost of marketing
Labour
Farm type / observations
Irrigated system
Rainfed system
Farmers pay annually for
Mainly Free
irrigated land at Gaani
Tractor, animal traction, family
Mainly animal traction, family and
and hired labour
hired labour.
Mainly purchased
Purchased and own seeds
Performed on all irrigated farms Mainly broadcasting and thinning
for Alefu and Ayoyo
Planting of Bito, Berese, Bento
Planting of Bito, Berese, Bento and
and others
others
Fertilizer and manure
Manure and compost
Insecticides
Ash and botanicals
Applicable
Applicable
Applicable
Comprise holes, cutlasses,
watering cans and water pumps
More on-farm selling
Applicable
Applicable
Not applicable
Comprise holes and cutlasses
Transportation by donkey cart,
trucks, bicycles and head
portage
Used mainly for nursing, water
application, planting,
transplanting, weeding and
harvesting
Mainly by head portage, bicycles and
donkey cart
More market selling and drying
Mainly for land preparation, manure
application, planting, thinning,
weeding, harvesting and selling
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey
71
Benefits from ILVs
The following components accounted for the revenues generated by ILV production:.
 Proceeds from sale of fresh and processed ILVs
 Value of ILVs consumed in fresh and in dried form
 Value of ILVs given as gifts, for festivals and ceremonies
 Proceeds from sale of fiber and other by-products of ILVs (from Bito and Berese)
Farmers were unable to estimate quantities of ILVs spoiled.
Cost components
Proportions of the important production cost components in relation to the total costs were
estimated (Fig. 4.1 and 4.2). The main costs for producing ILVs in the two farming systems
consisted of costs on labour, marketing, tractor and animal traction services, manure and
compost, chemical fertilisers and insecticides, land in some irrigated areas and other inputs
like seed and depreciation of farm implements.
The labour costs are a high proportion of the total costs in both farming systems. Farmers in
the rainfed systems paid more for labour, accounting for 71 percent of the total costs while
those in the irrigated areas spend 44 percent of the total costs of production on labour. The
value of family labour, which is used extensively, was calculated and added to the costs of
labour, thus increasing the total labour costs in the rainfed areas. The use of tractor services
and animal traction is higher in the irrigated areas, amounting to 11 percent whereas it is
against 3 percent for the rainfed areas.
Land charges in the irrigated areas consisted of annual association fees and payments for land
to chiefs as loyalties and to irrigation authorities. Irrigated systems were found to be making
higher use of fertilizer and insecticides. These amounted to 19 percent as compared to only 1
percent of the total cost in the rainfed areas where compost and manure as well as ash, cow
dung and botanicals were used on a higher scale than in the irrigated areas. Marketing costs
were higher in the rainfed areas where selling was done in the markets by women using head
portage as a means of conveying ILVs to the markets. In the irrigated areas the concentration
of farmers in one area attracted traders who bought the produce in bulk for some of the
farmers and thus reduced their total marketing cost. Land was found to be free in all the
rainfed areas visited, while farmers in some irrigated areas paid for land or maintenance
charges.
72
Fig. 4.1
Production cost components of irrigated systems
Marketing
8%
Other inputs
(seed, depreciation)
6%
Land
7%
Labour
44%
Manure and compost
5%
Chemicals and
fertilizer
19%
Fig. 4.2
Tractor services and
animal traction
11%
Production cost components of rainfed systems
Other inputs
5%
Marketing
11%
Land
0%
Manure and compost
9%
Labour
71%
Chemicals and
fertilizer
1%
Tractor services
animal traction
3%
73
Benefit-cost ratios
The benefit cost analysis for Sherigu, a rainfed system with easy access to the market, is
presented in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5
Comparative cost-benefit analysis of different species of indigenous leafy
vegetables at Sherigu in the Bolgatanga District of UER of Ghana (in
thousands of Cedis)
Local name of ILV
Production inputs (in 1,000 Cedis/acre)
Cost of land
Fencing of land
Land preparation: - hired /family labour
- animal traction
- tractor services
Seed
Fertilizer
Manure
Compost
Chemicals
Water
Association dues
Depreciation of working tools
Donkey cart to market
Truck service to market
Human portage to market
Berese
Bito
Alefu
0.00
0.00
264.00
0.00
0.00
40.00
0.00
96.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
9.60
0.00
0.00
48.00
0.00
0.00
414.83
0.00
0.00
35.29
0.00
17.64
15.29
0.00
0.00
0.00
12.94
0.00
5.88
7.05
0.00
0.00
467.62
0.00
0.00
30.58
0.00
14.70
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.70
0.00
17.64
9.41
0.00
32.00
0.00
10.58
0.00
5.29
Total costs
Opportunity costs of capital/annum (at 26 %)
Opportunity costs of capital/operational period
489.60
153.29
12.77
519.50
135.46
11.28
549.94
143
11.91
Gross costs of operation
Output/revenues per acre
Sales fresh
sales dried
Consumption fresh
Consumption dried
Ceremonies/festival/gifts
502.37
530.78
561.85
1200
176.00
320
99.20
160.00
641.18
155.29
35.29
12.71
27.06
692.65
0.00
49.41
0.00
25.88
1955.20
1452.82
871.53
340.75
767.94
206.09
3.89
1.64
1.36
Bicycle to market
Transport costs of farmer
Total revenues acre
Net benefits
Benefit/cost ratio
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey
74
The resulting ratios for all farm types show high economic gains to farmers for the species
studied. In Sherigu, Kandiga, Widnaba, Bongo Central and Gaani (Fig 4.3 ) the benefit-cost
ratios indicate profits and economic viability of the ILV species.
The ratios for all the leaves in Binaba, an irrigated commercial system with limited access to
the market, were found to be below the breakeven point of one. Indeed, Binaba was the only
study area where bundles of ILVs were selling for 200 Cedis. The lowest price of ILVs
bundles of varying sizes at all other villages and towns visited in the region was 500 Cedis per
bundle. That means farmers in Binaba are losing around 60 percent of their income as a result
of low demand. Farmers at Binaba complained about the long distance to the nearest big
market center. Since it is too far, they are forced to sell the leaves on their farms to any
available customer at low prices, hence the inability to break even.
Fig. 4. 3
Estimated benefit-cost ratios
Berese
bito
6
Alefu
5
Langena
Ayoyo
Ratio
4
3
2
1
0
Widnaba Sherigu Kandiga Binaba
Bongo
Central
Gaani
Pwalugu
Name of village
Source: ICRA 2002, Field Survey
Pattern of disposal of ILVs
The study identified the proportions in which ILVs produced were allocated to the two
systems of production. According to the information made available farmers allocated the
quantities of ILVs harvested into the following categories: for sale, consumption and other
uses (Fig.4.4).
75
Fig. 4.4
Disposal pattern of ILVs
100
90
Rain-fed system
80
Percentage
70
Irrigated System
60
50
40
30
20
10
f ib
re
of
s
Sa
le
s/
fe
st
iv
a
l/g
ift
s
dr
ie
d
io
n
C
on
s
um
pt
pt
io
n
C
on
su
m
C
er
em
on
ie
sh
fre
dr
ie
s
Sa
le
Sa
le
s
fre
sh
d
0
Sales composition
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey
The results indicate that farmers under both systems sell larger quantities of their produce in
the fresh form. However, farmers in the irrigated areas sold more of the fresh forms than
farmers in the rainfed systems during the period under study. Farmers in the rainfed systems
on the contrary, sold and consumed more of the dried forms of ILVs than farmers in the
irrigated areas. Similarly farmers in the rainfed areas gave out more of the harvests for
ceremonies and as gifts to relatives and neighbours. The relatively small quantities consumed
and given out in both systems confirm the assertion by both male and female farmers that
ILVs consumed at home were normally harvested from other sources made up of wild species
and the backyard and border farms. Some farmers in the rainfed systems gained extra income
from the sale of fiber from Berese and Bito.
4. 2
The marketing of indigenous leafy vegetables
4.2.1
Farm level marketing methods
In view of the fast growing and early maturity characteristic of ILVs, the ability to dispose off
the produce soon after it matures is essential in order to free land for the next crop. The
maximisation of seasonal returns is subject to the number of successful ILV cultivations made
76
per season. The preferred number of cultivations per crop in the dry season is four and with
the limitation of land, early marketing of matured leaves is essential for a successful cropping
season. Farmers have in consequence devised ways of enhancing the early marketing of
matured crops. Three of the methods identified during the survey are discussed below.
Negotiated sale of life crop
By this method the crops are sold in rows of ridges at negotiated prices to traders. The farm or
plot of ILV could also be sold in whole. Farmers use the opportunity to free capital for the
next cultivation. In a farmer’s own words “ we leave the harvesting problem to the trader”.
The method was found to be very popular with male farmers at Bongo and Gaani.
On the spot sales at farm-gate
The method enables farmers to sell the leaves as harvesting and packaging proceeds. Traders
sometimes assist in the harvesting and use the opportunity to sort and select on the spot the
better quality leaves. This practice is to the disadvantage of farmers. The limited access to the
market by farmers at Binaba predisposes them to high on-farm post harvest losses caused by
these differential purchases.
Sales in the market
Selling in the market is the most prevalent method of disposing of leafy vegetables by farmers
in all the farming systems. Ninety-two percent of the women interviewed carry ILVs on their
heads over long distances to nearby markets to sell for themselves and their husbands. This
method of selling leafy vegetables was most prevalent in the rainfed systems, where men
depended almost exclusively on women for the disposal of leaves through the market. At
Widnaba men were heard remarking that only bachelors sold leaves. The situation was
different in the irrigated areas. At Gaani twelve percent of the men interviewed sold their own
leaves in sacks transported in trucks, donkey carts or on bicycles to Navrongo and Bolgatanga
markets.
4.2.2. Market survey
General observations
The team conducted a survey of markets in Ghana and two neighbouring countries, namely
Burkina Faso and Togo (Fig. 4.5). In addition to collecting information on prices, species.
types and forms of ILVs, and selling procedures in these markets general information was
gathered on other related factors in the markets also (Table 4.7). The survey procedure
involved focus group discussions, individual interviews, weighing and counting of ILV stems
in bunches. The respondents included farmers of whom many were found selling in the
markets, wholesalers, retailers and consumers.
In all the markets visited, women were found to dominate in the selling of indigenous leafy
vegetables. The only exceptions were Navrongo and Bolgataga markets where male farmers
were seen selling large quantities of ILVs harvested from their own farms.
77
78
Table 4.6 Gender roles in marketing
Market
Navrongo

Activity and types of traders
Male farmers selling from donkey
carts and large polythene bags. Their
targeted customers were large
quantity buyers like wholesalers,
retailers and institutions but also
serve consumers
Many female farmers retailing
Female traders retailing
Female wholesalers purchasing for
Bolgatanga, Paga, Sandema, Wa,
Tumu, Kandiga and Naga markets
Male and female farmers selling to
retailers and consumers
Only women traders as retailers





Women farmers retailing
Women farmers retailing
Women farmers retailing
Women retailers
Women retailers


Women
farmers
and
traders 
wholesaling and retailing
Ghanaian women farmers retailing

Five bundle units @ 2000
Cedis to large quantity
buyers
One bundle units @ 500
Cedis to consumers
Bundle @ 500 Cedis each
Bundle @ 500 Cedis each
Bundle @ 500 Cedis each
Bundle @ 500 Cedis each
Heaps of single leaves
@ 270 Cedis and 540 Cedis
Heaps of single leaves
@ 270 Cedis and 540 Cedis
Bundles @ 500 Cedis each.

Ghanaian women farmers retailing

Bundles @ 500 Cedis each.




Bolgatanga
Bawku
Zebilla
Tamale
Kumasi
Ouagadougou
Dassasgo
Ouagadougou
Larlé
Guelwongo
(Burkina Faso)
Senkanse
(Togo)










Units of measure
Six bundle units @ 2000
Cedis to large quantity
buyers
One bundle unit @ 500
Cedis each to single unit
buyers
Source: ICRA 2002, Market surveys
Apart from Ouagadougou where only the CFA was the accepted currency, Ghanaian currency,
the Cedi, is also used alongside the local currencies (CFA) in Senkanse and Guelwongo, which
are across the border markets in neighbouring Togo and Burkina Faso, respectively. Both
markets are less than a kilometer away from the respective Ghana borders. Contrary to situations
in all other markets, ILVs in Ouagadougou are sold without stems indicating a different
harvesting method, and more favourable sales terms for consumers.
At Guelwongo and Senkanse all ILVs sellers in the markets were Ghanaian women from Bongo
and Bawku East villages around the border. Women farmers were found retailing ILVs from their
own farms alongside retailers in all the markets visited with the exception of Kumasi where the
leaves were bought from male farmers in city gardens and nearby villages.
79
ILV species available in markets.
In addition to exotic species, which were found in big market centers, indigenous leafy
vegetables were found in all the markets visited during the study. Apart from dried Bito which
was found in eight of the markets visited, the other leaves found in dried forms are Tokara
(Baobab leaves), also known as kooka in crushed form, and Samvama (Wild Ayoyo) (Table 4.8).
Only small quantities of the dried forms in relation to fresh leaves were found in the markets,
indicating higher consumer preference for the fresh forms.
Table 4.7
ILV species found in the markets
Market
Species of ILVs
Supply sources
Processed forms
Navrongo
Alefu, Bito, Berese.
Egg plant, Bitter leaf,
Maana, Ayoyo, Bento
Alefu, Bito, Berese,
Langina, Pumpkin, Bitter
leaf, Bento, Langina,
Ayoyo – Round green leaf,
Serated green leaf, Pinkish
elongated Samvama
Bito, Ayoyo, Langina, Alefu
Bito, Berese , Bento
Alefu
Pungu, Bonia, Saboro,
Nawognia
Gaani
Navrongo Zaare, Vea,
Bongo, Balungo Yoruko
Tongo, Kwalugu,
Dorungu, Sherigu
Dried Bito
Bolga
Bongo central
Zebilla
Bawku
Tamale
Kumasi
80
Dried Bito
Bongo
Tanga
Sakom
Widnaba (2.5 Km)
Dried Bito
Dried Bito
Tokara, Alefu, Bito
Berese, Bento Ayoyo,
Langina, Niri
Ayoyo, Berese (Bra), Bito,
Alefu, Bento
Dera and surrounding
villages;
Water from dug out wells
Dam sites
NA
Water leaf, Alefu, Ayoyo,
Bento, Kontombire,
Pumpkin leaves
along streams and water
bodies and in villages
Dried Bito, sliced
fresh Ayoyo, dried
powdered Tokara
(Kooka)
Dried Bito
Market
Burkina Faso
1. Ouagadougou
(large whole sale
market)
Burkina Faso
2. Dassasgo
(retail evening
market)
Burkina Faso
3. Guelwongo
0.5 km from Ghana
border at Namoo in
UER
Togo
Sinkanse
Species of ILVs
Matured Bito, Bito
shoots, Berese
(Berenge), Langina,
Alefu, Leba (local
Alefu), Tokara
(Baobab), Bento
Matured Bito, Bito
shoots, Langina, Alefu,
Tokara (Baobab)
Supply sources
Lumbile
(25 km)
Sector 27
(3km)
Processed forms
NA
Larlé and urban
agriculture gardens
Dried Samvama
(Ayoyo)
Bito
Bongo and Nyariga in
UER of Ghana
Bito, Ayoyo Bento
Alefu, Tokara (Baobab
leaves)
All leave sellers came
from villages in the
Bawku East district of
Ghana
Bito
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey.
4.2.3
Inter-market price variation
The preliminary market survey revealed that wholesaling of ILVs forms a very small component
of the ILV trade. With the exception of Navrongo where wholesalers were found buying from the
market, most retailers prefer buying direct from the farms. Moreover, in the majority of cases,
farmers practised vertical integration by producing and selling ILVs themselves.
The survey showed that price variations between markets determine the flow of ILVs from one
market to the other. For instance retailers in Bolgatanga market, informed the team that ILVs
flow into Bolga market from Bawku in December and from Navrongo market between March
and June. It becomes, therefore, necessary to study the price variations in the markets as a first
step to an in-depth margin analysis.
Generally, prices of ILVs in the Ghanaian markets were relatively stable with minimal
differences between markets at the time of the study (Fig. 4.6). The position of Navrongo as the
wholesaler to the other markets at this time of the year (April to June), as presented by the
traders, was clearly manifested by lower ILV prices in Navrongo market for all the major species.
The position of Alefu as the highest income earner for farmers was also proved in all the
Ghanaian markets. With the exception of Bento, which was very high in Sinkanse Togo, the
prices of Bito, Berese and Langina demonstrated their roles as providers of household food
security with relatively affordable prices in all the markets in Ghana and even in Togo and
Burkina Faso. The situation for collected leaves was different in Sinkanse and Ouagadougou. The
81
price of Tokara (Baobab leaves) was high in Ouagadougou and Sinkanse in comparison to the
price prevailing at Bawku.
Fig. 4.6
Price variations between markets
4000
Bito
Alefu
Berese
Bento
langena
Tokara
3500
3000
Pri
ce 2500
s
in
ce 2000
dis
1500
1000
500
0
Navrongo
Bongo
Central
Bolga
Zebilla
Bawku
BF Quaga
Name of market
BF
Yeliwongo
Togo
Cinkase
Source: ICRA 2002, Market surveys
4.2.4
The marketing channels of ILVs
The team identified simple marketing channels for ILVs in which the majority of consumers
enjoy a close relationship with producers many of who practice vertical integration (Fig. 4.7).
Producers
Many farmers practice vertical integration by joining traders to sell ILVs to all categories of
customers, namely, wholesalers, retailers and ultimate consumers. Apart from the big towns like
Bolgatanga, Navrongo, and Bawku, where few retailers were found playing a permanent day-today role in the markets, selling side by side with the farmers, customers in ILV markets generally
buy directly from farmers many of them women, who come every market day to sell. The
situation was not different in Burkina Faso and Togo. This opportunity offers farmers the chance
for maximising returns, as there are no middlemen involved in this process. Many farmers
including men, from villages close to market centers take advantage of the situation.
82
Wholesalers
These consisted of women traders who were found selling ILVs to retailers in Bolgatanga market.
The leaves were sold in bunches of five bundles for 2000 Cedis. Women wholesalers were found
making purchases in Navrongo market. In comparison to other crops, the number of wholesalers
found in the ILV markets were few since many retailers prefer buying straight from farmers.
Fig 4. 7
Principal marketing channels of indigenous leafy vegetable in the UER of
Ghana
Large and small scale producers
Wholesalers mainly
farmers and few traders
Retailers mainly farmers and
few traders in big towns
Consumers mainly households and
institutions
83
4.2.5
Consumer survey
A survey of consumers was conducted in the Bolgatanga and Kumasi markets. The results of the
survey in Kumasi indicated that people of other ethnic groups in the country do not know nor use
ILVs from Northern Ghana. All the consumers purchasing ILVs from Northern Ghana said they
were northerners. The consumers expressed their desire for fresh and wholesome leaves,
complaining about holes made by insects in some leaves. In the Bolgatanga market all the
respondents interviewed come from UER. Consumers of different socio-economic backgrounds
were found in both markets even though all the respondents were women and girls. The pattern of
ILV purchase and consumption behaviour was found to be affected by factors shown in Fig 4.8.
Fig. 4.8
Factors affecting ILV consumers behaviour
Commercial
factors
Psychological
factors
Personal
factors
Socio-Cultural
factors
Buying
behaviour
Socio-cultural factors
All the consumers interviewed were citizens of the Upper East Region but they come from
different social and religious backgrounds. Many students, for instance, were among the
consumers purchasing ILVs in the market. Culturally these consumers make extensive use of
ILVs because it happens to be their traditional food and most of the meals include ILVs.
Personal factors
Many of the consumers interviewed were mainly housewives of different occupations and age
groups ranging between 17 and 65 years of age. Many of the consumers admitted eating ILVs
because they had been told that the leaves give good health.
84
Psychological factors
The main motivation to buy ILVs is to have a balanced daily diet. Consequently the frequency of
buying ILVs is very high: each market day and sometimes in between market days. The
perception of freshness and good quality of ILVs is affecting consumer behaviour.
Commercial factors
Many respondents come from the low income group, but a significant number were also found to
belong to the middle and high income groups. Some restaurant operators and local food vendors
were among the consumers.
4.2.6
Seasonal supply of ILVs in UER.
Unlike the past when leafy vegetables were grown mainly under rainfed systems, fresh forms of
ILVs were available in all markets visited in June when planting for the main cropping season
had just started. Fig.4.9 shows the annual supply sources and levels of ILV supply to Bolgatanga
the regional market of UER.
Fig. 4. 9
Seasonal calendar of ILV supply and demand in UER
Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
Relative abundance
Supply
Navrongo, Bongo,
Balungu, Yorungo,
Vea, Zaare
High supply period
Villages
around Bolga
and Tongo
Critical shortage
Bawku,
Pwalugu
Vea
Dorungu
The period of peak supply of ILVs is between July and November when every household is
harvesting all types of leafy vegetables for sale and for home use. The number of people buying
the leaves is reduced to restaurants and schools and those who have no farms. Large amounts of
ILVs are left in the markets unsold and many ILV sellers are said to abandon the trade for other
more lucrative opportunities. Farmers are forced to dry most of the leaves for sale later as prices
fall to uneconomic levels. During this period the regional capital receives ILVs from villages in
the vicinity like Tongo and Sherigu, since it becomes unprofitable for traders to bring leaves over
long distances at the prevailing low prices.
85
The critically low supply period lasts from November to February just after harvesting during the
harmatan season, when vegetation starts drying up. The dam sites during this period are still wet
and many farmers at the site are still harvesting their rice and land preparation for dry season
cropping is initiated in a few places. The prices of ILVs are at the highest reaching as high as
1000 Cedis per bunch during this period. According to traders ILVs are brought to Boltatanga by
traders from Bawku and Pwalugu during this period.
The period of balanced economic activity is from March to June when ILVs start arriving from
the irrigated and dugout well sites. Prices are intermediate and supply is balanced, creating a
more lucrative business situation for all stakeholders. The leaves at this time are supplied to many
markets from Navrongo, Bongo, Vea, Zaare, Balungu and Yorungu among others.
4.2.7
Problems of ILV marketing.
The following problems were identified during the course of the study:
Gluts and low prices
Gluts and low prices for ILVs were said to be the normal features of the rainy season (June September). This is because all farmers grow ILVs during this period, which they have to sell
under pressure to minimize spoilage. Unfortunately, ILV farmers are not organized well enough
to co-ordinate their production activities to ensure adequate management of large yields.
Perishability of ILVs and the incapability for long storage
The main problem in the marketing of ILVs is the short storage period after it has been harvested.
Farmers and traders cannot keep or store harvested ILVs for more than two or three days. As a
result the price of ILVs can fall by 30 to 50 percent by the end of a day. This problem results in
high losses by spoilage for both farmers and traders even though they were not able to quantify
these loses.
When large quantities of ILVs are harvested between July and September, farmers have problems
drying the leaves. Many of the farmers and traders interviewed have no adequate knowledge of
solar dryers. The few who know about solar dryers said they could not afford to buy solar dryers
at the prevailing prices. They are however prepared to buy and use solar dryers if portable and
affordable ones could be made available to suit their purposes.
Poor handling and hygiene
The general conditions under which ILVs are marketed were found to be unhygienic. The selling
of ILVs is done in old metallic containers or on pieces of cloth on the ground in all the markets
visited. The problem is mainly due to poor market infrastructure and the lack of, or poorly
enforced public health regulations in the markets. This problem of poor health standards in the
market could lead to the transmission of diseases through ILVs to consumers.
86
Improper packaging and lack of sorting
Traders and farmers were found pressing large quantities of ILVs into sacks or polythene bags, a
practice that we felt contributed to the short shelf life of the leaves in the markets. In addition to
the problem of packaging, no grading of leaves was done and all sizes and qualities of ILVs were
bundled together for sale making them unattractive to consumers.
Lack of market promotion
A study of consumer types revealed that a great percentage of the people who utilise ILVs belong
to the northern regions. This aggravates the problem of low demand for ILVs particularly during
the high production period. Similarly, the team was made to believe that people in the other parts
of the country are not aware of the numerous nutritional and medicinal values of ILVs. The use
of ILVs was limited to local methods of preparation like soups and stews only. It implies the
need to create different recipes to make leafy vegetables more palatable to consumers in other
parts of the country.
Improper methods and conditions for ILV processing
The method of sun drying of fresh or parboiled ILVs results in discolouration, which make the
leaves unattractive particularly to the youth and consumers of high socio-economic backgrounds.
It was also speculated that this processing method leads to the loss of essential nutrients from the
leaves.
4.3
Economic viability of ILVs
In conclusion, the study has revealed that ILV cultivation is economically viable, but needs to be
further assessed for its competitiveness in relation to other crops. The cultivated species found to
be holding most promise for commercialization are Alefu, Bito, Berese and Bento. The constraints
in cultivation, marketing and processing these ILVs need to be overcome to make this possible.
The consumption of wild ILV species is still widespread, which calls for efforts for their
conservation.
There does not appear much promise in terms of cross-border or external markets at the moment.
More surveys are however needed to assess the situation in surrounding towns and at different
periods of the year. Though the prices were relatively attractive in Senkanse in Togo, further
studies are required in the regional capitals of Togo.
The processing and sale of collected species seemed limited to Tokara and Samvama, whose
potential for commercialization should be assessed. November to February is the most critical
shortage period. If improved processing methods are available to provide ILVs during this period
it would facilitate commercialisation. It is important to systematically assess the
commercialisation potential of processed forms before embarking upon any efforts given the
consumer preference for fresh forms.
87
Most producers and market intermediaries of ILVs are women. Commercialisation will offer a
potential for additional income generation to benefit women. People in Southern Ghana who
form the greater percentage off the Ghanaian population are not aware of the nutritional benefits
of ILVs from Northern Ghana. Educating them through market promotion to use these ILVs
could create a big demand for producers up north.
88
CHAPTER 5
5.1
STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
Stakeholder interests and their perceptions about ILVs
Stakeholder identification began with understanding the problematique. On the basis of the
Terms of Reference and secondary information about the problem, an initial list of
stakeholders was identified. Stakeholders at the introductory workshop validated the list.
Thirty stakeholders in total were identified and their roles were defined through visits and
interactions with them. Based on their mandate and common interests, the list was
harmonised and reduced to 16, taking cognisance of similarities in either technical aspects of
agricultural production, research or development and support to the sector as indicated
hereunder.
5.1.1. Farmer/vegetable producer
The farmer is considered a primary key stakeholder and beneficiary of the programme on
indigenous leafy vegetable development. The main interest of the farmer is to produce
vegetables for the household to enhance food security. The farmer may also produce for
commercial reasons. Vegetables may be processed and stored for later use or sale. Farmers
may conserve vegetable species through continued production and may also accumulate
indigenous knowledge on production and processing.
5.1.2
Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA)
The Ministry of Food and Agriculture was found to be the key stakeholder in the development
of indigenous leafy vegetables as it has mandate of providing policy, technical and advisory
services to the farmer. MoFA is responsible for assisting farmers in general agricultural
production, including leafy vegetable production. MoFA trains extension workers and farmers
to facilitate the transfer of technology and to link farmers to credit institutions. It also assists
farmers in the formation of groups/co-operatives.
The Ministry of Food and Agriculture runs a number of projects that have mandate on specific
aspects of agricultural development. WIAD, one of them, works with women farmers on
production, processing and storage of indigenous leafy vegetables by using solar dryers.
LACOSREP II focuses on dam rehabilitation and organises farmers’ associations in
sustainable water use, offers credit to farmers and carries out extension and demonstration on
aspects of production, processing and utilisation.
The agricultural development strategies support crops of high economic value and those that
are considered important for food security (staples). Indigenous leafy vegetables, as one of the
agricultural commodities in the area, have been receiving little or no attention due to its
present status of having low market value. According to MoFA, there has been very little or
no research on ILVs.
MoFA at Bongo perceives that production under large-scale irrigation conditions as in the
Tono and Vea areas is less likely to favour women farmers as far as accessibility of land and
irrigation water are concerned. MoFA sees that the promotion of ILVs might have an effect
on the role of gender, as there will be considerable income accruing from it. This, it is
expected, will motivate men to take over the production of ILVs from women.
89
5.1.3
Research institutions
The Savannah Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) has a mandate to provide new
technology, knowledge and information for crop production in all the three northern regions
through their substations. Manga substation of SARI in the Upper East Region is responsible
for vegetable breeding programmes. Manga works with farmers adopting a farming systems
research and conducts farmer field schools on vegetables.
However, little has been done so far with regard to indigenous leafy vegetables. They see the
potential for commercialisation especially for Bito, Berese, Alefu and Ayoyo, which have
considerable market demand in the country. SARI has done preliminary surveys on the
nutritional aspects of indigenous leafy vegetables. Although the institute has a mandate in
developing horticultural crops, the emphasis is on exotic vegetables, which have a relatively
high market value, thus marginalising ILVs.
The Animal Research Institute (ARI) has a mandate for livestock feed development. ARI is
working on the use of fodder/silage from leafy vegetables in animal feeding. They are also
involved in the research on identification of indigenous leafy vegetables, which are also
forage/fodder crops for farm animals. ARI also works on forage/browse agronomy research,
feed development, livestock system research and development, forage/browse preference
studies and crop residues and by-products utilisation. The Institute perceives indigenous leafy
vegetables, such as Bento (cowpeas) and herbaceous species that are collected like molinga
and bitter leaves, as a potential livestock feed for small ruminants and poultry. The
importance of indigenous leafy vegetables as livestock feed is already established, as straws
of these vegetables are sold in the market for feeding animals. There is a potential market for
ILV straw especially in the urban livestock industry, which is growing very fast. The ARI
perceives that some of the collected, wild multipurpose tree species are endangered and need
to be conserved. The measures that are suggested include establishment of propagation
materials and a garden for germplasm storage.
The University for Development Studies has a mandate to train agricultural scientists, and
conducts research as part of the training. Research covers aspects on production and
marketing of crops and vegetables in general. The food and nutrition security unit of UDS is
involved in micro nutrient studies and training on the use of improved solar drying
technologies in vegetable processing.
The Savannah Resource Management Centre (SRMC) has a mandate on natural resource
management with conservation of endangered species being a priority. The institute has
conducted studies on the status of indigenous leafy vegetables in the 3 regions of Northern
Ghana and documented the endangered species/varieties for further conservation.
5.1.4
Developmental institutions
Development institutions that contribute to agricultural development in the UER through the
provision of extension, infrastructure development, input supply service, training of farmers
on agribusiness, and facilitating farmer groups/associations were contacted and their interests
were noted.
ICOUR (Irrigation Company of Upper East Region) is a government institution under MoFA
mandated to construct and manage dams and to provide irrigation facilities to farmers to
90
support dry season production of food crops ánd leafy vegetables for income generation. The
company facilitates the organisation of farmers/producers into marketing units, provides seeds
and offers inputs, credit, technical advice and disease control.
Currently, ICOUR is managing two large-scale irrigation projects at Tono and Vea. The
projects support 6000 farmers with land, irrigation water, training on appropriate technology
as well as extension services. Agricultural production in these irrigation schemes is
consisting mainly of food crops including some exotic vegetables and a limited amount of
ILVs. The production of the ILVs is characterised by a short production cycle and low costs
of production. They are seasonally produced with supply surpassing demand during the rainy
season while in the dry season, the market demand is higher than the supply. Farmers are not
organised for the marketing of ILVs, since the production is for subsistence mainly. Other
organisations that support infrastructure development, especially dam construction includes
ADRA, Catholic Diocese and Action Aid Ghana.
World Vision International working at Bongo District is involved in the provision of
extension and other services by organising training programs for leafy vegetable farmers on
the safe use of agro-chemicals, integrated pest and crop management, the supply of vegetable
seeds and a credit facility to farmers. Action Aid Ghana supports agriculture through their
credit programs, provision of infrastructure (storage structures), input supply and the
provision of animal traction facilities.
TRAX Program Support, Catholic Diocese and ADRA are working on farmer’s education by
raising awareness about the importance of large scale vegetable production and organic
farming. Furthermore they provide training on soil and water conservation technologies to
indigenous leafy vegetable farmers. TRAX believes that the future of rural communities in
sub-Saharan Africa lies in low cost techniques of managing natural resources, which can be
sustained by the communities themselves. TRAX believes in responding to the community
needs rather than imposing ideas. It is the perception of TRAX that ILV farming is important
for several reasons, e.g.:





nutritional and medicinal importance of ILVs
ability to adapt and suitability to the environment because they tolerate the long dry
seasons and the short rainy seasons
short production time, which makes 3-4 yields per season possible
income generation
provision of employment throughout the year for a few people.
ADRA, RUWA (Rural Women Association) and Catholic Diocese are involved in supporting
farmers especially women by providing credit for income generating activities, including
indigenous leafy vegetable production.
RUWA is an association aiming at promoting women to engage themselves in all kinds of
agricultural activities. Their emphasis is towards income generating activities such as
processing, dry season vegetable production and livestock production. As part of the
programme, they also offer training on different topics like health and environmental
sustainability. The main component of their assistance to women farmer groups is to provide
credit for income generating activities supported by training and encouraging savings. RUWA
sees the potential of ILVs for commercialisation particularly in the dry season, as the demand
is high. Their assessment was based on the repayment capacity of these farmers. According to
91
RUWA the women who receive credit for indigenous leafy vegetables are able to repay in
time.
The Centre for Sustainable Development Initiatives (CENSUDI) is one of the NGOs whose
vision is to address gender imbalances existing in all aspects of public life. The Centre strives
to promote and strengthen practical strategies that actively mobilise women to participate in
decision-making and opt for leadership positions. CENSUDI focuses on five main areas,
which include violence against women, girl child education, women in public life, poverty
reduction, and gender training. CENSUDI believes that the socio-economic and political
equality of women is a major prerequisite for the development of a healthy and diversified
civil society. The Centre therefore aims at providing women with the opportunity to acquire
knowledge, skills, and confidence necessary to play a full part in the development process and
to take charge of their lives and futures. Although CENSUDI is not at present involved in
agricultural ventures they did help to create family wood-lot projects at Bongo Soe and
Namoo. CENSUDI believes that the cultivation and commercial production of ILVs is
relevant to their aspiration to reduce poverty and promote sustainable livelihoods among
women. CENSUDI believes that the promotion of ILVs could assist in providing some
employment for women who are the main stakeholders of ILV farming.
Technoserve is working in a number of agricultural production lines that have a business
orientation such as, vegetable and spices. Indigenous leafy vegetables are not included in this
group however, due to its low commercial status. Technoserve would be interested to support
indigenous leafy vegetable production if they see any business potential in it.
5.2
Farmers/community stakeholder linkages
The result of the stakeholder analysis conducted at village level shows that a number of
organisations are working at grass roots level (Table 5.1). A minimum of four organisations
was observed at Widnaba and Sherigu, followed by 6 at Gaani and 7 at Binaba and Kandiga.
A maximum of 11 was observed at Bongo Central. The large number of organisations
recorded at Bongo Central might be due to upgrading the village to district status. NGOs and
other institutions are interested in development and improvement of the food situation in
order to fulfil the needs of a growing district.
Every organisation has its specific area of interest which is ranging from helping
disadvantaged groups (widow, orphans, old aged and disabled), providing support on
agricultural technical matters, offering credit, advisory services on health and sanitation,
provision of drinking water, education, agricultural input supply, agro-forestry and
environmental conservation. The discussion in this section will concentrate on the relationship
between the community and the stakeholders, as perceived by the farmers. In the Venn
diagram (Fig 5.1) the distance between the circles represents the proximity between
stakeholders and the community which is determined often by the frequency of contact, while
their importance is reflected by the size of the circle. The bigger the circle the more important
the organisation as indicated in the example of Bongo Central village.
92
Table 5.1
Key stakeholders working in the surveyed villages
Village
Rainfed commercial with
limited market (Widnaba)
a 



Rainfed commercial with access 
to the market (Sherigu)



Rainfed subsistence (Kandiga)







Irrigated commercial with a

limited market (Binaba)




Irrigated commercial with access 
to the market (Bongo Central)






Irrigated subsistence (Gaani)





Key stakeholder
MoFA
Garu Agricultural Station (GAS)
ADRA
Anglican Mission.
MoFA
Catholic Church
IFAD
Agricultural Bank (ADB).
MoFA
Roman Catholic
Rural Aid (IFAD)
Kandiga Women Association (TOWONGO)
CENSUDI
Peace Corps
Navrongo Health Research Centre
MoFA
BACH (an Anglican Church NGO)
Agricultural Rehabilitation Centre for the Blind
(ARC)
Binaba Women Farmers’ Association (BIWFA)
Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health.
MoFA
World Vision
Catholic Mission
Rural Aid (IFAD)
Chief
Tindana
Fire Service
MoFA
ICOUR
Women Association
Roman Catholic
Navrongo Health Research Centre
Source: ICRA 2002, Stakeholder analysis
Eleven stakeholders are working in collaboration with Bongo Central community. From the
diagram, stakeholders like Word Vision, MoFA, schools and the hospital seem to be very
important to the community and their relation with the community is strong. World Vision
International is working in the area of education (building schools), farmer training on plant
protection and agribusiness. They also provide credit for agricultural activities. Likewise
MoFA provides agricultural technical training especially in manure application, water
protection and animal health and they provide credit to the community in the form of bullocks
and ploughs. These two organisations have a very strong relationship with the community.
93
This could be due to their involvement in agricultural training and credit support to farmers
who depend on farming as their main source of income.
School for providing education is important as the community places a high value on
education and stresses the importance by saying, “it is through education that all the
intellectuals are developed”. The hospital was important as the health status determines the
ability to undertake farming activities. To quote them, “you can only work at the farm if you
are healthy, and that is why for us the hospital is very important”.
Fig 5.1
Venn Diagram showing stakeholder relationships at Bongo Central
Police
CRS
Catholic
Mission
MoFA
School
World
Vision
BONGO
CENTRAL
Hospital
Tindana
Fire
Service
Chief
Rural
Aid
Village Chiefs and Tindanas are important because they help to solve social disputes and land
problems and they are performing the ceremonies for attracting rain. They also help the
community by lobbying for development projects.
The Catholic Mission and CRS are important because they provide food to the needy and old
and, build schools. They provide clothing to children in schools and help families to pay
school fees. In the area of agriculture, they provide seeds especially for groundnuts. Rural
Aid provided them with hand dug wells and bore holes, which helped women in reducing the
time spent to fetch drinking water. They have more time now to work on their farms.
94
The Fire Service created awareness on bush burning, tree cutting (deforestation) and offers
training on conservation of natural resources. They also report fire hazards to obtain support
from the disaster office while the police help the community in peace keeping.
MoFA is important in supporting agricultural activities in the villages. However, its
relationship varies between the different villages. Weak relations were reported at Kandiga,
Widnaba and Binaba due to infrequent visits by MoFA officers. There is a reduction in MoFA
supplying inputs to the community. In villages like Sherigu, Bongo Central and Gaani the
relationship between MoFA and the village is valued as strong due to their technical support
through training and the linkage mechanism they offer to farmers access to financial
institutions for credit. In Gaani, the relationship with the extension worker was valued more
than with the ministry itself. Other organisations supporting agriculture in technical matters
are ICOUR at Gaani and World Vision at Bongo Central.
There are more organisations supporting agriculture in diverse ways. For example, Navrongo
Health Research Centre at Kandiga and Gaani offers advice to households on the nutritional
importance of leafy vegetables and this motivates farmers to produce them. CENSUDI at
Kandiga offers credit for income generating activities including leafy vegetable production.
The Peace Corps at Kandiga and the Tindanas are concerned with environmental conservation
in terms of soil conservation and tree planting.
5. 3
Stakeholder linkages
Stakeholder linkages and their relations were analysed by individual stakeholders with
reference to other organisations (Table 5.2). MoFA expressed that it has good linkages with
World Vision International, Action Aid, SARI, ARI, SRMC and UDS. The linkage was either
through collaboration in research activities or collaboration in agricultural technical training.
The strong linkage between MoFA and ICOUR is due to the fact that they belong to the same
ministry. ICOUR collaborates with SARI in research and provides inputs to Action Aid
clients.
World Vision International and Action Aid perceive MoFA as a source of resource persons
for their own programs. World Vision International indicated that its linkage with SRMC and
ICOUR is moderate, as it is indirect. Action Aid on the other hand views its linkages with
ICOUR and TRAX as very good as they receive technical support on dam construction, canal
maintenance and soil and water conservation. According to Techhnoserve’s perception, its
linkages with MoFA, TRAX and ICOUR are mainly directed at agricultural information
sharing.
A moderate linkage is observed between some stakeholders, which was attributed to a
difference in working sites, operational areas and clients.
5.4
Potential roles of stakeholders in promotion of ILVs
The stakeholders indicated their potential roles with regard to the promotion of indigenous
leafy vegetables (Appendix 15). Stakeholders showed interest in areas like improvement of
vegetable production through farmer schools. MoFA, TRAX, RUWA and SARI pointed out
95
Table 5.2
Indigenous leafy vegetables stakeholder linkage matrix
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Key stakeholder
Vegetable producer
MoFA
SARI
ARI
UDS
SRMC
WVI
Action Aid
TRAX
TECHOSERVE
RUWA
ICOUR
ADRA
Catholic Diocese
Rural Aid IFAD
Index:
+++
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
+++
+++
Rural Aid IFAD
Catholic Diocese
ADRA
ICOUR
RUWA
TECHOSERVE
TRAX
Action Aid
WVI
SRMC
UDS
ARI
SARI
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
++
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
++
+
+++
+++
+++
+++
++
+++
+++
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
++
+++
+++ Very Good, ++ Good, + Moderate, NA: No Linkage, – Bad
Source: ICRA 2002, Stakeholder analysis
96
MoFA
Vegetable
producer
Linkage
+
+++
+++
++
+
their interest in extension on organic farming. Farmers want to expand the area under ILVs
and lift production to a commercial level, and this is supported by Action Aid, ICOUR, UDS,
TRAX, MoFA, Technoserve and Catholic Diocese.
Support for infrastructure development and irrigation facilities, e.g. construction of dams and
hand-dug wells is seen as crucial in the promotion of indigenous leafy vegetables. Two
organisations, ICOUR and Rural Aid are interested in infrastructure development to support
indigenous leafy vegetables.
The Nutrition Department at UDS and ARI focus on research on the nutritional and medicinal
uses of indigenous leafy vegetables and the potential use of their residues as livestock feed
and fibre. Development and promotion of processing techniques for indigenous leafy
vegetables to improve the quality and shelf life of vegetables have the support of
Technoserve, ICOUR and Catholic diocese.
SARI, MoFA, ICOUR and Catholic Diocese expressed interest in seed multiplication either
on-station or on-farm for the improvement of seed quality and supply. SRMC and ARI
indicated conservation of indigenous species through identification of “hot spots” and
protection of species as areas of interest.
World Vision, Technoserve and RUWA are interested in poverty reduction through
supporting income generation activities and provision of credit to farmers, especially women.
These organisations are also willing to support indigenous leafy vegetable producers by
providing them with credit. MoFA and Rural Aid on the other hand are willing to facilitate
linkages between farmers and credit institutions.
97
98
CHAPTER 6
IDENTIFICATION AND SCREENING OF DEVELOPMENT
STRATEGIES
Identifying development strategies is one of the important steps in the ARD procedure. After
organising the team and defining the system of interest, the third phase of the ARD procedure
starts with the targeting of research to specific groups. This phase analyses the system of
interest from various analytical and disciplinary perspectives, which include livelihood
systems, agro-ecosystems/farming systems, knowledge and information systems and,
commodity systems. These analyses are done in relation to their relevance to the system of
interest and the problematique. The analysis, finally, leads to formulation of development
strategies with various stakeholders (Fig.6.1).
Fig 6.1
ARD Phase III, Identifying development strategies
Phase II
Analyzing the system from
different disciplinary
perspectives
Targeting research
to specific groups
Identifying development
strategy
Phase IV
Source: ICRA
6.1
Constraints
There are several technological, socio-economic and institutional problems associated with
conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing of ILVs in UER that limit their
cultivation on a commercial scale. The perceptions of farmers and other stakeholders on the
major constraints in ILV conservation, cultivation, processing and marketing were gathered.
These perceptions are presented in the sections that follow.
6.1.1
Farmers’ perceptions
Farmers’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production were collected through individual
household surveys. A total of 55 households from six villages were surveyed (Table 6.1).
99
Table 6.1
S.N
Farmers’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production in UER of Ghana
Constraints
Percentage of respondents
Rainfed villages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Limited access to
financial capital/credit
Poor soil fertility
High cost of fertiliser
Pest and disease
infestation
Limited access to
labour
Limited access to
bullocks
Limited market
demand for ILV
Erratic rains
Irrigated villages
Kandiga Widnaba Sherigu Gaani Binaba Bongo
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
80
86
77
77
80
80
Average
80
20
40
45
43
27
43
11
44
22
11
77
33
60
60
50
50
80
70
33
55
44
20
43
11
33
20
20
25
10
72
44
11
20
70
38
20
14
33
44
40
30
30
30
100
99
22
100
10
60
N.B: (1) = Rainfed and subsistence; (2) = Rainfed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rainfed,
commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with limited
access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market.
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Household survey of 55 households from six villages.
A majority of farmers (80%) responds that limited access to credit is one of the most
important constraints limiting the purchase and application of inputs for ILV cultivation.
Other important constraints are erratic rainfall (60%), insects/pests and disease infestation
(44%), and high cost of buying or hiring bullocks (38%). Poor soil fertility (33%), low market
demand of ILVs (30%) and limited access to labour due to non-affordability (25%) are other
constraints limiting the production of ILVs.
High costs of chemical fertilisers was the major concern of farmers producing under irrigated
conditions (72%) as they are forced to apply chemical fertilisers for ILVs production because
of the limited availability of manure. Farmers under rainfed conditions, usually, do not apply
chemical fertilisers and hence they are less concerned about this (37%). Farmers at Binaba
and Bongo produce large quantities of ILVs under irrigated conditions. They experience a
high level of insect/pest and disease problems, possibly due to lack of alternative plant hosts
for the pests.
6.1.2
Stakeholders’ perceptions
Stakeholders’ perceptions on the major constraints related to ILVs conservation, cultivation,
processing and marketing were collected through a group exercise with various stakeholders
during the mid-term workshop and during interviews with them. The major constraints as
indicated by the stakeholders are summarised in Table 6.2.
100
Table 6.2
Aspects
Conservation
Cultivation
Processing
Marketing
Stakeholders’ perceptions on constraints in ILV production in UER of
Ghana


























Main constraints
Limited number of institutions involved in conservation of ILVs
No policy priority for ILVs
Inadequate knowledge on importance of conservation of ILVs
Lack of funding for conservation of ILVs
Inadequate empirical data on ILVs
No research on mode of conservation of ILVs
Negative perception of people towards ILVs (the higher the
income/education level, the lower the preference for ILVs)
Almost no modern technologies developed for cultivation of ILVs
No formal breeding programs on ILVs
Marginal land allocation for ILVs
Competition from exotic vegetable species
Lack of credit/funding
Limited preference of people for ILVs
Limited awareness of nutritional values of ILVs
Perception of people towards ILVs as minor crops
Highly perishable nature of the ILVs
Difficulty in processing
Limited processing techniques available
Limited markets
No market research
Changing tastes of people
Lack of industrial usage
Lack of market promotion
Low local prices of ILVs
Inappropriate transportation and packaging
Limited distribution channels
Source: ICRA Field study 2002, Group exercise during Mid-term Workshop
It was observed that ILVs received little attention due to low market value. No research was
done on ILVs in this region. The Savana Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), having the
research mandate on agricultural commodities, expressed that their proposal for research on
ILVs was not accepted since there was no adequate justification of the problems. Very limited
documentation has, so far, been produced on ILVs. The main reason for this could be that
ILVs are not a priority under the agricultural development programs of MoFA and other
organisations.
According to MoFA in Kassena-Nankana District, one of the main problems associated with
the cultivation of indigenous leafy vegetables is the use of poor quality seed by farmers.
These are usually reserved from previous harvests. Seeds are not produced under proper
conditions. Most of the time, various insect pests and diseases infest crops. The poor seed
storage facilities also contribute to the post-harvest losses of seed.
101
The unfavourable climatic conditions affect production, collection and eventually
consumption of ILVs. The rains are either too much or too little and affect production. Poor
soil fertility and low input application are the other factors contributing to the low ILV
production.
The presence of small to large-scale irrigation schemes contributes to the production of ILVs.
The ILV production is limited by the size of the irrigation scheme. In small and medium scale
schemes, utilisation of the dam for irrigation goes up to March. The production of exotic
vegetables such as onions, tomatoes and peppers in this period attracts higher profits and
hence farmers are more inclined to produce these vegetables.
ILVs are considered as minor crops and receive little or no priority the current production
system. Environmental degradation, which is caused by bush burning, contributes to the
disappearance of the wild or collected ILV species. The cultural factors or ethnic tastes and
preferences in the communities affect the type of ILV species that may be cultivated or
collected. Educational background affects the choice of vegetables for food. The welleducated and perhaps privileged in society do not prefer ILVs because eating exotic vegetable
is associated with a higher social status than eating ILVs.
MoFA at Bongo perceives that ILVs contribute substantially to the household food security
especially during dry seasons. Due to the poor soil fertility, less food is produced in the dry
season and most of the food reserves are used up during customary funeral celebrations
during this period. This leaves the households with little or no food. During May and July
therefore, ILVs become important components of the diet. Despite this crucial role of ILVs in
ensuring food security, the production of ILVs is not given adequate prominence in the
cropping system. ILVs are produced on the compound and as a border crop in main crop
farms. During rainy seasons large quantities of ILVs are produced in every household,
resulting in low market demand. Reduced or limited sunshine hours in the rainy seasons mean
poor drying conditions and spoilage of the leafy vegetables. The major processing technology
used is sun drying. Currently, the WIAD project is trying to improve the processing
technology by introducing solar dryers and training women farmers in solar drying.
The Rural Women Association (RUWA), an NGO based at Navrongo, sees the level of
technical know-how among women farmers as limited, especially on the use of chemical
fertilisers and pesticides. The poor storage and processing facilities during the rainy season
contribute to post harvest losses of the ILVs. RUWA is of the opinion that the possibilities for
marketing processed ILVs are limited as many people prefer fresh vegetables. But they are
willing to support these women with more credit for buying solar dryers if they can prove that
their main constraint is money.
The Irrigation Company of Upper East Region (ICOUR) is of the opinion that indigenous
knowledge is disappearing rather than the species themselves. ICOUR suggests that, if
possible, indigenous knowledge should be documented for future reference. The production of
the ILVs is easy. They are characterised by a short production cycle and low costs of
production. They are seasonally produced, with supply exceeding demand in the rainy season.
In the dry season, market demand is higher than supply due to reduced production of ILVs at
that time. Farmers are not organised for marketing of ILVs as the production is mainly at
subsistence scale. According to ICOUR, production of ILVs has commercial potential for
women who lack financial assistance and have limited technical know-how. ICOUR would
offer support on plant protection, processing technology, land expansion,
102
improvement/construction of small-scale dams, facilitate marketing organisation and
improvement of infrastructure.
Action Aid considers the water issue as the main constraint limiting ILV production in the
UER. Other problems include insect/pests, inappropriate storage and low market prices.
Catholic Diocese and Adventists Development and Relief Agency (ADRA), think the lack of
consciousness of people towards ILVs, low income from ILVs, small farm holdings,
unorganised market and problem of drying ILVs in the rainy season are the major problems
associated with the promotion of ILVs in UER.
6.2
Opportunities
There are several opportunities for ILV production in UER that can be exploited for
promoting commercialisation of ILV cultivation in this region. The perceptions of
stakeholders on the possible opportunities for promoting ILV conservation, cultivation,
processing and marketing were collected during the mid-term workshop. The major
opportunities as indicated by stakeholders are summarised in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3
Aspects
Conservation
Cultivation
Processing
Marketing
Stakeholders’ perceptions on opportunities for ILV production in UER























Main opportunities
Growing interest for consumption
Increased use for medicinal purposes e.g child nutrition
Increasing knowledge
Improving perception and attitude
Increased donor support
Increased intellectual interest
Income generating
No gender barriers
Increase in production
Decreasing medical bills (medicinal values)
Available water sources
Indigenous knowledge is available
Well adapted
Low input and labour requirements
Little technology required
Early maturity
Multiple harvests
Availability of solar dryers
Limitless sunshine
Large quantity of produce
Income generating
Viable local markets
Potential external markets
Source: ICRA Ghana 2002, Group exercise during Mid-term Workshop
103
6.3
Development strategies
Considering the constraints and opportunities analysis results together with the analysis of
information collected during the in-depth study in different villages, the team proposed some
development strategies to overcome the constraints and exploit the opportunities. The
strategies were presented and discussed at a stakeholders’ meeting, resulting in some
modifications. A list of development strategies along with the farm types they are appropriate
for is presented in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4
Development strategies for promotion of ILVs in UER of Ghana
S.N. Development strategies
Conservation
1.
Germ plasm collection, evaluation and
seed bank establishment
Documentation and dissemination of
2.
indigenous knowledge on ILVs
In situ conservation of wild/collected
3.
species of ILVs
Cultivation
Including ILVs in seed multiplication
4.
program
5.
Improvement in cropping system.
Balanced use of manure/compost and
6.
chemical fertilisers for ILVs cultivation
Use of integrated pest management (IPM)
7.
techniques
Provision of more small, medium and large
8.
scale irrigation schemes and diversified use
of irrigation sources
Processing
Establishment of small-scale/cottage
9.
processing and packaging industries
Marketing
Promotion of commercialisation potential
10.
of ILVs through mass media
Mobilisation of farmers association or co11. operatives for production, processing and
marketing of ILVs
Proper handling of ILVs to reduce post
12.
harvest losses
Others/institutional improvement
Awareness creation on multipurpose use of
13.
ILVs
Incorporating ILVs under MOFA and other
14.
organisations’ development programs
Encouragement of credit institutions to
15.
provide credit to ILVs producer’s group
16. Improvement in market facilities
Source: ICRA 2002, Stakeholders meeting
104
Farm types
All farm types
All farm types
Rainfed subsistence and rainfed commercial
limited/easy access to market
Rainfed and irrigated commercial limited/easy
access to market
All farm types
All farm types
All farm types
All farm types
All farm types
All farm types
All farm types
All farm types
All farm types
All farm types
Rainfed and irrigated commercial with easy
access to market
All farm types
6.3.1
Conservation strategies
Conservation strategies have to encompass not just the cultivated and collected species of
ILVs, but also the indigenous knowledge that farmers possess. Three strategies proposed for
the conservation of ILV species and indigenous knowledge are described below.
Germplasm collection, evaluation and seed bank establishment
Because of the various constraints and problems associated with ILVs, farmers in some areas
are motivated to continue production of ILVs. Farmers in irrigated areas prefer to grow more
marketable and lucrative exotic vegetable species. Though there is no evidence that any of the
cultivated species of ILV are going out of cultivation, there is a need to maintain all the
species that are being grown in the region. Bush clearing, bush burning, overgrazing/browsing by livestock and low rainfall contribute to the gradual disappearance of
collected species of ILVs and a loss of bio-diversity in this area.
There is an urgent need to collect germplasm of all the ILVs available in the area and
maintain them through establishment of a seed/gene bank. This strategy will benefit all the
farm types under both rainfed and irrigated conditions. Maintaining the germplasm and
establishment of a seed/gene bank can be done at some farms or research stations or in
farmers’ fields under intensive guidance and management by researchers. This strategy will
not only help conserve the species but can also supply seeds in case of crop failure.
Documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs
Farmers have been growing ILVs for many decades in the study area using their indigenous
technologies, which are well adapted to the local conditions. They have acquired much
indigenous knowledge from the older generations and through experience. Since no research
is being undertaken to generate new technologies on ILV cultivation and processing,
indigenous knowledge is under such circumstances very important. The gradual passing away
of the older generation and migration of people to urban areas are major threats for
maintaining indigenous knowledge. Therefore, collecting and documenting the indigenous
knowledge available, is very important in order to promote the continuous production and
commercialisation of ILVs.
Although this study has collected some indigenous knowledge on nutrition, medicinal
properties, cultivation techniques, use of indigenous materials for insects/pests and disease
control, processing and storage techniques (Chapter 3), there is a need to do more intensive
exercises to cover a wider area. The collected indigenous knowledge should be documented
and published in very simple language and should be made available to the various
institutions and farmers’ groups involved in promoting ILVs. Simply documenting the
indigenous knowledge does not achieve anything unless it is passed on to a wider population.
Therefore, formalising the dissemination of this knowledge to farmers through the training
programs of MoFA and other organisations is very important. Farmer groups can also be
mobilised to facilitate farmer to farmer transfer of this knowledge. Simultaneously, research
institutes should verify the effectiveness of indigenous techniques and suggest, if necessary,
refinements and adaptations to improve their effectiveness in changing circumstances.
105
In situ conservation of wild/collected species of ILVs
As discussed in Chapter 3, the quantity of collected ILVs is declining due to decreasing
availability of the wild species in the bush. Factors such as bush burning and clearing of bush
for cultivation, increased fire wood collection and overgrazing/browsing on by livestock are
contributing to the reduced availability and disappearance of some ILV species from the bush.
Lack of awareness of the importance of conservation is one factor leading to this. Therefore,
awareness creation of the importance of conservation and appropriate methods of collection
of different ILV species becomes relevant.
6.3.2
Cultivation strategies
Five different development strategies have been proposed to overcome constraints in
cultivation and these are:





seed multiplication
improvement in cropping systems
integrated nutrient management
integrated pest management
establishment of irrigation systems.
Inclusion of ILVs in the seed multiplication program
The cultivation of ILVs in UER mainly depends on seeds reserved from previous harvests of
farmers (83%). Some farmers (17%) also receive seeds from neighbours and relatives and
others (38%) buy seeds from local markets. These seeds are of poor quality and there is no
seed multiplication program on ILVs. Farmers produce their seeds without maintaining
isolation distances, adopting rogueing, and other pre and post harvest quality control
measures. They also do not follow the minimum seed quality standards such as germination
percentage, moisture content, maximum foreign materials in seed etc. The use of poor quality
seeds limits the productivity of crops.
Therefore, there is a need to improve the quality of ILV seeds through formal seed
multiplication programs that ensure all the pre and post harvest quality measures. It is
important to include ILVs under the seed multiplication programs of MoFA and other
organisations. As there is not much information available on seed production of ILVs,
research on seed production techniques of ILVs should be conducted to guide the seed
multiplication program. This strategy can be implemented especially in areas where ILVs are
grown on commercial scale under both irrigated and rainfed systems.
Improvement in cropping systems
Under rainfed conditions, ILVs are mainly grown mixed with other crops (74%). About 26%
of the farmers grow them as single stand crop but on a very small scale in compound farms
around the houses. Farmers mix seeds of two or more crops together and plant in one hole.
Similarly, they do not maintain proper plant spacing or the appropriate plant density. This
might be attributed to scarcity of land. In order to maximise the utilisation of land and reduce
the risk of crop failure, farmers cultivate several crops. Farmers also lack the knowledge on
crop compatibility, spacing, and effectiveness of mixed cropping or mixed seeding.
106
Under irrigated conditions farmers grow various crops throughout the year, which allows all
types of insects to survive for longer period because of the availability of different host plants.
Similarly, ILVs are grown under mono cropping systems (100%) however, 19% are also
grown as mixed crops with cereals where ILVs are planted as boundary crop. Farmers
continue to grow the same crop on a particular piece of land for several years. This increases
the chances on various diseases and insects/pests and nematode infestations specific to the
crop. Therefore, there is a need to improve the cropping systems under both rainfed and
irrigated conditions. As there are a limited number of technologies available on these aspects,
research on appropriate combinations of crops for mixed cropping, mixed seeding and on
appropriate plant spacing appears necessary. It is also important to follow crop rotation with
different of crops under irrigated conditions.
Balanced use of manure/compost and chemical fertilisers
In the rainfed area of the farmers growing leafy vegetables only 59% are using manure.
However, 41% of the respondents indicated that they apply chemical fertilisers to other crops
grown on the same plot as ILVs. As the cost of fertilisers is very high, most farmers cannot
afford them. Farmers cannot make much profit out of rainfed farming of ILVs and hence they
think it is uneconomical to use chemical fertilisers. However, due to the limited availability of
manure, they can not apply sufficient quantities of this either. Under this condition the soil
can not supply the required nutrients to the crops and hence the productivity remains low.
Under irrigated conditions farmers usually do not apply manure but rather apply chemical
fertilisers (52%) to ILVs though in small quantities. Farmers who are growing ILVs on a
commercial scale under irrigated conditions and making a profit can afford to apply chemical
fertilisers as the investment made will be paid back. However, application of chemical
fertilisers alone without manure or compost has a negative effect on soil structure.
Therefore, the balanced use of manure/compost and chemical fertilisers is important for all
the farm types to supply the required nutrients to plants without destroying the soil structure.
Research on the appropriate ratio of manure/compost and chemical fertilisers and their time of
application is required.
Use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques
Insects/pests and diseases attacks on ILVs are one of the major constraints of leafy vegetable
production. The household survey conducted in six villages indicated that 22 to 70%
respondents perceived the problem of insects/pests and disease attack as a major constraint for
ILVs production (Table 6.1). Some farmers do not take any measures to control as the
production is done on a small scale. The majority of farmers (75%) do not apply any
chemicals to control insects/pests or diseases of ILVs. Most of the farmers use wood ash
(71%) or neem leaves extracts (19%) to control the insect/pests. As farmers earn a very small
income from the sale of ILVs, they cannot afford to buy the expensive chemicals. However,
in irrigated conditions, under dry season commercial scale farming some farmers (19%) use
some chemicals to control insect/pests and diseases. Spraying of chemicals on leafy
vegetables has, no doubt, an adverse effect on consumers’ health, as the possibility of large
residues on the leaves exist.
The use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques is important to control insects/pests
and diseases of ILVs. IPM refers to the minimum and safe use of chemicals and increased use
107
of biological agents and organic materials for pest control. The use of locally available
botanicals like neem and local materials like wood ash are the cheapest and easiest options for
farmers to use. IPM could be very expensive if high cost biological agents are used.
Therefore, research on the use of locally available botanicals for plant protection and
effectiveness of different indigenous pest control measures is necessary.
Provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes and diversified use
of irrigation sources
In UER though some important irrigation facilities have been established, these can only
serve to a small portion of arable land. The two National projects in this region i.e. Tono and
Vea together provide irrigation to 1.1 % of the cultivated area in UER (ICRA Ghana, 1999).
There are 228 dams and dugouts in the whole UER (Dery, 1998 as cited by ICRA Ghana,
1999) which are not meant for irrigation purposes but for livestock watering and domestic
purposes. Most of the dams are very old and their water storage capacity is reduced by
siltation, breaches of and damage to their spillways. Under LACOSREP I, a total of 36 dams
and 8 dugouts were rehabilitated which provide irrigation to 0.18 % of the total cultivated
area in the region. Similarly, there are some hand-dug wells, which also support cultivation of
vegetables, but on a very small scale. There might be more dams and dugouts constructed
after the year 1999 of which no data are available. This indicates that a very small proportion
of cultivated land in UER is under irrigation and that very few farmers have access to
irrigation for ILVs cultivation.
There is a need to establish more small-scale dugouts, small water harvesting ponds and boreholes. In addition, provision should be made to diversify the use of these water sources i.e. for
livestock watering, domestic purpose and use for small-scale irrigation. Similarly, some more
medium and large scale dams should be constructed to cover a larger area. Maintenance of the
existing irrigation structures is also very important for their effective use.
6.3.3
Processing strategies
Establishment of small-scale/cottage processing and packaging industries
A large proportion of ILVs produced in UER comes from rainfed farming during the rainy
season (May to Sep/Oct). In this season almost all households in the villages produce ILVs,
mainly for their own consumption. There is comparatively low demand for ILVs in the market
during this period because most of the households produce. Farmers dry some ILVs and store
it for consumption and sale in the dry season. During this season (Oct to April) very few
households, having access to irrigation water, can produce ILVs and hence most of the
farmers have to depend on stored dry vegetables until the rains start. This situation forces
farmers to process ILVs during the rainy season.
In the household survey, it was found that the majority of the respondents who process ILVs
(81%) use the direct sun drying method. Direct exposure to sunlight destroys colour, vitamins
and flavour in the food (Kordylas, 1990; Agamba, 2001). During drying vitamins A and
ascorbic acid contents are also greatly reduced. Other problems experienced by farmers using
this method are that vegetables get contaminated with dust and they blown away by winds.
Furthermore, rainfall many times disrupts the drying process and when there is not enough
sunlight it is difficult to dry.
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The proposed strategy focuses on establishing small-scale/cottage industries for processing of
ILVs, which includes introduction of solar dryer and in the long term canning of processed
vegetables. A solar dryer does not need intensive sunlight and vegetables do not get exposed
to direct sun light, dust, wind and rain and retain more or less its original colour. It could be a
good alternative technology for processing ILVs. Though efforts are being made by MoFA,
WIAD, RUWA and some other organisations to improve the processing technique by
introducing solar dryers and providing training to women farmers in solar drying, some extra
effort is needed to demonstrate and promote different types of solar dryers in the region. It
was observed that the solar dryer is very expensive (about 250,000 Cedis) and hence, most of
the farmers can not afford to buy it personally. Therefore, farmers’ Groups/Associations or
co-operatives should be encouraged to buy solar dryers. In addition, the possibilities for some
other processing methods for ILVs should be explored through research.
6.3.4
Marketing strategies
Promotion of the commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media
Despite having high nutritional and medicinal values and being an important source of food,
the market demand for ILVs is still low. This could be attributed to limited awareness of the
importance of ILVs. On the other hand, ILVs are not able to compete with exotic vegetables
like tomatoes, cabbages, lettuce and pepper. ILV growers do not get as much profit as in
exotic vegetables mainly because of the low demand and low prices of ILVs. This study
showed that some ILV species such as Alefu, Bito, Berese and Bento have very good potential
for commercialisation, and could compete with the exotic species.
The proposed strategy suggests that the market promotion of such vegetable crops should be
done through publicising the importance of ILVs to increase their market demand. Such
publicity can be done through mass media such as television, radio, posters and pamphlets.
Mobilisation of farmers’ associations or co-operatives in production, processing and
marketing of ILVs
During the study it was observed that there are several village based Community
Organisations (Susu at Sherigu), Women Associations (Kandiga, Bongo Central, Gaani),
Water Users Associations (Bongo, Binaba and Sherigu), Youth Associations (Gaani, Bongo
Central and Widnaba) and a Farmers’ and Traders’ Associations (Gaani) in the villages in
UER. The roles of these associations/organisations mainly include promoting income
generating activities for women (pito making, rice parboiling, shea nut butter trading), dam
maintenance, other agricultural activities like rice, groundnut and exotic vegetable production,
saving and credit, and trading of agricultural commodities. These associations/organisations
are specific to some villages and none of them are involved in ILV cultivation, processing or
marketing.
Farmers’ groups/associations and co-operatives can play an important role in co-ordinating
the ILVs production in the region if they are well organised. Therefore, formation of
farmers/consumers associations or co-operatives that mobilise all the new and existing
associations to co-ordinate cultivation, input supply, processing and marketing is very
important. Training on co-operative management should be provided to the people involved in
such associations and co-operatives to build capacity for their effective management.
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Proper handling of fresh ILVs to reduce post harvest losses
The ILVs produced by farmers are not completely harvested and that part which is harvested
is not fully utilised. There are always some losses occurring at different stages of production,
harvesting, handling, sorting, packaging, and transporting. After harvesting, ILVs are mostly
carried to the markets in sacks, polythene bags and metallic basins and no proper care is taken
in packaging and handling of the produce while taking to the market. The poor roads and
unreliable transportation most often delay carrying the produce to the market resulting in
deterioration of product quality. Similarly, if the harvest is abundant and could not be sold in
the market it gets spoiled because ILVs are highly perishable.
Therefore, technologies on suitable packaging materials and packaging methods for safe
transport of the produce to the market should be developed and disseminated. Training to
producers and traders for safe handling of fresh ILVs should be organised to reduce the post
harvest losses.
6.3.5
Others/institutional strategies
Awareness creation on multipurpose use of ILVs
Indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, proteins and fibres,
which are essential for the growth and development of human health (Chapter 3). These crops
are important providers of vitamins and micro-nutrients in the diets of the people in UER.
ILVs also have some important medicinal values. These vegetables are used in either fresh or
dried form to cook for making stew or soup. With some species like Berese (Kennaf) and Bito
after several harvests of leaves, plants are left for fibre production. The fibre is used for
making ropes. Similarly the residues of leafy vegetables can also be used for livestock feed.
Such multipurpose use of ILVs should be explored further and people should be made aware
of them. For this purpose mass media such as television, radio, posters, pamphlets could be
used. MoFA and other organisations should organise different training programs for village
based organisations or farmers’ groups which can further help in disseminating the
information to wider audiences. The health centres should also pass the message on
nutritional and medicinal importance of ILVs to people. This will encourage people to grow
and use ILVs and consequently the market demand for ILVs will increase.
Incorporating ILVs under MoFA and other organisations’ development programs
Cultivation of indigenous leafy vegetables in UER has so far been based on farmers’
initiatives. Most of the technologies with regard to the conservation, cultivation and
processing of ILVs are based on farmers’ indigenous knowledge being passed from
generation to generation. Almost no attention has been paid by any research and development
organisations to the promotion of ILVs in this region. MoFA being responsible for overall
agricultural development in the region also does not seem to have ILVs under their priority
crops. Similarly, other development organisations do not have any special program on ILVs.
Though some organisations are indirectly supporting ILVs through providing irrigation
support (ICOUR, Action-Aid, Catholic Diocese, LACOSREP under MoFA), credit support
(RUWA, Mata-N-Tudu, ICOUR) and training on integrated pest management (MoFA, World
Vision, ICOUR), these programs are for general crop/vegetable production and not specially
meant for ILVs. As a result very little documentation was done on ILVs so far.
110
In order to promote the commercialisation of ILV cultivation, these crops should also get
priority under agricultural development and poverty alleviation programs. MOFA should
include and collaborate with other organisations to incorporate ILVs under their programs as
priority crops.
Encouragement of credit institutions to provide credit to ILV producer groups
There are many organisations in the region supporting farmers in crop production, inputs
supply and income generation activities by providing credit. Agricultural Development Bank
(ADB), World Vision, Action Aid, ADRA, RUWA, Catholic Diocese, Maata-N-Tudu,
ICOUR and LACOSREP (under MoFA) are providing credit support to farmers for different
agricultural and income generating activities. However, they do not have any program
focussed especially on ILVs. Households interviews indicated limited access to credit as the
most important constraint (80%) in ILV production. Farmers expressed a need for credit for
buying inputs, hiring bullocks and buying solar dryers (in groups).
As cultivation of ILVs does not require much expensive inputs like other exotic vegetables, a
micro-credit scheme could be appropriate for ILV production. Therefore, proper co-ordination
of potential credit supply institutions is needed to encourage them to provide micro-credit to
ILV producers and farmers/consumers associations or co-operatives for cultivation. MoFA
could take the lead in addressing this issue.
Improvement in market facilities
Indigenous leafy vegetables are highly perishable and can spoil quickly if not handled
properly. Direct exposure to sunlight may cause bleaching and scorching of the produce
(Christiane, 1996 as cited by Yeboah 2001). It also causes loss of moisture from the leaves
resulting in wrinkling and wilting of the leaves ultimately destroying the leaf quality.
Consumers prefer leaves that look fresh and attractive. In the interest of hygiene they should
be free from dust particles and other types of contamination. This could be possible if the
leaves are sold in clean sheds or stalls. The team visited many markets where ILVs were
being sold in open places, placed on the ground where there is the possibility of the above
mentioned factors prevailing, which will destroy the quality of leaves and could affect health.
Therefore, improvement in market facilities in terms of establishing appropriate stalls or sheds
is necessary.
6.4
Screening of development strategies
The above-explained development strategies were screened for their anticipated effect on the
natural resource sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness. This helps in
detecting the potential problems that may arise in implementing the strategies and based on
the outcomes, decisions can be made to address the problems or to refine/modify a strategy
appropriately if possible.
The sixteen development strategies identified by the team were screened using three broad
criteria: environmental sustainability, social equity and economic competitiveness. For each
of these criteria, some sub-criteria were developed by the team which were presented to the
stakeholders during a meeting and based on their suggestions refined (Table 6.5).
111
Table 6.5
Criteria used for screening development strategies
Criteria
Environmental sustainability
Social equity
Economic competitiveness
Sub-criteria













Soil conservation
Bio-diversity conservation
Air pollution control
Water conservation/pollution control
Equal benefits for men and women
Equal benefits for small and large farmers
Acceptability to different ethnic groups
Equal benefits for producers, traders and consumers
Equal benefits for different age groups
Potential for income generation
Enhancement of food security
Low labour requirements
Low capital requirements
Each sub-criteria was given a weight by the stakeholders using pair-wise ranking and then
each criteria was given a weight by compiling the scores. The stakeholders considered
environmental sustainability as the most important criterion followed by economic
competitiveness and social equity and gave weights of 0.6 (0.5 at Sherigu), 0.3 and 0.1 (0.2 at
Sherigu) respectively to these criteria.
Screening of the development strategies was done at two different stages using the abovementioned criteria. In the first stage, the screening was done with various stakeholders
representing research stations (SARI, Manga Research Station), extension (MoFA) and NGOs
(SRMP, TRAX, Technoserve, Catholic Diocese). While in the second stage, screening was
done with farmers at the two of villages Bongo Central and Sherigu representing irrigated and
rainfed production systems respectively. A matrix scoring method was used for screening
where each cell was given a score out of a total score of ten, which was then multiplied by the
weight to get weighted scores. The compiled results of the screening exercise are presented in
Table 6.6.
Based on the feedback received from stakeholders, the strategies for conservation, cultivation,
processing, marketing and institutional improvement aspects were considered separately. At
least two top-scoring strategies for each component, were used for the formulation of research
and development options. The only strategy for processing was selected and further
developed.
Farmers at Sherigu and other stakeholders see in situ conservation as having a very positive
impact on the environment, benefiting all social categories of people and it does not require
much labour and capital to materialise. Farmers from Bongo Central think that it will have a
positive impact on the environment but expect it will favour more women than men and only
those capable of collecting leaves from the bush will benefit economically. Documentation
and dissemination of indigenous knowledge on ILVs was accepted as a very important
strategy for farmers but, other stakeholders feel that it will not have much impact on
environmental sustainability (soil conservation, air pollution control and water conservation)
and on income generation.
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Table 6.6
Matrix scoring for screening of development strategies with farmers
and other stakeholders
Criteria
S.N Strategies
.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Conservation
In situ conservation of
wild/collected species of ILVs
Documentation and dissemination
of Indigenous Knowledge on ILVs
Germplasm collection, evaluation
and seed bank establishment
Cultivation
Provision of more small, medium
and large scale irrigation schemes
and diversified use of irrigation
sources
Use of integrated pest management
(IPM) techniques
Improvement in cropping system
Balanced use of manure/compost
and chemical fertilisers for ILVs
cultivation
Including ILVs in seed
multiplication program
Processing
Establishment of smallscale/cottage processing and
packaging industries
Stakeholders
(other than
farmers)
Farmers at
Farmers at
Average Overall
the irrigated the rainfed
score
ranking
site (Bongo) site (Sherigu)
7.48
8.7
9.7
8.63
I
8.13
II
7.74
5.39
9.5
9.5
5.13
9.4
8.7
6.46
9.6
10.0
8.69
I
I
7.32
10.0
8.7
II
8.21
7.79
8.6
8.7
8.6
8.1
8.67
II
8.47
8.20
IV
VI
6.65
9.0
8.9
8.18
VII
3.51
8.0
7.5
6.34
I
XVI
4.35
9.1
8.6
XI
4.16
7.5
9.3
7.35
I
6.99
II
3.9
9.1
6.9
6.63
XV
7.17
8.5
9.1
8.26
I
V
6.45
8.9
8.9
IX
3.43
7.8
9.1
8.08
II
6.78
XIII
3.96
8.0
8.3
6.75
XIV
III
VIII
X
Marketing
10. Proper handling of ILVs to reduce
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
post harvest losses
Promotion of commercialisation
potential of ILVs through mass
media
Mobilisation of farmers
associations or co-operatives in
production, processing and
marketing of ILVs
Others/institutional improvement
Incorporating ILVs under MoFA
and other organisations’
development programs
Awareness creation on
multipurpose use of ILVs
Encouragement of credit
institutions to provide credit to
ILVs producers
Improvement in market facilities
XII
Source: ICRA 2002, Field study
113
Provision of more small, medium and large scale irrigation schemes and diversified use of
irrigation sources and the use of integrated pest management (IPM) techniques obtained top
scores under the cultivation strategies. These two strategies even obtained the highest scores
among all the strategies across the components. Farmers from both sites felt that irrigation is a
critical requirement for promoting ILVs. Other stakeholders feel that it will not make a great
contribution to environmental sustainability, water conservation excepted, it will require high
capital and labour inputs and will only benefit those who have access to or can afford
irrigation water. For the use of IPM technologies, both Bongo and Sherigu farmers think that
this will safeguard the environment. People will benefit, as it is cheap and the use of local
materials is encouraged. Society will be able to eat toxic-free food and it will help increase the
productivity, and thereby farmers’ income. Other stakeholders think that though it is
environmentally safe and socially acceptable for all, it will require more labour and capital.
The strategy for processing was thought important by farmers and stakeholders though it
ranked the last. The stakeholders do not see it contributing positively towards environmental
sustainability but to the contrary they saw it as a pollution risk if a processing factory is
established. A solar dryer will not adversely affect the environment. As the solar dryer is
expensive, not many can afford it. Nevertheless, its importance was realised as it will
maintain the quality (colour, flavour and nutritional value) of dried ILVs and make them
available throughout the year. Stakeholders (other than farmers) gave a low score to this
strategy as they think enabling year-round production of ILVs should be preferred as the
market demand for fresh vegetables is higher than for the dried. Processing at this point in
time was therefore thought premature unless there is surplus production. They perceive that it
will demand high labour and capital inputs.
Proper handling of ILVs to reduce post-harvest losses and promotion of the
commercialisation potential of ILVs were the two strategies selected for further consideration.
According to the farmers from both Bongo Central and Sherigu, proper handling of ILVs will
protect the environment by preventing rotting and spoilage of ILVs. They felt women and
those selling in large quantities would benefit most. As it will improve the quality of ILVs, it
will fetch higher market prices and promote income generation. Other stakeholders think it
will not have any impact on the environment but requires more labour and capital. They
realise that all categories of people will benefit from this strategy. Market promotion
according to all the stakeholders has little to do with environment. Socially women and
people who are selling ILVs will benefit and it will have a positive effect on income
generation and food security due to increased market demand. According to the stakeholders
(other than farmers) the mobilisation of farmers’ associations or co-operatives will not have
any effect on the environment and it does not create much potential for income generation and
food security and therefore they did not attach much importance to this strategy.
Under institutional aspects, incorporating ILVs under MoFA and other organisations’
development programs and awareness creation on multipurpose use of ILVs ranked high. For
both the strategies all stakeholders agree that they will target all the categories of people in
society and that they will help in income generation and food security. Farmers feel that the
area under ILVs could increase, if MoFA and other organisations will promote ILV
cultivation and create awareness about the opportunities. The other stakeholders do not see
the direct effect of these strategies on the environment.
114
Although during individual household interviews the majority of the farmers expressed lack
of financial capital/credit as the most important constraint in ILV production, other
stakeholders did not see this as the most limiting factor because the cultivation of ILVs does
not require a lot of capital. Similarly, they don’t see any impact of this strategy on
environmental sustainability, and feel that this will be biased towards male, large farmers and
producers and traders (not consumers) and consequently they gave a low score to this
strategy.
Nine development strategies were taken to the next step of prioritising the research and
development options. This does not discount the importance of other strategies. A description
of all the strategies and their scoring on the basis of importance were presented in this chapter.
Similarly, research and development options for all the sixteen strategies were developed
which are presented in the following chapter. This facilitates any institutions/organisations to
pick up strategies according to their mandate and interest for further implementation.
115
116
CHAPTER 7
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS
The next step in the fourth phase of the ARD procedure, following the screening of the
development strategies in Chapter 6, deals with assessing and prioritising research and
development options. In this step the possible contributions of research and development are
defined that can facilitate the realisation of development strategies that have passed the
screening. The team designed sixteen development strategies, which were discussed in
Chapter 6. The screening exercise resulted in the selection of nine development strategies for
further action. The strategies were selected to cover all aspects/components of the study i.e.
two strategies each on: conservation, cultivation, marketing and others/institutional
improvement. Since there was only one development strategy formulated on processing, it
was selected as one of the screened strategies.
To implement these strategies, some new technologies or information might be required.
These gaps in knowledge call for some research and these researchable areas are referred to as
research options in the description that follows. Development options are those interventions,
which can make use of available knowledge, but they might have some financial implications
or require explicit policy support. Some researchable areas (research options) and
development activities (development options) were identified for the sixteen development
strategies (Appendix 16) designed for improving and sustaining the production of indigenous
leafy vegetables. Only the research and development options corresponding to the nine
screened strategies are discussed here. The options with their justification and their
prioritisation are presented in this chapter. The stakeholders who could be partners in the
implementation of the prioritised research and development options are also highlighted.
7.1
Research options
Seventeen research options were identified for the nine screened development strategies and
they are described briefly in the following sections. It is proposed that the suggested research
employs a farmer participatory approach and ensures that the developed
technologies/interventions fit in the existing indigenous knowledge system.
7.1.1
Research options for conservation strategies
Identification of hot spots for endangered species of ILVs
There are some places in UER where some of the species, especially collected species, are
fast disappearing due to various reasons. For instance a species called Samparaga does not
survive well in low rainfall areas and is fast disappearing at Sherigu village because of this.
Similarly at Kandiga, Kelpomvoro and Kulgonga species are disappearing fast. Therefore, a
study is required to identify the hot spots where some species are endangered. This will
facilitate implementing in situ conservation programs.
Research on modes of conservation
Conservation of wild/collected species can be done either by protecting the species in the
forest where they exist i.e. wild modes of conservation or by replanting and maintaining the
117
species elsewhere i.e. gardening. Some research is proposed to find out the effectiveness of
these different modes of conservation.
Research on modes of collection of ILVs from the bush
ILVs from the bush are mainly collected in two ways:
 by uprooting the whole plant (for small plants)
 by pruning/plucking leaves and twigs from the plants (for comparatively big
plants/trees).
Uprooting the whole plant could have a negative effect on conservation as it may facilitate the
faster disappearance of the species by preventing the dispersal of seeds. Therefore, a study
needs to be undertaken to find out the appropriate methods to collect wild species.
7.1.2
Research options for cultivation strategies
A study on major insect pests and diseases of ILVs
The insects/pests and disease problem was identified by the farmers (44% of the respondents)
as one of the important constraints in ILV production. However, identification of the
insects/pests and diseases was difficult for the farmers. Not much literature is available since
very little work has been done so far. Due to this, farmers are using chemicals haphazardly,
whether or not they are appropriate. Therefore, a study on identification of major insects/pests
and diseases is proposed so that appropriate control measures could be identified and
recommended.
Research on efficiency and efficacy of different indigenous pest control measures
Farmers use several indigenous methods to control insects/pests and diseases, e.g.: wood ash,
Neem leaf extract, cattle dung, kerosene oil. The farmers who are using these technologies
vouch for their effectiveness against insects/pests. Their efficiency and efficacy need to be
verified so that they could be popularised and recommended in other areas.
Research on use of botanicals in plant protection (pest control)
Integrated pest management (IPM) is considered to be a very effective and environmentally
safe approach to control different insects/pests and diseases in crops. This approach
emphasises the use of plant materials and other biological agents and minimum and safe use
of chemicals in pest control. The use of expensive biological agents, which are locally not
available, could be difficult for farmers to afford. Moreover, use of such technologies by a
single farmer to control insects/pests on his/her farm is not effective and requires a mass
campaign at the community level. The Neem plant, omnipresent in this region, is used by
farmers (19% of the respondents) to control various field and storage pests. There are many
other locally available plants, which could effectively be used to control pests in ILVs. The
use of locally available materials is cheaper and thus more attractive to the farmers as it can
contribute to lowering the production costs. Research is necessary to explore the potential of
various locally available plants to be used for insects/pests and disease control in ILVs. In
addition, a study needs to be undertaken to explore whether the IPM approach is feasible both
in terms of community initiative and affordability.
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Research on the effect of chemical residues used for ILVs on human health
About 27% of the respondents in the household interviews were using chemicals to control
insects/pests and diseases in ILVs. More farmers are interested in applying chemicals but can
not afford it. Due to lack of knowledge, farmers sometimes use chemicals on ILVs that are
intended for other crops and may not be appropriate for ILVs and may be detrimental to
human health. ILVs are multi-harvest crops and fresh leaves are harvested for either
consumption or sale. Once consumers eat ILVs with residues of chemicals, it may create
health hazards. Research on the effects of these residual chemicals on human health was
therefore proposed. Farmers will exercise caution in employing hazardous chemicals if such
awareness is created.
A feasibility study on the use of a small scale drip irrigation system
Drip irrigation facilitates the economic use of water. A large-scale drip irrigation system
could be very expensive and labour intensive. But the use of small-scale drip irrigation sets,
with a poly-drum/tank with few meters of polythene pipes, can be very effective to meet
needs of small-scale farmers. In Nepal, small scale drip irrigation sets (for 125 m2, 250 m2 and
500 m2 area) used by small-scale vegetable growing farmers in the dry season have been
found to be very effective. Hence, a feasibility study on the use of such small-scale drip
irrigation systems should be conducted to assess their effectiveness for ILV cultivation in the
dry season.
7.1.3
Research options for processing strategies
Testing various solar dryers
Use of solar dryer is one of the alternative methods for processing ILVs. Since this method
does not expose the vegetables to direct sunlight and air, the quality of the leaves is
maintained. Different types of solar dryers are available at different places, manufactured by
different agencies. Therefore, testing and verifying the different types of solar dryers is
important to assess their effectiveness in maintaining the quality of processed vegetables.
Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous sun drying and solar drying methods
Sun drying is the most popular indigenous method used by farmers in UER to process ILVs.
According to farmers, there are various problems associated with this method as it
deteriorates the leaf quality. There is also the danger of the leaves being blown away by winds
during drying or the process being disrupted by rain. In spite of these problems, farmers still
use this method because of non-availability of alternatives.
As described in Chapter 6, drying of the leafy vegetables may affect the colour, flavour and
nutritional value. It may also have an effect on the taste, bio-chemical properties and shelf life
(storability). The proposed research will analyse and compare the effect of different
processing methods on these quality aspects of ILVs.
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7.1.4
Research options for marketing strategies
Research on in-country and export markets of ILVs
Success of ILV production on a commercial scale largely depends on the market demand.
Demand for ILVs in local markets in the region is not enough to absorb the supply of the
produce. Though this team did a survey of local markets and some markets in Burkina Faso
and Togo, the emphasis was mainly on identifying types of vegetables sold in market, their
prices and the sources of supply. A more intensive and methodological/scientific study within
the country and abroad would be useful to explore the commercialisation potential of ILVs for
local sale and export.
Survey on post harvest losses on-farm and in-market
During the field study, farmers reported that some losses occur on-farm, during transportation
to the market and also in the market itself (Chapter 5). However, the extent of this loss is not
known. A survey on post harvest losses at different stages in the chain during transportation
and in the market is important to establish the extent of the losses.
Research on packaging materials and methods for safe handling/transportation of the
produce to the market
ILVs are carried to the markets stuffed in sacs, poly-bags and metal basins. This deteriorates
the quality of the leaves which is ultimately affecting the price. Therefore, research on
appropriate proper packaging materials and packaging methods is needed to facilitate safe
transport of the leaves to the market without losing quality.
7.1.5
Research options for others/institutional improvement strategies
Research on the potential use of ILV residues as livestock feed
ILVs are mainly utilised for human consumption, either in fresh or dried form. Leaves are
harvested either by pruning/plucking leaves (Pumpkin, Maana, Alefu, Berese, Bito and Bento)
or by uprooting the whole plant (Alefu, Bito and Berese) when they are young. The left over
part of the plant after multiple harvesting of the leaves, the poor quality leaves after sorting
for the market and the spoiled leaves left over from the market and not suitable for
consumption, can be fed to livestock. Research to explore the multipurpose uses of ILVs
especially as livestock feed and assess the trade-off in value added if it is used as food or
fodder should be conducted.
Analysis and documentation of the nutritional value of fresh and dried ILVs
As mentioned previously (Chapters 3 and 6), ILVs are a rich source of vitamins, minerals,
proteins and fibres. Though the nutrient content of some of the ILVs (Alefu, Ayoyo and Bito)
has been analysed and documented (Timpo and Dzisi, 2002), analysis and documentation of
the nutrient content of other ILVs in both fresh and dried forms is required to justify the
nutritional importance of ILVs.
120
Research on medicinal value of ILVs
Farmers’ indigenous knowledge (Chapter 3) indicates that some ILVs have medicinal
properties, which can be used to cure some diseases. Scientific verification of the medicinal
importance of these ILVs and documenting it, is important to justify their production and to
use them properly.
7.2
Development options
Seventeen development options covering conservation, cultivation, processing, marketing and
institutional improvement, were identified as important for the screened development
strategies for implementation. Most of the development options presented hereunder are selfexplanatory and their justification and importance was described in Chapter 6 on development
strategies. Therefore, the development options are presented only briefly in this section.
7.2.1




Documentation of indigenous knowledge of farmers on nutritional and medicinal
importance of ILV, conservation strategies and cultivation, insects/pests control,
processing and utilisation technique. Publishing the collected indigenous knowledge in
simple and readable form.
Formalising the dissemination of indigenous knowledge from one generation to another
through training by MOFA and other organisations and, also through farmers’ groups.
MOFA should play a co-ordinating role and create a platform for learning and sharing of
the indigenous knowledge. In the mean time some new dissemination ways should be
explored, as the conventional systems do not seem to be effective.
Awareness campaigns to control bush burning, clearing and overgrazing/browsing to
facilitate in situ conservation of wild species of ILVs.
Creating awareness on the importance of conservation of ILV species through training
programs and information campaigns.
7.2.2






Development options for conservation strategies
Development options for cultivation strategies
Introducing and promoting integrated pest management (IPM) techniques through training
programs by MOFA and other organisations to control insects/pests and diseases of ILVs.
Encouraging farmers to establish small-scale dugouts and bore holes for providing
irrigation to ILVs.
Creating awareness about on-farm/in situ water conservation by farm/field bunding and
constructing low cost water-harvesting ponds.
Maintenance of the existing irrigation system to retain their capacity by preventing
siltation and breaches of and damage to their spillways.
Provisions for the diversified use of water from irrigation sources for vegetables, livestock
watering and domestic use.
Establishment of more medium and large-scale irrigation schemes in the areas where no
irrigation facilities exist to facilitate ILVs production in dry season.
121
7.2.3



Introducing and demonstrating solar dryers for processing ILVs and providing training on
its use.
Training and encouraging ILV producers in appropriate packaging and storage of
processed ILVs.
Introduce/promote establishment of small-scale/cottage processing industries and explore
possibilities for pickling or other processed products from ILVs.
7.2.4



7.3
Development options for marketing strategies
Market promotion in terms of popularising the commercialisation potential of some
promising ILV species like Alefu, Bito, Berese and Bento through mass media as
television, radio, posters and pamphlets.
Provide education/training to farmers and traders on hygienic handling of ILVs on-farm
and in-market.
7.2.5

Development options for processing strategies
Development options for others/institutional improvement strategies
Creating awareness on the multipurpose use of ILVs (nutritional and medicinal values,
diverse recipes and as source of livestock feed) through extension services and through the
use of mass media like television, radio, posters and pamphlets.
MOFA should include and take a lead to co-ordinate with other organisations to include
ILVs under their agricultural development, income generation and poverty alleviation
programs.
Prioritisation of research and development options
Research and development (R&D) options developed for the screened development strategies
were prioritised. This was done separately for research and development options under
conservation, cultivation, processing, marketing and other/institutional improvement
strategies. A workshop was organised with various stakeholders representing research stations
(SARI, Manga Research Station), policy and extension (MoFA), NGOs and other
organisations (SRMP, TRAX, Technoserve), University (UDS) and farmers (from four
villages) for prioritisation of R&D options.
A set of seven criteria for prioritising research options and five for prioritising development
options were identified by the team and presented to the stakeholders who modified them.
Each criterion was given a weight based on its importance (Table 7.1). For prioritising
research options, all the stakeholders considered ease of developing technologies with farmers
as the most important criterion, followed by necessity of the research options. For
development options participants felt that necessity of the development option and probability
of success are the most important criteria followed by the availability of manpower to
implement the option.
122
Table 7.1
Criteria used for prioritising research and development options for
promoting ILV production in UER
Research and
development options
Research options
Development options
Criteria












Necessity of research options
Ease of developing technologies with farmers
Affordability by farmers
Probability of success
Availability of manpower to implement
Availability of physical facilities
Costs of research project
Necessity of development options
Probability of success
Availability of manpower to implement
Availability of physical facilities
Cost of development project
Weight
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
All the research and development options were prioritised by stakeholders using these criteria.
A score was assigned to each cell, with a maximum of ten, and then weighted scores were
obtained. The results of the prioritisation of research and development options are presented
in Tables 7.2 and 7.3 respectively.
7.3.1
Research options prioritisation
Prioritisation of research options on conservation placed the option “identification of hot spots
for endangered species of ILVs” at the top followed by “research on modes of conservation”
(Table 7.2). The first option, according to the participants, can easily be afforded by farmers,
and manpower and physical facilities are available to conduct the research.
Under the cultivation component, the option “research on the efficiency of different
indigenous pest control measures” ranked as the most important followed by “a study on
major insects/pests and diseases of ILVs”. The former option was found to comply with most
of the criteria when compared to the other options. The only problem is that the physical
facilities available to conduct this research are not sufficient and it may be costly to bring
them up to the requirements. The option “research on the effect of residual chemicals on
human health” will be difficult in terms of developing the technology with farmers,
availability of manpower and physical facilities, high cost requirements and less probability of
being successful. Therefore, it was ranked as the least important option under cultivation.
“Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous drying methods” ranked first under the processing
component because the participants think this option fits well with most of the criteria except
that it may be costly. Under the marketing component, “the survey on post harvest losses onfarm and in-market” ranked first because they think it is most necessary, all the facilities
required are available, it is not very costly and can be afforded and adopted by farmers. The
option “research on potential use of ILV residues as livestock feed and on the trade off in
value added between food and fodder” was not seen as being really necessary, in comparison
to the other two options under the other/institutional improvement component. It fitted best
under all other criteria and accordingly ranked first. Analysis and documentation of nutritional
and medicinal values of ILVs was considered almost equally important, with a marginal
difference in score.
123
Table 7.2
Prioritisation of research options for screened development strategies
Costs of the
research project
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
7
8
9
7
8
9
7
9
9
5
9
4
5
5
5
4
2
5
2
2
2
8
4
5
6
5
3
5
7
1
3
2
1
1
1
9
9
8
8
8
6
7
9
9
6
5
7
5
6
9
4
2
3
3
3
5
5
7
3
8
7
4
4
8
8
7
9
8
8
6
9
9
5
7
8
5
4
8
2
1
5
6
6
4
of
Cultivation
Research on use of botanicals
on plant protection
Research on effect of residual
chemicals on human health
Research on efficiency of
indigenous pest control
measures
A study on major insect/pests
and diseases on ILVs
A feasibility study on the use
of a small drip irrigation
system
Processing
Testing various solar dryer
technologies
Verifying the effectiveness of
indigenous drying methods
Research on the effect of
processing/solar drying on
quality
Marketing
Research on in-country and
export markets of ILVs
Research on appropriate packaging materials and methods
Survey on post harvest losses
on-farm and in market
Others/institutional improvement
Research on potential use of
ILV residues as livestock feed
Analysis and documentation of
the nutritional value of ILVs
Research on medicinal value
of ILVs
Source: ICRA Ghana 2002, Field study
124
Total weighted
scores
Availability of
physical facilities
modes
Availability of
manpower
Research on
collection
Probability
of success
Weight
Conservation
Identification of hot spots for
endangered species of ILVs
Research on modes of
conservation
Ease of
developing tech.
with farmers
Research options
Necessity of
research
options
Criteria
Affordability by
farmers
Scores
7.8
I
7.3
II
3.5
III
5.0
III
2.5
V
8.2
I
7.4
II
4.5
IV
5.6
III
7.8
I
6.4
II
4.4
III
9
7
5
5
4
5
5
9
7
7
7
7
8
7
6
8
9
9
9
9
8
9
7
6
8
7
6
5
9
8
5
7
6
4
4
5.6
II
6.8
I
8.0
I
7.1
II
6.8
III
When taking all the components (conservation, cultivation etc) into consideration, “research
on efficiency of indigenous pest control measures” turns out to be the most important research
option followed by “research on the potential use of ILV residues as livestock feed” (Table
7.2). It is important to first identify the major insects/pests and diseases of ILVs, before
testing the efficiency of indigenous pest control measures. The research options
“identification of hot spots for endangered species of ILVs” and “verifying the effectiveness
of indigenous drying methods” were equally important on the basis of scores received but the
former is considered of relative more importance. The research options under the marketing
and processing component, received less importance overall, mainly because of the current
low production levels. Nevertheless, the market study/research on in-country and export
markets for ILVs is essential in promoting commercial ILV production in future.
7.3.2
Development options prioritisation
The development options for conservation, cultivation and processing were prioritised using
different criteria. The results are presented in Table 7.3. Since there were only two
development options, for development strategies screened under the marketing and
other/institutional components they were not prioritised.
The prioritisation of options on conservation indicated that “documentation of indigenous
knowledge on ILVs” was the most important option followed by “intensifying awareness to
control bush burning, clearing and overgrazing/browsing”. The former option scores well for
most of the criteria, except that high costs are required for implementation. With the latter
option participants feel that the probability of success is low and implementation will be
costly.
“Creating awareness on on-farm/in situ water conservation” scored highest under the
cultivation component because it is very necessary to implement, has a high probability of
success, the manpower and physical facilities for the implementation are available and no
high costs are required. “Introduction and promotion of IPM technologies” was the second
option that meets most of the relevant criteria. However, the general perception is that the cost
of implementing this option will be high. “Establishment of more medium and large scale
irrigation schemes”, according to participants, will require very high costs, the physical
facilities and manpower for implementing this option are limited and it has less probability of
being successful. Hence this option was considered least important when compared to others
under the cultivation component.
“Providing training to and encouraging ILV producers for proper packaging and storage of the
processed produce” was ranked as the most important option under processing because it fits
well with the criteria. “Introducing/demonstrating solar dryer technology for ILV processing”
was thought to be important but it was realised that it may be expensive to implement.
When reviewing the various options across all the components, “creating awareness on onfarm/in situ water conservation through bunding and construction of low cost water
harvesting ponds” was the option with the highest score. “Documentation of indigenous
knowledge on ILVs” was the second most important development option. The team feels that
this option in itself will not accomplish much if no efforts are made for the knowledge to be
disseminated widely and from generation to generation. For the development strategies under
the other/institutional improvement component, the team feels that MoFA should take
immediate initiatives to include ILVs under their program and co-ordinate with other
125
Table 7.3
Prioritisation of development options for screened development strategies
Weight
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
Conservation
Documentation of indigenous knowledge
9
9
8
8
5
on ILVs
Formalising the dissemination of
7
5
7
7
3
indigenous knowledge
Intensifying awareness to control bush
9
4
8
8
6
burning, clearing and overgrazing
Creating awareness on importance of
8
6
2
3
2
conservation
Cultivation
Introduce/promote integrated pest
8
7
8
6
4
management
Establishment of more small scale
7
7
7
7
5
irrigation schemes
Creation of awareness on on-farm/in situ
10
8
8
8
8
water conservation
Maintenance of the existing irrigation
8
2
8
4
2
systems
Provision for diversified use of irrigation
6
4
8
5
8
sources
Establishment of medium and large-scale
9
2
3
1
1
irrigation schemes
Processing
Introducing/demonstrating solar dryers for
7
8
8
8
5
processing of ILVs
Training/encouraging ILV producers for
9
8
7
9
7
appropriate packaging and storage
Introduce/promote establishment of
6
5
4
3
4
processing industries
Marketing
Education to farmers and traders on
Not prioritised*
hygienic handling of ILVs on farm and in
market
Market promotion in terms of popularising
Not prioritised*
the commercialisation potential of ILVs
through mass media
Others/institutional improvement
MoFA should co-ordinate to include ILVs
Not prioritised*
under their program
Creating awareness on multipurpose use of
Not prioritised*
ILVs
Note: * not prioritised as there was only one option under each strategy, which was scored during
screening.
Source: ICRA Ghana 2002, Field study
126
Weighted
scores
Costs of
developmen
t project
Development options
Probability
of success
Availability
of
manpower
t
Availability
of physical
facilities
Criteria
Necessity of
developmen
t options
Scores
8.3
I
6.0
III
6.9
II
5.1
IV
7.1
II
6.8
III
8.6
I
5.2
V
5.9
IV
4.1
VI
7.4
II
8.1
I
4.8
III
organisations in the promotion of ILVs. Similarly, market promotion in terms of popularising
the commercialisation potential of ILVs through mass media and creating awareness on
multipurpose use of ILVs are important options which need immediate attention
7.4
Potential partners for implementation of prioritised research and development
options
The team interacted with most of the identified key stakeholders to explore their potential
roles according to their mandates and interests, with regard to the development of the
indigenous leafy vegetables (Appendix 15). After prioritisation of the research and
development (R&D) options, a discussion was held with stakeholders to identify potential
partners for the implementation of the prioritised options. The outcomes are presented in
Tables 7.4 and 7.5. Some of the stakeholders in these tables participated in the discussion and
indicated an interest in being a partner in the implementation of the respective R&D options.
Table 7.4
S.N.
Potential partners for implementation of research options
Research options
Conservation
1.
Identification of “hot spots” for endangered
species
2.
Research on modes of conservation
Cultivation
1.
Research on efficiency of different
indigenous pest control measures
2.
A study on major insects/pests and diseases
on ILVs
Processing
1.
Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous
drying methods
2.
Research on the effects of processing/solar
drying on taste and colour, nutritional and
biochemical properties and storage or shelf
life
Marketing
1.
Survey on post harvest losses on-farm and
in-market
2.
Research on packaging materials and
methods for safe transport of the produce to
the market
Others
1.
Research on the potential use of ILV
residues as livestock feed and on the trade
off in value added if it is used as food or
fodder
2.
Analysis and documentation of the
nutritional value of fresh and dried ILVs
Potential stakeholders
ACDEP, PGRC, SARI, SRMP, UDS,
IRNR
UDS, SRMP (Bio. Division), SARI,
PGRC, ACDEP, NCRC, SRI, IRNR
MOFA, SARI, ACDEP
SARI, UDS, MOFA
UDS, MOFA, FRI, ACDEP
FRI, KNUST (Biochemistry), UG,
UDSNOGUCHI MEMORIAL, MOFA,
World Vision
UDS, ACDEP, MOFA, SARI,
TECHNOSERVE
AGRIC.ENG (KNUST), ITTU, FRI,
TECHNOSERVE
ARI, MOFA, UDS
UDS, FRI, KNUST (Biochemistry),
University of Benin (Dept. of Human
Nutrition), NOGHUCHI MEMORIAL
127
MoFA for example is willing to take the lead in all development options and they are also
willing to collaborate with research institutions for implementing the research options.
Research areas for which MoFA offers collaboration include: the assessment of potential use
of ILVs residues as livestock feed and the trade off in value added between food and fodder;
efficiency of different indigenous pest control measures; and supporting a study on major
insect/pest and diseases on ILVs. MoFA can also collaborate with research organisations to
conduct surveys on post harvest losses on-farm and in-market, research on the effect of
processing/solar drying on taste and colour, nutritional and biochemical properties as well as
storage or shelf life.
Table 7.5
Potential partners for implementation of development options
S.N. Research options
Conservation
1.
Documentation of indigenous
knowledge on ILVs
2.
Intensifying awareness to control bush
burning, bush clearing and
overgrazing/browsing
Cultivation
1.
Creation of awareness on on farm/in situ
water conservation
2..
Introduce/promote integrated pest
management (IPM) technologies
Processing
1.
Training and encouraging ILV
producers for proper packaging and
storage of processed ILVs
2.
Introducing/demonstrating solar dryers
for processing ILVs
Marketing
1.
Market promotion to popularise the
commercialisation potential of ILVs
through mass media (TV, radio, posters
and pamphlets)
2.
Education for farmers and traders on
hygienic handling of ILVs on-farm and
in-market
Others/institutional improvement
1.
Creating awareness on multipurpose use
of ILVs
2.
MOFA should take the lead to coordinate with other organisations to
include ILVs under their program
128
Potential stakeholders
CECIK, SRMP, MOFA, KNUST
(Horticulture Dept.)
MoFA, RENARSA, Volunteer Groups,
EPA, FSD, District Assemblies,
Traditional Councils, GNFS, ACDEP,
SRI, TRAX, Action Aid
MoFA, IRNR, SRMP, ACDEP, SRI,
TRAX, UDS, GIDALEGON (UG)
MoFA, SARI, UDS, ACDEP,
GIDALEGON (UG), ICOUR
MoFA, AGRIC.ENG (ITTU),
TECHOSERVE, FRI, KNUST
(Horticulture Dept.), UNICEF
MoFA, ACDEP, UNICEF, World Vision
MoFA, URA RADIO, GBC TV, Nontraditional Export GRNP, Export
Promotion Council, Information HUB
(UDS), AMEX International, GTV
MoFA (WIFAD), ICOUR, Presbyterian
Primary Health Care, CFR, GTV
MoFA, ACDEP, GBC
MoFA, NGOs, CBOs, Civil Society
Organisations (MoFA to identify specific
groups in each category)
From the experience of the team it is clear that MoFA, having the responsibility for overall
agricultural development in the region, is the most important stakeholder. The organisation
can provide policy support, technical assistance, training and dissemination of technologies to
ILV producers. Furthermore it can co-ordinate the activities related to ILVs with other
organisations. Based on the result of the stakeholder analysis, the team thinks that MoFA has
the mandate, manpower and appropriate approaches to work with farmers.
For exploration of the commercialisation potential, stakeholders like Technoserve, TRAX,
ICOUR and Catholic Diocese, who are already working on market promotion and processing
though for other crops, were identified to be potential organisations. TRAX and Technoserve
in particular are organisations that could link ILV producers to marketing channels. They are
potential partners for implementing the suggested R&D options in their respective area of
interest and therefore and they should be involved in the ILVs promotion program in UER. A
progressive farmer (Mr. David Adakabla) from Pwalugu village, Bolga District, who is
producing ILVs on a commercial scale, can be considered as a resource person to motivate
and train other farmers in ILV production and marketing.
SARI and SRMC are willing to work in the area of conservation by identification of “hot
spots” for endangered species and documentation of indigenous knowledge on ILVs. In
addition to that they are also interested on creating awareness on on-farm/in situ water
conservation and the team perceives these institutions to be capable of contributing in this
area.
ICOUR is an important stakeholder, which can provide irrigation support to ILV producers,
allocate more land for ILV production in its command area, mobilise farmers’ organisations
for marketing of ILVs and provide technical and credit support to farmers for ILV production.
SRMP is interested in conservation aspects of ILVs like the identification of hot spots for
disappearing species, documentation of endangered species and promoting in situ
conservation. SARI is a potential organisation to undertake research on various aspects of
ILV production. Action Aid, ADRA and Catholic Diocese are important stakeholders, which
can provide irrigation support (construction of dams), technical support and credit facilities
(for input supply) to ILV producers. World Vision, operating only in Bongo District, also
seems to be an important stakeholder, which can provide training to farmers on the safe use of
agro-chemicals and IPM technologies in addition to providing credit support. RUWA is active
in Kassena-Nankana District and provides credit support to women farmers for ILV
production.
The role of District Assemblies in implementing the development interventions in the districts
is very vital. They are the government body having authority for overall development in the
districts. They can introduce some policies favourable for implementing the proposed R&D
options. In addition to this they can create an enabling environment for research and
development and can influence the organisations to take part in such activities according to
their mandates. They can also influence the funding agencies to support some of the
researchable areas and development interventions. The presence of two District Chief
Executives (Bongo and Bawku West Districts) in the Final Workshop was very important and
they pledged their support for implementing the R&D options for promoting ILVs in the
UER.
129
There are some other stakeholders appearing in Tables 7.4 and 7.5 operating outside the
region, with whom the team had no opportunity to interact due to time constraints. The team
suggests that there is a need to explore and assess the capacity and capability of these
stakeholders to address the R&D options.
In addition to this, it is proposed that an ILV Co-ordination Committee (ILVCC) be created
for the UER with a representation from policy makers, extension, research, credit, input
supply, marketing and ILV producers to plan and co-ordinate the implementation of the
suggested research and development options.
130
CHAPTER 8
CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF
INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES
The fact that indigenous leafy vegetables have been consumed for centuries and continue to
be consumed suggests that these food resources constitute a valuable resource to the people of
the Upper East Region. The potential for commercialisation of these resources has, however,
been underestimated and this is reflected in the lack of interest by researchers, policy makers
and development agencies in these resources. The ILVs in the study area have so far not
received any priority in the national agricultural policies. It is therefore interesting to examine
the conditions for sustainable utilisation of these indigenous leafy vegetables.
8.1
Sustainable conservation and cultivation
The sustainable conservation of indigenous leafy vegetables in Northern Ghana will depend to
a considerable degree on the benefits that may be derived from their conservation. The ability
of ILVs to promote and sustain livelihoods of the rural poor will be an important hallmark
that will generate further interest in the cultivation and conservation of these food resources.
Farmers’ willingness to produce indigenous leafy vegetables for household food security
purposes, ensures the continued cultivation of ILVs. The promotion of the production to a
commercial level will anyhow increase the utilisation of the vegetables. Special attention is
required for species that are not favored in the market in order to safeguard their conservation.
8.2
Status of research and development of ILVs
Although vast indigenous knowledge exists, there is a need for upgrading the knowledge base
and for mechanisms to disseminate existing and newly acquired knowledge. For the continued
utilisation of these vegetables, research on the various production aspects of should be put in
place. Functional research on: improving the production systems, seed production techniques,
pest and disease control may advance the existing situation. The current study brought into
focus the need for research and development activities on indigenous leafy vegetables not
only for the Upper East Region but also for the rest of the Ghana. Research on and
development of ILVs in Ghana appears to be something of a novelty. The collaborative study
by ICRA and CBUD in this area has therefore served as an impetus and will generate
considerable interest among researchers and development professionals. From farmers’ point
of view there is no doubt that ILVs will continue to be utilised in the study area. These crops
are valued as food and for their nutritional and medicinal properties.
8.3
Policy environment
Indigenous leafy vegetables have so far not been on the priority list of the national or
agricultural policies of the country. Recent export drives for non-traditional export crops have
not included ILVs. The sustainable production and utilisation of ILVs can be enhanced if
these crops are given similar attention as other crops.
131
8.3.1
Agricultural policy that promotes production and utilisation of ILVs
The willingness of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food to provide policy support to the
development of the indigenous leafy vegetables is considered important for sustainable
utilisation. In the Upper East Region however, MoFA should take the lead in co-ordinating
the development organisations working in agriculture supporting efforts towards indigenous
leafy vegetable development.
Market development of these vegetables will increase their opportunity for sustainability.
Local and in-country market exploitation by improving infrastructure and customer awareness
on the nutritional benefits will ensure market demand, which will promote sustainable
production, utilisation and thus conservation of the species. The availability of transport and
access roads will ensure that ILVs produced can reach the market fresh and in good condition.
The provision of these facilities by local or regional authorities will help to create the
platform for sustainable production as well as utilisation.
8.3.2
Promotion of in situ conservation at wild ILV hotspots
Frequent and uncontrolled bush burning constitute a major risk to collected species of ILVs.
The seed banks are on or in the soil and may be completely destroyed by bush fires.
Intensification of public awareness on the hazards caused by bush fires will be one important
condition to enable the sustainable utilisation of ILVs. Enforcement of environmental
protection regulations will ensure in situ conservation of these species. The sustainable use of
wild and collected ILVs will depend on their availability. Therefore there is a need to carry
out in situ conservation of these threatened species.
8.3.3
Promotion of ILV utilisation in Southern Ghana
In Southern Ghana, ILVs appear to be consumed mainly by people of northern origin and
most people in the south do not know what to do with them. The nutritional benefits of these
ILVs are quite well known to the northerners and there is a need to promote these food
resources in Southern Ghana. Such promotional drives will create some awareness in the
south and encourage consumption and utilisation. Some local food sellers and “chop bars”,
particularly in Kumasi, are beginning to serve ILVs on their menu. The use of television and
mass media will help popularise ILVs and boost its consumption and utilisation outside the
Northern Region. With the market expanding farmers will be motivated to produce more, thus
enhancing utilisation.
8.3.4
Control of field and storage insect pests
One of the major threats to ILV production, storage and utilisation is the problem of insect
pests and disease outbreaks. For sustainable utilisation of ILVs therefore, the need to control
these pests cannot be over-emphasised. An integrated pest management approach has been
recommended for the control of pests. However, the implementation of this control measure
has to be on community level. This has a dual advantage of helping to reduce costs of
production and improving the quality of the produce.
132
8.3.5 Water conservation for ILV production
The availability of water remains an important factor in ILV production and utilisation.
Cultural practices that promote water conservation and sustainable use of water should be
seen as an important condition for sustainable production and utilisation of ILVs. The culture
of maintaining water sources should be intensified to ensure high water conservation capacity
in dams throughout the year. The assurance of water availability will motivate farmers to
produce throughout the year to enhance their income.
133
134
REFERENCES
Agamba, A. M. 2001. Indigenous leafy vegetables in Upper East Region. BSc Dissertation,
July 2002, School of Agriculture, University of Cape Coast, Ghana. 62 pp.
Dery, A. B. 1998. Financial services, needs assessment of farming communities in the
Kassena-Nankana, Bolgatanga and Bawku East Districts of the Upper East Region.
Survey Report for ISODEC, January 1998.
Ghana Statistical Service. 2000. Population and Housing Census. Electoral Commission of
Ghana.
ICRA, 1999. Towards sustainable agricultural development: Research and development
options for improved integration of crop-livestock-fishery systems in irrigated and
rainfed agricultural areas of the Upper East Region of Ghana. International Centre for
development-oriented research in Agriculture: Working Document Series 77, 121 pp.
IFAD, 1990. Upper East region Land Conservation and smallholder Rehabilitation project
Appraisal report. Vol. 2; Working Papers
Kordylas, M.J. 1990. Processing and preservation of tropical and sub-tropical foods. Mcgraw
Hill, 199 pp.
LACOSREP, 1992. Upper East region land conservation and smallholder rehabilitation
appraisal report. Working Papers No. 0244-GH.
National Development Planning Commission 1997a: National Economic Forum on the theme
“Achieving National Consensus on Policy Measures for Accelerated Economic growth
within the framework of the Ghana Vision 2020. Accra, 2-3 Sept 1997; 108 pp.
National Development Planning Commission 1997b: Ghana Vision 2020: The first medium
term development plan (1997-2000). 292 pp.
Quansah, C. 1992. Soil erosion and conservation in the Northern and Upper regions of Ghana.
Topics in Applied Resource Management 2, 135-157.
Schippers, R. R. 2000. African Indigenous vegetables: An overview of the cultivated species.
DFID/ICTA/NRI. 214 pp.
Yeboah, M. A., Bapule, J. S., Bediako, J., Naab, J. B. 2001. Report on dry season vegetable
production in the Upper West region of Ghana. 69 pp.
135
APPENDICES
137
138
APPENDIX 1:
TERMS OF REFERENCE
Institutional framework
The field study will be a joint activity of the Centre for Biodiversity Utilisation and Development (CBUD) and the
International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA). CBUD will host the study.
CBUD
CBUD is a collaborative programme of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi and the
Royal Netherlands Embassy in Accra based at the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR) (see below). The
programme is aimed at the conservation and continued utilisation of traditional food resources in Ghana that are gradually
disappearing as a result of environmental degradation and other socio-economic pressures. Aware of the loss of important
information in regard to these resources, CBUD seeks to tap and document the knowledge and information on these
indigenous resources that still exists among the ageing rural population. At the same time, the Centre tries to regenerate
interest in these lesser-known foodstuffs in order to increase their demand, which eventually will allow farmers to keep up
their continued production.
The CBUD programme started in 1998. Using an extensive network of partners in development, research or business, it does
not only promote and co-ordinate the process of identifying promising commodities from among Ghana's many biological
resources, but also facilitates their production, processing and marketing. Within its given means, CBUD is expected to coordinate and support this process of product development until either these activities are being independently sustained by
these partners or till such support appears to be unsuccessful in a technical or commercial sense.
At present, CBUD works towards the conservation and utilisation of a total of five animal and plant products, one of, which
is a group known as the indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs).
IRNR
The Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR) is part of the Faculty of Agriculture of the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology (KNUST). The institute has conducted surveys relating to people’s uses of several
plants, particularly tree crops. Nursery and agro-forestry studies have been conducted on many of these plants. The institute
is the leading training and research institute in natural resource management and agro-forestry in the country. Based on its
mandate for, and expertise relating to, the renewable natural resources including forests, wildlife, rangelands, freshwater, and
wetlands, the IRNR maintains a holistic, multi-resource approach to ecosystem management and utilisation of components of
biological diversity.
ICRA
ICRA is an international organisation founded on the initiative of European members of the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) to assist in strengthening the capacity of researchers and development
professionals working in Latin America, Africa and Asia to contribute effectively to agricultural development.
ICRA provides participating scientists with an opportunity to acquire new concepts and skills, and to apply them in a
professional assignment with partner research institutes in the South. The core part of the ICRA Programme consists of a
three-month intensive field study in rural areas of the developing countries. The scope and dimension of this study are based
on the terms of reference (TOR) that are subject of the present document.
Period
The field study will take place from 12 April until 12 July 2002. This period will cover an introductory workshop dealing
with the methodology to be used in the study, actual data collection, data processing and analysis, and the presentation of the
results in two additional workshops. It also encompasses obtaining feedback from and verification of outcomes by
stakeholders and the drafting of the final report.
Topic of the study
Indigenous Leafy Vegetables in Northern Ghana: past, present and future. A study into the conservation, cultivation,
processing and marketing of these important food resources
Justification
ILVs have played and are still playing an important role in the crop and food systems of Ghana, in particular in the country's
three Northern Regions. They are important providers of vitamins and micronutrients in areas where otherwise diets are
frequently high in carbohydrates and seriously deficient in these essential nutrients. Moreover, at the end of the dry season
and the beginning of a new growing season, when households tend to run out of food stocks, a number of ephemerals among
139
these plants play an important food security role as hunger gap fillers. In other cases, these crops contribute directly to
household income when surplus production is marketed.
These crops are also valued for their relative ease of production. Compared to other exotic vegetables, ILVs do not require
the same high levels of plant protection and other inputs. They may even produce under conditions that are too marginal for
other crops. Some ILVs are said to have medicinal properties.
Despite their local importance in the Upper East Region and the fact that these vegetables are exported to other parts of the
country, these crops have received very little attention from research and development organisations. It now appears that at
least a number of these crops are gradually going out of production. The introduction into the Region of large-scale
commercial irrigation schemes may have put pressure on the cultivation of these ILVs. With the requirement to pay for
irrigation water, farmers may have decided to replace the cultivation of ILVs with more marketable and lucrative exotic
vegetable species or other crops.
Nevertheless, there are pockets where these ILVs are still grown. In order to promote these species successfully, it is
important to establish under which particular set of physical and socio-economic conditions their production takes place and
why people do or don't cultivate and patronise them. In addition, much more information is needed about the
commercialisation of these crops and the levels of profitability achieved in their production and marketing.
As the production, processing and trade in these crops are principally a "woman's affair," the conservation and continued
production of these crops are matters that affect not only health and income generation at the farm household level, but are
also of relevance to the role of women in society. It is of particular interest to investigate which effects improved
commercialisation of these crops may have on this role.
With the gradual passing away of the older generation, the risk is high that specific knowledge with regard to the nutritional
and medicinal values of these crops, as well as their traditional production and processing techniques, is being lost forever.
The rural to urban drift of people is another cause of concern as it may also lead to the loss of important local knowledge.
This threat to these crops is the major reason why CBUD has taken a keen interest in the ILVs. So far it has catalogued over
thirty native plants that are being used as a vegetable. It has concentrated its activities mainly in the southern Regions, but
now that its mandate is going to be expanded to the northern half of the country as well, an in-depth study of the cultivation
and commercialisation of these plants with all their ramifications is urgently needed.
Geographical area and target population
The field study will be conducted in the Upper East region (UER) of Ghana, more specifically in the following districts:
Bawku West, Bolgatanga, Bongo, and Kassena-Nankani. These districts are all within a 50 km radius from Bolgatanga, the
town where the team will be based. Other districts (Builsa and Bwaku East) may serve to verify and sharpen the findings of
the study team.
In these Districts the cultivation and consumption of ILVs is widespread. The intensity of production is high and it is well
diversified with farmers using a large number of ILV species. The cultivation of the ILVs is found in both irrigation and
rainfed systems and this is done on a commercial and subsistence basis. Ethnic preferences are reflected in the production as
well as the processing, marketing and consumption of these plants.
Within these four districts, the team will select a number of representative villages on which to focus its data collection
activities. Selection may be tied to the presence or absence of irrigation schemes, the size of such schemes, the presence of
markets and processing units, cultural diversity, etc.
Target groups for the study team include the producers and collectors of ILVs, processors of these vegetables (as far as they
are not the same people), as well as traders in and consumers of these vegetables. It is expected that gender will play a very
important role in defining the target groups since much of the production and trade appears to be the domain of women.
Within these groups of producers and consumers, the team may decide to make subdivisions based on the access households
have to resources and production inputs.
For consumption and marketing purposes, the team is expected to make distinctions between production for home
consumption, for local markets and for "export from the zone " to larger urban markets in Ghana or even neighbouring
countries. Particularly while it attempts to verify and describe marketing channels for ILVs, the team is expected to travel
outside the UER.
Team composition
The team will be composed of two Ghanaian researchers, a natural resource manager with specialisation in fresh water
fisheries and a forestry specialist, and four expatriates with professional backgrounds and/or experience in agronomy,
vegetable production, food processing and marketing.
140
Objectives of the study
The following objectives for the field study have been formulated:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
In selected districts of the UER, determine the extent to which ILVs are being collected and/or cultivated and assess the
existing trends in these activities.
Identify the various species of ILVs produced in the Region and assess which of these have the highest potential
(prioritisation) for commercial production.
Describe in detail the production practices of prioritised ILVs encountered in the study area and the production systems
these ILVs are part of, and analyse the strengths and weaknesses of these production systems in regard to ILV
production.
Investigate gender roles in the production and commercialisation of these vegetables and describe how these roles may
be affected by either the disappearance of these crops or by improved opportunities for commercialisation.
Identify and prioritise development opportunities in support of the conservation and continued use and
commercialisation of these ILVs.
Formulate in conjunction with local stakeholders’ activities and research proposals aimed at improving the production
and utilisation of the identified food resources in the study area.
The emphasis of the study will be on:
(1) the documentation of local knowledge with respect to the production and processing of the ILVs in the study area; and
(2) the potential for continued production of these ILVs, based on favourable prospects as a household food resource and/or
for commercialisation of at least a number of them.
Main guiding questions
Guiding questions
Clarifying development context, identifying stakeholders and defining system of interest

What is the broader development and systems context of the central theme?

Who are the stakeholders concerned with ILV production and commercialisation and what are their interventions and
linkages in the overall system?

Within this broader context, what is the relevant system of interest that the team will study in detail?

How can it be demarcated?
Analysing the system of interest and identify development strategies













What are the traditional forms of ILV collection/production, processing and marketing?
Is it possible to delineate different ILV production practices?
What are the constraints and opportunities for ILV in the production systems they are part of?
How do biophysical and socio-economic factors as well as hydrological infrastructure shape ILV production? What
role do markets play in this respect?
What are the economic viabilities of ILV production?
Has the ILV production and the production systems they are part of changed over time and, if so, in which way?
Has the relative importance of ILV species changed? How?
What have been the consequences of these changes at the farm household level (food security, choice of species in
production, health, household income, decision-making, gender issues, etc.)?
What changes are likely to occur in the future?
What role can research and development play in buttressing and/or harnessing certain elements of these developments?
What type of institutional support is available at present to those engaged in the production and trade of these ILVs?
What options are available to stakeholders to safeguard the sustainability of ILV production in the study area?
Do different ILV production and trading practices require different forms of R&D intervention? What type of support
is needed in each case?
Screening development strategies and prioritising R & D options


How are these interventions to be prioritised? What criteria will be used for such a prioritisation?
Which stakeholders are well placed to support such interventions in this and neighbouring Regions? What is their
present level of collaboration and co-ordination?
Formulating research and development proposals


What overall development strategy should be used to ensure the continued availability of ILVs from the UER? What
roles do choice of species and marketing approach play in such a strategy?
What is the best way to implement such a strategy? Which stakeholders ought to be involved?
141
Form of the final product
Before leaving Ghana, the study team will produce and hand over a report with an executive summary, an abstract and a main
text of not more than a hundred pages including figures and tables. In the report, maximum use will be made of visualisation.
To be of common use, the report will be structured in such a way that non-scientists also can easily understand the main
results of the study.
Other outputs/results from the field study
Through workshops and frequent interactions between the team and stakeholders within and outside the study area, the field
study is expected to stimulate feedback between the stakeholders, increase the dissemination of the study's findings and
increase the sense of ownership of the results of the field study because of the joint effort.
Relevant stakeholder institutions
Besides the host of this study -CBUD-, other institutions and organisations have an interest in the conservation, production
and product chain development of ILVs. These include research institutions such as the University of Development Studies
(UDS) and the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI), governmental and non-governmental development
organisations such as the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), the Savanna Resource Management Centre (SRMC),
and various NGOs and religious organisations operating in the Region, as well as established programmes in the area such as
the Irrigation Company of the Upper Regions (ICOUR).
It is expected that all these institutions can contribute greatly to the data collection process of the study team and will be
direct beneficiaries of the eventual results of the study.
Field study process
Upon arrival in Ghana, the team will, following a brief reconnaissance of the study area, present its field study research and
work plans to all interested stakeholders at an introductory workshop at Bolgatanga. Purpose of this presentation is to obtain
feedback from these stakeholders on the proposed methodology and to receive recommendations for the execution of the
study.
A second workshop will be held halfway through the study period, at which time the team will present its early findings and
its views on potential research and development strategies.
The final results of the study will be presented in the form of a draft of the final report, which the stakeholders will have a
chance to comment on in a final workshop. Timing of this workshop will be such that useful comments can still be
incorporated into the final version of the report.
Field study responsibility
The team is collectively responsible to CBUD and ICRA for executing the study in accordance with these terms of reference
(TOR). The team will remain in regular contact with CBUD. CBUD's agricultural officer will act as the liaison officer for the
host institution and the second Ghanaian member will act as the team's liaison officer to all institutions of interest.
The team is responsible for its own internal management. Within the limits specified by these TORs and by the budget, the
team is free to decide its own approach, methodology, tools and work plan. Important questions arising during the
implementation of the field study will be immediately clarified in a discussion with the contact group (see MOU).
Means
CBUD and ICRA are responsible for the provision to the team of the means specified in the Memorandum of Understanding.
142
APPENDIX 2
RESEARCH QUESTIONS RELATED TO RESEARCH TOPIC
Topics
Research Questions
Information Needed
Clarifying
development
context, identifying
stakeholders
and
defining system of
interest
What are the various factors
influencing conservation and
sustainable utilisation of ILVs in
UER of Ghana?





Technical/agro-ecological factors
Socio-economic factors
Environmental factors
Institutional/policy factors
Indigenous knowledge
Who are the relevant stakeholders
and what role do they play in
relation to ILVs?

The different types of stakeholders
involved in ILV production,
conservation, processing and marketing
including collectors, women and
farmers; also those that use irrigation
and those that practise rain-fed
cultivation; researchers.
Perceptions and interest of different
stakeholders towards the central
problem?
Criteria for typology.

Analysing
the
system of Interest
and
Identify
Development
Strategies
Are
there
differences
in
household types involved in
collection/production, processing
and marketing?

What are the traditional forms of
ILVs conservation, collection,
production,
processing
and
marketing?

Who does the collection,
production, processing and
marketing of ILVs?


Indigenous knowledge on traditional
forms of conservation, collection,
production and processing of ILVs.
Information
on
availability
of
processing industries and market
facilities available (local, external and
export).
Intra-households/Inter-household task
division.
Tools to be used to collect
information
 Analysis of secondary data
 Initial Contextual analysis.
NB: To be verified during first
workshop in the field with host
institution and stakeholders.
 Secondary data
 TOR
 Stakeholder identification and
role/interest/objectives matrix.
 Stakeholder linkage matrix.








Secondary data (TOR)
Zonation
Typology
SSI with stakeholders and key
informants.
Semi-structured
Interview
(SSI)
with
key
informants/farmers from one
village each in four districts.
Secondary data analysis
Knowledge/Information system
analysis.
SSI
with
representative
households.
Expected Output

A refined contextual
analysis of the
problematique.

A list of relevant
stakeholders with their
interest/role/objective/p
erceptions.

Different zones and
farm types identified to
be targeted in the study.

A model of the flow of
information
and
knowledge.

A matrix of various
works related with ILVs
production
with
responsibility.
143
Which species and how much of
ILVs do they collect and produce?
Which ILV species are important
for the households?




Has there been any change in
species, quantities and gender
roles
in
ILV
collection,
production,
processing
and
marketing? Why?
What have been the consequences
of these changes at the farm
household level (food security,
choice of species in production,
health,
household
income,
decision-making, gender issues,
etc.)?
What is the economic viability of
ILV production? What are the
factors affecting the profitability
of ILV species?
Screening
development
strategies
and
prioritising R & D
options.
144


Species of ILVs collected and produced.
The quantity of ILVs that they collect
and produce.
Importance of different ILV species in
the community.
Reasons for preference.
Changes in the species, quantities and
gender roles with regards to the
collection, production, processing and
marketing of ILVs. Reasons for those
changes.
The effect and impact of the changes on
food security, health, income level,
gender involvement, decision making
and choice of species.














Cost of production and market prices.
Cost of processing and marketing.
Problems related to improve the
profitability of ILVs production.
Which ILV species have the
potential for commercialisation?

Market demand, prices, infrastructure
and improved technologies availability.
What could be the effect of
commercialisation of ILVs on
conservation and gender roles?
What role can research and
development
play
in
commercialisation
of
ILV
species?

Possible effect of commercialisation on
conservation and genders’ roles.

Researchers’, extension workers’ and
other stakeholders’ perception on the
possible role of research and
development in strengthening and
supporting the commercialisation of
ILVs.








Semi-structured
Interview
(SSI)
with
representative
households.
Secondary data analysis
KIS analysis.
Semi-structured
Interview
(SSI)
with
key
informants/farmers from one
village each in four district.
Secondary data analysis
SSI
with
representative
households.
Time line.


K & I flow model
Written text on these
aspects.

A matrix of ILV species
prioritised
by
community.

A trend diagram and
text on comparative
changes over time.
Secondary data analysis
Livelihood system analysis
SSI with key informants/
farmers.
Visioning.

Livelihood
system
diagram showing the
effect of changes in
importance of ILVs on
livelihood of people.
SSI with key informants/
farmers
Cost Benefit analysis for some
major ILV species.
Commodity system analysis
SSI with key informants/
farmers/Traders
Market survey.
SSI with key informants/
households/farmers

A cost benefit analysis
table.
An assessment of the
main constraints to the
profitability of ILVs.
A written text including
all these aspects.
SSI with farmers and key
stakeholders.
Stakeholders’ objectives/role
matrix




A written text on effect
of commercialisation on
gender roles.
Possible research roles
of
research
and
development identified.
What options are available to
stakeholders to sustain ILV
production in the study area?
Do different ILV production and
trading practices require different
forms of R&D intervention?

What are the most likely
development scenarios and the
driving forces that may influence
them?

What are the development
strategies that may be pursued to
address the problems/constraints
of the identified target group?
Which development strategies
will do best under different
scenarios?



Stakeholders’
opinion
on
the
availability of options to sustain ILV
production in future the study area.
Team and different stakeholders’
perceptions on types of interventions
required for different ILV production.


Secondary data
SSI with relevant stakeholders.


SSI with relevant stakeholders.

Future trends of driving forces,
livelihood strategies and vision of
stakeholders for the future.


SSI
Visioning
development
scenarios by farmers and other
stakeholders

Stakeholders’ problems and perception
of how problem may be resolved.
Perceptions of the target groups about
strategies that may be pursued.
Current and future scenario anticipated
from interaction with stakeholders.


SSI
Stakeholder analysis.


SSI with involvement of
stakeholders, particularly ILV
farmers
Ranking matrix for identified
strategies with stakeholders.
Actor pay-off matrix.
Score/Matrix scoring
Checklist grid.

Selection of the best
development strategies
for different scenarios.

A list of prioritised and
screened development
strategies.


Secondary data
SSI of key persons in
stakeholder institutions and
with farmers

An identification of the
roles for the different
stakeholders in different
proposed development
actions.

SSI with farmers and
researchers
Scoring/Ranking matrix

List of the research
options prioritised for
each of the selected
development strategies.

Which
of
the
identified
development strategies are most
appropriate?
Which stakeholders have to be
involved to support the prioritised
development strategies in the
study area and possibly in other
areas of the country?






Formulating
Research
development
proposals.
and
What research options are needed
to enable commercialisation of
ILV species and their
conservation?

Criteria for environmental
sustainability, economic competitivity
and social equity.
Key indicators for sustainability.
Stakeholders activities in relation to the
ILV problem
Stakeholders’ human and logistic
resources
Links and collaboration with other
stakeholders
Research interests of stakeholder
institutions.
Criteria for prioritising research options.





A
matrix
of
stakeholders’ view on
options available.
List
of
R&D
interventions required
for
different
ILV
production systems.
List of internal and
external driving forces
Different
important
development scenario
developed.
A list of development
strategies.
145
APPENDIX 3
VILLAGES PROPOSED BY INTRODUCTORY WORKSHOP
PARTICIPANTS FOR CONDUCTING IN DEPTH STUDY
PRIORITY Village
REASONS FOR SELECTION OF VILLAGE
BONGO DISTRICT
FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION
HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Bongo Central
Road accessibility, access to market, irrigable area is very big
2
Dua
Road accessibility and essay access to market. Irrigable area is
less than that at Bongo central
FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH SUBSISTENCE SCALE PRODUCTION
PRIORITY
Village
REASONS FOR SELECTION OF VILLAGE
1
Bungu
No access road, no irrigable area, have a dam but used for
livestock watering
2
Goo
No access road, no irrigable area, have a dam but used for
livestock watering
KASSENA-NANKANA DISTRICT
FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE
PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Naga
Rainfed, commercial with limited access to market. Access to
transport is a problem. Fertile soils
2
Katio
Rain-fed, commercial, limited access to markets, less fertile
soils.
FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH SUBSISTENCE SCALE PRODUCTION
1
Kandiga
Rain-fed, subsistence, accessible road, border with Burkina
Faso for international trade
2
Chiana
Rain-fed and subsistence production
FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH SUBSISTENCE SCALE PRODUCTION
1
Gani
Nearer a big market (Navrongo market)
2
Biu
Further from big markets
FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE
PRODUCTION HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Vonania
Has market days, nearness to major roads.
2
Biu
No market, nearest market is Navrongo
FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION
HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Bania
Access to 3 big markets.
2
Paga
Large water body (Tono)
FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE
PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Pungu
Nearer to market but only on market days
2
Nakolo
Far from Navrongo, the main commercial centre
BAWKU-WEST DISTRICT
FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION
HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Widnaba
Large virgin forest, large scale production of vegetables, limited
access to markets
2
Kasongo
Limited access to markets, fertile soils, large scale production of
vegetables
FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION AND
EASY ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Teshie
Rural area, access to market, shares borders with Burkina Fasointer-border trade
2
Binaba
Rural area, has markets patronised by outsiders, many farmers
producing vegetables
FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE
PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET
146
1
Binaba
Have 2 dams for irrigation, produces all types of vegetables, no
access to large markets
2
Kamega
One dam for irrigation, limited access to markets, no good
access roads
FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION
HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Zebilla
Have dams for irrigation, access to markets, large scale
production of vegetables
2
Saka
Have a dam, easy access to markets produce large quantities of
vegetables
BOLGATANGA DISTRICT
FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION AND
EASY ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Pelungu
There is an important market in which vegetables can be sold
2
Sherigu
Village close to Bolgatanga, an urban area. Vegetables
transported as head loads to Bolgatanga market
FARM TYPE: IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE
PRODUCTION HAVING LIMITED ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Santeng
Very remote with limited access
2
Zanlerigu
No dams, do gardening without a dam
FARM TYPE IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH COMMERCIAL SCALE PRODUCTION
HAVING EASY ACCESS TO MARKET
1
Pwalugu
Located on major trunk road, there is a market.
2
Yikini/Bolga-Nyarigu
Close to Bolgatanga
FARM TYPE: RAIN-FED PRODUCTION SYSTEM WITH SUBSISTENCE SCALE PRODUCTION
1
Nyeogbare
A very remote village in the Nabdam area, everybody produces
and frequently none is sold
2
Agushie (near
Very remote area with little contact with markets
Sumbrungu)
147
APPENDIX 4
CHECK LIST FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS
Type of production system/Farm Type…………………………………………….
1.1 District…………………………………..
1.2 Date of visit………………..
1.3 Village……………………………………
1.4 Size of group…………………..
Composition of group members:
1.5 Number of males…………………1.6 Number of females………………………….
1.7 Literacy level of group members
Primary ……………. Secondary……………… Post secondary……………………..
Middle school/ JSS……………………………. Tertiary education…………………
Checklist (for SSI):
1.
LOCAL PRODUCERS ORGANISATIONS
What Organized Groups/Associations do you have for vegetable growers in this village?
What are the roles of the association?…………………………………………………
Has the association ever received assistance from any organization?………………..
If yes how did the individual member benefit from the assistance?………………….
Does the association have institutions to whom you sell your produce as a group or as
individuals?……………………………………………………………………………
Does the association assist in the marketing of your produce?……………………….
Do the farmers purchase farm inputs as a group through the association?
Are you in linkage with any government organization or NGO?
How do individuals obtain land for farming here?
What measure of land do members possess?
What do you pay for land?……………………………………………..
How many of you have land for the expansion of ILVs………………
Is your land near the dam?…………………………………………….
Is your land far from the dam?…………………………………………..
Do you have any other cooperatives?……………………………………..
Name then and explain their roles?………………………………………….
2.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF ILV ENTERPRISE
How many of you are willing to expand your ILV production?
Is it possible to acquire a bigger land to increase production?
Who will give you the land?
Can you obtain financial credit to expand your farms?
Name the sources of your financial assistance.
Is it possible to acquire more inputs for expanding ILV production?
Will you be able to produce ILVs during the raining season?
3.
MARKETING
What problem do you experience in the marketing of your ILVs.?
Has the marketing of ILVs changed over the years?
Explain the old and the new methods of selling ILVs?
148
APPENDIX 5
CHECK LIST FOR HOUSEHOLD SURVEY
Type of production system/Farm Type…………………………………………………
District…………………………………..
Date of visit………………..
Enumerator……………………………..
Village/…………………….
1.0 General information
1.1 Name of respondent………………………………………………………
1.2 Age……………………………
1.3 Sex
Male 1
Female 2
1.4 Literacy status of respondents
Literate 1
Non-literate 2
Non-formal 3
1.5 If literate, what level of education did you reach?
[ ] Primary
[ ] Secondary
[ ] Post secondary
[ ] Middle school/ JSS
[ ] Tertiary education
Check List:
1. How do the farmer generally carry out the sale of produce?
(Through middlemen, direct sales to market, exchange and other)
2. Does the farmer sell to any of the following institutions?
(Hospitals, Prisons, Schools, Churches, Hotel and restaurants).
3. If yes what is the total amount you sold to them this season?………………………...
4. How do you package your produce for sale……………………………………………
5. What is the number of plant stands or branches in each package?……………………
6. What is the weight of a unit package?………………………………………………..
7. Are you able to sell the whole harvest for each day?
8. If not what do you do with the remainder?
9. How much do you loss through spoilage per harvest………..per season?…………
10. Major problems encountered in marketing.
COST OF PRODUCTION
Type of crop…………………………
Production Cost
Items in cedis
Land area
Cost of land (In
kind or cash)
Cost of fencing of
land
Cost of land
preparation
Cost of seed
Cost of nursing
Cost of
transplanting
Cost of Fertilizer
Cost of manure
Cost of compost
Cost of chemicals
Cost of 1st weeding
1st Cropping 2nd Cropping
3rd Cropping
4th
Cropping
5th Cropping
149
Cost of 2nd
weeding
Cost of harvesting
Cost of watering
Charges paid for
water usage
Other production
expenses made
Cost of transportation
Name of Distance from Mode
of Charge per Transport Transport.
market
farm
conveyance load
cost for Charge per
farmer
unit
of
package
Number of packages harvested per unit of cropping area and cost elements?
Type of ILV
1
2
3
4
1st harvest
Price obtained per unit
2nd harvest
Price obtained per unit
3rd harvest
Price obtained per unit
4th harvest
Price obtained per unit
5th harvest
Price obtained per unit
6th harvest
Price obtained per unit
PRODUCE MAMAGEMENT
Type of ILV
Qty. of harvest
Qty. sold
Total revenue obtained
Qty used at home
Qty. stored
Form of storage
Processing method used
Method of storage
Amount of revenue from stored produce
Depreciation for inputs
Qty. used for gifts, ceremonies festivals
150
Price per
unit
of
produce on
farm
5
QUESTIONNAIRE ON INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND OTHERS
1. IMPORTANCE
Type of ILV
1.1 Nutritional value of ILV
species
1.2 Medicinal value of ILV
species.
2. PRODUCTION PRACTICES
Type of ILV
2.1 What are the sources of your ILV seeds?
2.2 Where do you store your seeds?
2.3 Do you encounter any problems in the storage of your
seeds?
2.4 If yes state the problem(s)
2.5 Are your seeds treated before planting?
2.6 If yes state the type of treatment
2.7 How do you prepare your land before planting?
2.8 Do you apply manure and fertilizers during land preparation
or before planting?
2.9 If yes, what type of manure and fertilizers and how much?
2.10 Do you nurse or broadcst your seed when planting?
2.11 If you nurse how long does it take before you transplant?
2.12 If any disease/pest appears in nursery how do you control?
(Any indigenous measure?)
2.13 When there are no rains how do you irrigate ILVs?
2.14 How many times do you water the plants in a day?
2.15How do you apply the water?
2.16 What production problems do you encounter?
2.17 Do you apply fertilizer, manure or compost in main crop of
ILV?
2.18 If any disease and insect/pest appear in the crop of ILV, do
you use any indigenous measures for controlling them?
2.19 Do you spray any chemical if yes, what chemical do you
use for what disease and pest?
2.20 How long does it take to mature (ready to first harvest)?
2.21 What opportunities encourage you to cultivate these ILVs?
2.22 Do you grow the ILV as a main crop or as a mixed crop?
Why?
2.23 If you grow as a mixed crop, which crops do you cultivate
with ILVs? Why?
3.0 HARVESTING, HANDLING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE
Type of ILV
3.1 What signs do you use to determine when to start harvest?
3.2 What time of the day do you harvest?
3.3 What is the reason for the choice of time?
3.4 How do you harvest the leaf?
3.5 Do you harvest on market days, a day before market days or
any day at all?
3.6 Do you do any sorting after harvest before selling?
151
3.7 Why do you sort?
3.8 Do you count the leaf in a group before tying?
3.9 Do you weigh the bunch of leaf before tying?
3.10 If you do not count or weigh give reasons why?
3.11 Do you process any of your produce before marketing?
3.12 If yes describe the method of processing?
3.13 What processing problems do you encounter?
3.14 Do you store any of your produce?
3.15 If yes, describe the method of storage for each type of leaf.
3.16 State any problems of post harvest losses?
3.17 What storage problems do you encounter?
152
APPENDIX 6
(a)
Matrix scoring for Cultivated species
CRITERIA
Name of
vegetable
1
2
3
4
MATRIX SCORING FOR POTENTIAL SPECIES FOR
COMMERCIALISATION
Low
production
cost
Alefu
Bito
Berese
Maana
5 Bento
6 Yogvoro
(b)
8
10
Early
maturing
8
9
High
demand
High
price
Easy
to dry
Nutritious
Total
Rank
6
8
8
3
10
6
10
2
10
4
8
1
0
10
10
0
7
10
8
1
40
51
58
14
4
2
1
6
10
2
8
4
6
3
1
8
6
3
47
39
3
5
Matrix scoring for Collected / wild species
CRITERIA
Name of vegetable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
4
4
2
High
labour
Require
ment
6
9
10
5
Baobab
Bunto
Kamponvonro
Jamasoni
Ayoyo
Kafrikayoa
Ogla
Bongabisigo
Available
most of the
time
10
8
10
6
1
1
1
1
Easy to
collect
8
10
1
10
10
8
1
1
Short
distance
from home
10
10
1
10
10
10
4
10
High dd
Medicinal
Score
Rank
7
10
8
8
9
0
10
0
10
10
8
9
8
8
0
0
45
48
28
43
38
27
16
12
2
1
5
3
4
6
7
8
153
APPENDIX 7
CULTIVATED SPECIES OF ILVS IN STUDY AREA
Local names of ILV species at different places
SN
Rain-fed sites
ILV species
Ethnicity
1.
Local name
Okro
2.
3.
4.
Berese
Bito
Yogvoro
5.
6.
7.
Neri
Saat
Bento
8.
9.
Lohora
Ayoyo
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Alefu
Langina
Lohit
Imbut
Sambola
Komworo
Amaranthus cruentus
Cleome gynandra
16.
17.
Leba
Chimvoro
Cleome gynandra
154
Scientific name
Abelmoschus
esculentus
Hibiscus cannabinus
Hibiscus sabdariffa
Cucurbita pepo
Common name
Okro leaves
Tamarindus indica
Tamarind
Vigna unguiculata
Bean leaves
Corchorus olitorius
Luffa aegyptica
Solanum macrocarpon
Kenaf
Roselle or Sorre
Pumpkin
Kandiga
Widnaba
Sherigu
Gani
Binaba
Bongo Central
KassenaNankani
Kusasi
Fra-fra
KassenaNankani
Kusasi
Fra-fra
Mana
Okro
Maana
Mana
Okro
Mana
Beresi
Beto
Pumpkin
leaves
Neri
Berges
Bito
Pumpkin
leaves
Neri
Saat
Bean
leaves
Lohora
Ayoyo
Berese
Bito
Yogvoro
Berese
Bito
Yogvoro
Barisit
Bito(Beet)
Pumpkin
leaves
Neri leaves
Beresi
Bito
Yogvooro
Bento
Bean leaves
Bento
Alefu
Langina
Alefu
Bento
Cowpea(leaves)
Jews mallow or
African Sorrel
African spinach
Cat’s Whiskers
Loofah Sponge
African
egg
plant
Irrigated sites
Sama
Bento
Ayoyo
Bungbhama
Ayoyo
Alefu
Langina
Lohit
Imbut
Zambole
Sambola
Komworo
Sambola
Leba
Leba
Leba
Chimvoro
Alefu
Nangina
Sambola
Konvoro
APPENDIX 8
COLLECTED SPECIES OF ILVS IN STUDY AREA
Local names of ILV species at different places
S.N
.
Rain-fed sites
IlV species
Ethnicity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Local name
Kapok
Voong
(Voa)
Bogosid
Bauda
Matingama
Samvama
Langenda
Guwara
Tokara
Samveibit
Kuorunbit
Saalum
Ogola
Samparaga
Vomwama
Kulgonga
Bongto
Firikayua
Kelpomvoor
o
Lemkoligo
Kuliyoko
Scientific name
Ceiba pentendra
Irrigated sites
Kandiga
Widnaba
Sherigu
Gani
Binaba
KassenaNankani
Kusasi
Fra-fra
KassenaNankani
Kusasi
Common name
Kapok or silk
cotton
Bongo
Central
Fra-fra
Kapok
Voong
Bogosid
Bauda
Matingama
Sambema
Langenda
Guwara
Baobab
Cleome gynandra
Adansonia digitata
Baobab leaves
Kulgunga
Bungto
Firikayua
Kelpom vooro
Bougosit
Baura
Matimgama
Samvama
Tokara
Saalum
Ogola
Samparaga
Vomwama
Kulgonga
Bongto
Tokara
Goara
Teakara
Samveibit
Kuorunbit
Ogla
Ogla
Bomto
Bongto
Furkayu
wa
Konpongvoro
Lemkoligo
Kuliyoko
155
22.
Bungabisgo
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Sasinga
Sinkam
Pigitaligsi
Tinga bonto
Manbrola
Arvoro
Gumantusi
Bonleyaba
30.
31.
32.
Kulyogro
Kunbuo
Buwa Tenga
33.
Kinkalinka
34.
35.
36.
37.
Virivoro
Voba
Jamasoni
Kafrikayoya
156
Bungabisgo
Arachis hypogea
Groundnut
Bungabis
go
Sasinga
Sinkam
Pigitaligsi
Tinga bonto
Manbrola
Arvoro
Gumantusi
Bonleyab
a
Kulyogro
Kunbuo
Buwa
Tenga
Kinkalin
ka
Virivoro
Cassia obtusifolia
Cassia tora
APPENDIX 9 LIST OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF ILVs GROWN IN UPPER EAST
REGION OF GHANA.
S. Species
N.
Ranking of the Species by Popularity
Rain-fed villages
Irrigated villages
Kandiga
(1)
Widnaba
(2)
Sherigu
(3)
Gaani
(4)
Binaba
(5)
Bongo
(6)
1.
Okro/Mana
III
VII
VII
IV
IX
VI
2.
Berges/Barisit/Berese
II
II
II
II
I
II
3.
Bito
I
I
I
I
II
I
4.
IV
VIII
III
IX
VII
III
5.
Yogvoro
leaves)
Niri/Sama
VIII
IX
XI
XII
VIII
XI
6.
Saat
7.
Bento (cow-pea leaves)
V
III
VI
III
V
IV
8.
Lohora
9.
Ayoyo
(Pumpkin
X
XI
VII
V
X
X
III
IX
10. Alefu
VI
VI
V
V
VI
VIII
11. Langina/Nangina/Leba
XI
IV
IV
XI
IV
VII
12. Lohit
XI
13. Imbut
X
14. Sambola/Zambole
X
VIII
15. Komvoro/Konvoro
V
IX
16. Nyembule
X
VI
17. Samvebed
XII
XII
18. Benvoro
19. Chimvoro
VIII
XII
XII
VII
Note: (1) = Rain-fed and subsistence; (2) = Rain-fed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rain-fed,
commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial with
limited access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market farm types.
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus Group Discussions in six villages.
157
APPENDIX 10
COLLECTED SPECIES OF ILVs IN UPPER EAST REGION OF
GHANA
.
S.
N.
Species
Ranking of the Species by Popularity
Rain-fed villages
Kandiga
(1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
Kapok
Voong/Voa/Voba
Bogosid/Bougosit
Bauda
Matingama/Matimgama
Sambema/Samvama
Langenda
Guwara/Gowara
Teakara/Tokara/Baobab
Samveibit
Kuorunbit
Saalum
Ogola
Samparaga
Vomwama
Kulgonga
Bongto
Firikayua/Furkayuwa
Kelpomvooro
Lemkoligo
Kuliyoko
Bungabisgo
Sasinga Sinkam
Pigitaligsi
Tingabongto
Arvoro
Gumantusi
Bonleyaba
Kulyogro
Kunbuo
Buwa Tenga
Kinkalinka
Virivoro
Jamasoni
Kafrikayoya
Ziphoyong
Bitter leaf
Pusgavoro
III
XI
X
I
VI
II
VII
IV
V
VIII
IX
Widnaba
(2)
III
IV
II
VI
V
VIII
VII
IX
I
X
Irrigated villages
Sherigu
(3)
Gaani
(4)
Binaba
(5)
Bongo
(6)
VII
IX
V
III
VIII
V
VI
VII
I
II
III
IV
V
VIII
II
IX
II
I
IV
VI
VIII
VI
II
VI
I
I
III
III
VIII
VIII
IV
V
VII
VIII
VIII
VIII
VIII
VIII
IV
XII
XIII
X
IX
XI
Note: (1) = Rain-fed and subsistence; (2) = Rain-fed, commercial with limited access to market; (3) = Rainfed, commercial with easy access to market; (4) = Irrigated and subsistence; (5) = Irrigated, commercial
with limited access to market and (6) = Irrigated, commercial with easy access to market farm types.
Source: ICRA Field Study 2002, Focus Group Discussions in six villages.
158
APPENDIX 11
A REFLECTION OF PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS
Constraints
Percent respondent
Limited access to financial
capital/Credit
Poor soil fertility
Soil erosion
High transport cost to
market
Long distance to farm
Destruction by livestock
High cost of fertilizer
Limited access to fertiliser
Pest and disease
Limited access to labour
Food shortage in April –
July
Limited sources of income
Limited access to Bullock
Post harvest losses
Poor seed quality
Low market prices
Limited market demand of
ILVs
Destruction by grass cutter
Limited knowledge on
manure processing into
composting
Limited access to seed
Widnaba
Binaba
Sherigu
Kandiga
86
80
77
43
60
50
20
11
14
20
50
11
77
55
10
20
28
43
43
72
14
60
50
20
20
10
20
10
10
30
10
44
22
11
20
20
60
20
30
50
70
20
66
11
33
33
44
10
70
10
11
22
44
33
10
10
30
44
10
10
43
11
Limited access to pesticides
Poor seed storage facility
Erratic rains
High population
Limited irrigation water
Small land size
Deforestation
Limited land availability in
canal site
Limited access to animal
health service.
Gaani
80
Bongo
Central
80
33
28
100
14
100
60
100
55
11
20
30
10
80
20
10
10
10
22
(HC)
22
(HC)
33
22
22
11
20
159
APPENDIX 12
CRITERIA
Name of
vegetable
MATRIX SCORING OF CULTIVATED SPECIES.
Low producTion cost
1
2
3
4
5
Alefu
9
Berese
24
Bito
28
Maana
9
Vigna
(Bento)
50
6
Pumpkin
leaves
57
(Yorvonro)
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey
APPENDIX 13
CRITERIA
Name of
vegetable
Low
labour
Requirement
Early
maturing
High
demand
High
price
Easy
To
process
Nutritious
Total
Rank
22
58
55
35
40
51
56
17
60
39
58
11
60
37
38
6
0
60
60
0
40
60
52
7
231
329
347
85
4
2
1
6
47
60
49
38
8
39
291
3
54
10
17
30
36
18
222
5
MATRIX SCORING OF COLLECTED SPECIES
Available
Most
of
the
time
Baobab
(Tokara)
2
Jamasoni
3
Kanponvonro
4
Bunto
5
Ougla
6
Samvama( wild
Ayoyo)
7
Kafrikayoa
8
Sowoka
Source: ICRA 2002, Field survey
Easy
to
collect
Short
Distance
from
home
High
demand
Medicinal
High
nutritional
value
Score
Rank
1
160
51
8
10
12
13
47
10
6
56
60
60
60
6
55
60
52
10
48
48
54
60
58
48
54
48
24
52
22
43
32
294
154
140
262
260
1
6
8
2
3
32
6
28
60
6
42
54
24
20
45
60
22
12
0
60
27
55
51
230
152
221
4
7
5
APPENDIX 14
ESTIMATES OF BENEFITS AND COSTS ON AN IRRIGATED
COMMERCIAL FARM AT PWALUGU (BOLGATANGA DISTRICT)
1,000 Cedis/acre
Local Name of ILV
Production Cost / acre
Land
Fencing of Land
Land preparation -Hired Labour
- Animal traction
-Tractor services
Seed
Fertilizer
Manure
Compost
Chemicals
Water
Association dues
Depreciation of working tools
Donkey cart to market
Truck service to market
Human portage to market
Bicycle to market
Transport cost of farmer
Selling Cost (Taxi)
Total cost per acre
Opportunity Cost of capital per annum
Opportunity cost of capital/operation period
(26% interest)
Gross cost of operation
Output/Revenue per acre
Sales fresh
Sales dried
Consumption fresh
Consumption dried
Ceremonies/festival/gifts
Total Revenue/ acre
Net benefit
Benefit/Cost ratio
Bito
Alefu
Ayoyo
5.00
0.00
285.59
0.00
64.71
20.59
22.50
30.00
0.00
6.40
0.00
0.00
150.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
12.50
0.00
502.50
0.00
100.00
10.00
22.50
30.00
0.00
6.40
0.00
0.00
185.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.00
0.00
686.40
0.00
200.00
50.00
22.50
30.00
0.00
6.40
0.00
0.00
300.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
17.64
602.43
156.63
0.00
0.00
75.00
943.90
245.41
0.00
0.00
150.00
1455.30
378.39
13.05
615.48
20.45
964.35
2770.59
0.00
7.41
0.00
29.41
2807.41
2191.93
4.56
4850.00
0.00
135.00
0.00
250.00
5235.00
4270.65
5.43
31.53
1486.83
0.00
2450.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2450.00
963.17
1.65
161
APPENDIX 15
INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLE STAKEHOLDER ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITY
INSTITUTION
1. Farmer/ Vegetable producer
2. Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA)
3. Savannah Agricultural Research Institute
(SARI ) and Manga Research Station (UER)
162
ROLE/RESPONSIBILITY
 Key stakeholder and beneficiary
 Production, preservation & storage of
vegetables
 Conserve vegetable species through continued
production
 Posses indigenous knowledge on production
and processing of ILVs
 Assist farmers in agricultural production, which
includes crops and as well as leafy vegetable.
 Capacity building through training of extension
worker and farmers
 Facilitate transfer of technology
 Link farmers with credit institutions
 Facilitate farmer groups/co-operatives
formation
 Training of Agricultural Extension Agencies
and farmers on processing, preservation &
storage of vegetables
 Assist farmers in production, processing &
storage of local vegetables both in the raining
& dry seasons using solar dryer
 Construction of dams for dry season gardening
 Credit from project funds
 Demonstration on production, processing &
utilisation of vegetables
 Inspection and certifying vegetable seeds
 Vegetable breeding programme
 Follow farming system research approach
 Conduct farmer field schools on vegetables
 Research on crop/vegetable production
POTENTIAL ROLE
 Increase production to a commercial scale of
production










To establish farmer field training through
demonstration plot of ILVs
To link farmers with Agricultural
Development Bank & NGOs for financial
assistance
To link farmers with credit institutions for
expansion of ILVs production to a commercial
scale
To encourage farmers to use the solar dryer to
improve the quality of the vegetables
Promote the production of
selected/recommended ILVs in the UER
Identify farmers to produce seeds
Work on adaptable leafy vegetable varieties
Seed multiplication, production, packaging &
sale
Farmers field school on leafy vegetables
Research on inter-cropping of leafy vegetables
4. Animal Research Institute (ARI)



5. University for Development Studies




6. Savannah Resource Management Centre
(SRMC)


7. World Vision International (Bongo only)
8. Action Aid Ghana
9. TRAX Program Support









10. TECHNOSERVE GHANA


Fodder/Silage from leafy vegetable in animal
feeding
To identify ILVs, which also serve as
forage/fodder
Forage/Browse agronomy research & feed
development
Livestock system research & development
Crop residues & by-products utilisation
Research on production & marketing of crops
and vegetables in general
The food & nutrition security unit of UDS is
involved in micro nutrient studies & training on
the use of improved solar drying technologies
Studies on the status of indigenous crop species
in the 3 regions of Northern Ghana.
Documentation of endangered crop
species/varieties
Organising training programs for leafy
vegetable farmers on safe use of agro chemicals
and integrated pest and crop management.
Credit facility for farmers
Supply of seeds to vegetable farmers
Provision of credit
Provision of infrastructure i.e. dams, storage
structures, input etc
Provision of animal traction facilities
Train farmers on the importance of large scale
vegetable production
Promoting organic farming
To offer training on soil & water conservation
technologies to ILV farmers
Promoting processing of tomato
Train tomato and onion farmers on agribusiness








Research on indigenous leafy vegetable
Leafy vegetables residues preference studies
Crop-residues treatment for animal
supplementary feed (beans straw)
Establish market link for vegetable straw with
urban livestock producer
Promotion of vegetable utilisation for
household consumption in the southern parts
of the country
Promotion of commercial vegetable
production in various parts of Northern Ghana
Identification of hot spots for disappearing
species/varieties
Promotion of the local varieties

Increase number of credit beneficiaries to
enhance production of leafy vegetables.

Support farmers in ILV production

To link leafy vegetables producers to market
access promotion network (MAARONET) for
fair trade
To offer capacity building training
Promoting organic farming
Explore commercialisation potential of ILVs
Explore value addition/processing




163

11. RUWA (Rural Women Association) in
Navrongo

Support farmers on market linkage
Provide credit to women for income generating
activities ILV production is one of the activities




12. ICOUR (Irrigation Company of Upper East
Region)




13. ADRA




14. Catholic Diocese




15. Rural Aid (IFAD)



164
Provision of irrigation facilities for production
of leafy vegetables
Organisation of farmers/producers into
marketing units
Provision of seeds & inputs credit
Provision of technical advise & disease control
Organise technical training on crop production
Credit support to buy farm inputs
Natural resource management
Create awareness on importance of ILVs as a
source of nutrition.
Construction of dams for irrigation
Promote income generating activities (Rice
parboiling, dawadawa processing, pito making)
Provide technical assistance/training to farmers
on composting and local methods of insect
control
Promote vegetable production (Tomato and
Onion)
Agro-forestry (Bongo Agro-forestry).
Assist communities to construct hand dug wells
for household use
Undertake community development activities





opportunities
Providing management and marketing
support/linkage to ILV farmers
Provide credit linkage to ILV farmers.
Provide credit to women involved in ILV
Commercial production.
Organise technical training in ILV production
and processing
Promotion of processing & marketing of
indigenous leafy vegetables in urban areas.
Encouraging farmers to diversify into ILV
production
Increasing the acreage allocated to farmers for
ILV production
Developing strategies for seed production &
storage
ADRA will be willing to partner in efforts to
promote indigenous leafy vegetables.


Seed production of local Alefu (Leba).
Promotion of processing and marketing of
ILVs.

Assist communities to construct hand dug
wells for irrigation purposes
Assist communities to access funds for income
generating activities

APPENDIX 16
S.N
1.
2.
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES, RESEARCH OPTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS FOR
PROMOTING INDIGENOUS LEAFY VEGETABLES IN UPPER EAST REGION OF GHANA
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
CONSERVATION
Germplasm collection & seed bank establishment
RESEARCH OPTIONS
DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS


Documentation & dissemination of indigenous
knowledge on ILVs

3.
In situ conservation of wild/collected species of
ILVs



Identification of hot spots for endangered species
of ILVs.
Research on mode of conservation eg. Gardening
or wild mode of conservation.
Research on mode of collection of ILV species
from bush eg. Pruning vs. uprooting.


4.
CALTIVATION
Include ILVs in seed multiplication programme

Research on seed production techniques in ILVs

5.
Improvement in cropping systems

Research on appropriate crop combination for
mixed/inter-cropping
Research on effectiveness of mix seeding



6.
Balanced use of manure/compost & chemical
fertilizers for ILV cultivation

Research on appropriate crop spacing for
mixed/inter-cropping
Research on Integrated Nutrient Management
(appropriate ratio of manure/compost and
chemical fertilizers and time of application)


Collection of germ-plasm of ILVs (collected &
cultivated) & establishment of seed bank
Documentation of indigenous knowledge on
ILVs (published materials)
Formalising the dissemination of indigenous
knowledge from one generation to another
(through training by MOFA and other
organisations and also through farmers’ groups).
Intensifying awareness to control bush burning,
clearing & overgrazing/ browsing
Creating awareness on importance of
conservation.
Including ILVs under seed multiplication
programme of MOFA and other organisations
Practising appropriate crop rotation in irrigated
production system
Continue incorporating leguminous crops in
cropping pattern
Training farmers on composting techniques
165
7.
Use of integrated pest and disease management
(IPDM) techniques




8.
Establishment of more small, medium & large scale
irrigation schemes

Research on use of botanicals in plant protection
(pest control)
Research on effect of chemical residues on ILVs
on human health
Research on efficiency of different indigenous pest
control measures
A study on major insects, pests & diseases on
ILVs
A feasibility study on the use of a small scale drip
irrigation system

Introduce/promote integrated pest & disease
management (IPDM) techniques

Establishment of more small scale (dug well, low
cost water harvesting ponds and bore hole)
irrigation schemes
Creating awareness on on-farm/in situ water
conservation
Maintenance of the existing irrigation system




9.
PROCESSING
Establishment of small-scale/cottage processing &
packaging industries



MARKETING
10. Market promotion of ILVs through mass media
166

Testing various solar drier techniques.
Verifying the effectiveness of indigenous drying
methods
Research on effect of processing/solar drying on:
- taste and colour,
- nutritional and biochemical properties
- storage or shelf life.

Research on in-country & export markets of ILVs



Provision for diversified use of irrigation sources
for ILVs production
Establishment of medium & large scale irrigation
schemes
Introducing/demonstrating solar dryer for drying
of ILVs
Training & encouraging ILV producers for
proper packaging & storage of processed ILVs
Introduce/promote establishment of processing
industries
Market promotion in terms of popularising
commercialisation potential of ILVs through
mass media (TV, radio, posters and pamphlets)
11.
Mobilisation of farmers associations or cooperatives for production, processing & marketing
of ILVs

Feasibility study on appropriate size and
operational mechanisms of co-operatives.


12. Proper handling of fresh ILVs to reduce post
harvest losses


OTHERS
13. Awareness creation on multipurpose use of ILVs



14
.
Incorporating ILVs under MOFA and other
organisations development programmes
15
.
16
.
Encouragement of credit institutions to provide
credit to ILV producer’s group
Improvement in market facility

Formation & mobilisation of farmers associations
or co-operatives for input supply, cultivation,
processing & marketing of ILVs
Provide support for capacity building for farmers
association on ILVs through training on cooperative management
Education to farmers and traders on hygienic
handling of ILVs on the farm and in market.
Research on packaging materials and methods for
transporting the produce to market
Survey on post harvest losses on farm and in
market

Research on potential use of ILV residues as
livestock feed and on the trade off in value added
if it is used as food or fodder
Analysis and documentation of the nutritional
value of fresh & dried ILVs
Research on medicinal value of ILVs

Creating awareness on multipurpose use of ILVs
(nutritional & medicinal values, various recipes
& as a livestock feed)

MOFA should take a lead and co-ordinate with
other organisations to include ILVs under their
programme.
Co-ordination of credit institutions to provide
micro credit to ILVs producer groups
Improving market facility (selling stalls for
ILVs).
Study on requirements of credit to design an
appropriate credit package to help ILV producers.


167