A case study of the use of recent
English borrowings and codeswitching in advertisements in two
Swedish lifestyle magazines
En fallstudie över användandet av nya engelska låneord och kodväxling i
reklamannonser i två svenska livsstilstidningar
Anna Lenhult
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
Department of Language, Literature and Intercultural Studies
English III: Degree Project in Linguistics
15hp
Supervisor: Solveig Granath
Examiner: Elisabeth Gustawsson
Fall 2013
Title:
A case study of the use of recent English borrowings and code-switching in
advertisements in two Swedish lifestyle magazines
Titel på svenska:
En fallstudie över användandet av nya engelska låneord och kodväxling i
reklamannonser i två svenska livsstilstidningar
Author:
Anna Lenhult
Pages:
45
Abstract
This study is about English borrowings and code-switching in advertisements in the two Swedish
lifestyle magazines Amelia and King. The investigation shows that recent English borrowings were
found in 41% of the advertisements in Amelia and in 10% of the advertisements in King. English
intra-sentential code-switching appeared in 27% of the advertisements in Amelia but in only 8% in
King. About half the advertisements in both magazines contained inter-sentential code-switching.
Total code-switching was represented in one advertisement in Amelia and in eighteen in King. The
two magazines differed a lot regarding the appearance of recent borrowings and code-switching in
their different product categories and only shared the product category alcoholic beverages, which
had the highest percentage of code-switching in both magazines. The main difference between
Amelia and King was that in Amelia the amount of borrowings and code-switching was much higher
than in King, but on the other hand Amelia only contained one advertisement exclusively in English,
while in King they were eighteen. Another difference was that Swedish was more common in Amelia
while English was more frequently used in King, both mixed with Swedish but also in
advertisements where English was used entirely.
Keywords: advertising, borrowing, code-switching
Sammanfattning på svenska
Den här undersökningen handlar om förekomsten av nya engelska låneord och kodväxling i
reklamannonser i de två svenska livsstilstidningarna Amelia och King. Undersökningen visar att nya
engelska låneord fanns i 41% av reklamannonserna i Amelia och i 10% av reklamannonserna i King.
Engelsk intrasentinell kodväxling hittades i 27% av reklamannonserna i Amelia men bara i 8% av de
i King. Ungefär hälften av reklamannonserna i båda tidningarna innehöll intersentinell kodväxling.
Total kodväxling, dvs. annonser där all text var på engelska, förekom i en reklamannons i Amelia
och arton i King. De två tidningarna skiljde sig mycket från varandra när det gällde antal engelska
lånord och kodväxling i de produktkategorier som annonserades och hade bara en produktkategori
gemensamt, alkoholhaltiga drycker, som hade högst andel i förekomst av kodväxling. Den största
skillnaden mellan Amelia och King var att Amelia innehöll många fler låneord och kodväxlingar än
King, samtidigt som Amelia innehöll endast en reklamannons som var helt på engelska medan King
innehöll arton. En annan skillnad är att svenska var vanligare i Amelia medan engelska var vanligare
i King, både blandad med svenska och i annonser med enbart engelska.
Nyckelord: reklamannonser, låneord, kodväxling
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Aims ........................................................................................................................................... 2
2 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Some important concepts .......................................................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Borrowing and loanwords ................................................................................................ 3
2.1.2 Code-switching ................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 English as a global language ..................................................................................................... 4
2.3 The use of English in the Swedish language and society .......................................................... 5
2.3.1 Language law restrictions in Sweden .............................................................................. 5
2.4 The use of English as a foreign language in advertisements .................................................... 6
2.5 Gender in advertising ................................................................................................................ 8
3 Methods ............................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Criteria for identifying instances of recent borrowings and different kinds of code-switching
in the study ............................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Material .................................................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Procedure ................................................................................................................................ 12
3.4 Problems of categorization...................................................................................................... 14
4 Analysis and results ........................................................................................................................... 15
4.1 Borrowings and code-switching in advertisements in Amelia and King ................................ 15
4.1.1 Borrowings in advertisements in Amelia and King ....................................................... 15
4.1.2 Intra-sentential code-switching in advertisements in Amelia and King ...................... 19
4.1.3 Inter-sentential code-switching in advertisements in Amelia and King ...................... 23
4.1.4 Total code-switching in advertisements in Amelia and King ....................................... 27
4.2 The use of English in relation to the advertised product categories ....................................... 29
4.2.1 Survey of English borrowings and code-switching in advertisements for different
product categories in Amelia ........................................................................................ 29
4.2.2 Survey of English borrowings and code-switching in advertisements for different
product categories in King ........................................................................................... 31
4.3 Comparison of results ............................................................................................................. 32
5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 33
References ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................................... 38
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................................... 39
Appendix C ...........................................................................................................................................40
Appendix D ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Appendix E ........................................................................................................................................... 45
1 Introduction
English is the language with the most impact on the Swedish population and society out of all
foreign languages (Königsson & Hrakhouskaya 2010:2). The widespread use of English in
Swedish society and language cannot be ignored. For example, some Swedish companies
have chosen to adopt English names such as Peak Performance, Wayne’s Coffee, and Pocket
Shop. The majority of the Swedish population is so used to English that they do not even
react when they see some English words or an entire phrase in English in Swedish texts
(Rubensson 2013:162). English vocabulary is used in Swedish sentences as if they were
regular Swedish words and English is turning into common knowledge among the Swedish
population. However, there are Swedes that react to the widespread use of English; either
because they cannot understand English, or because they do not like how the increased use of
English intrudes on the Swedish language (Königsson & Krakhouskaya 2010:55).
On the 30th of September, 2013, there was a letter to the editor in the Swedish
newspaper Värmlands Folkblad where the writer complained about the morning paper’s way
of mixing English words into the Swedish language in their articles. The writer was upset and
mentioned an article in which the English words white party and food and beverage
manager were used instead of their Swedish equivalents. The writer asked “why is the
Swedish language not good enough?” The phenomenon that upset the writer is common and
goes by the name code-switching, where regular English words are used in the Swedish
language without any attempt to make them sound or appear Swedish. In addition,
borrowing and loanwords are two other terms regarding the importation of English words
into the Swedish language.
The use of English borrowings and code-switching is indeed common in Sweden
today. One of the areas where English is frequently used is in advertisements. Two recent
investigations, one by Miguel García-Yeste (2013) and another by Susanne Lepp (2013), both
deal with English in Swedish advertisements. García-Yeste focuses on advertisements in
magazines, while Lepp describes commercials on TV. Even if the results of these
investigations both show that the majority of the advertisements are primarily in Swedish,
their results also show a frequent use of English in some of the advertisements.
The investigation by García-Yeste is based upon ten Swedish magazines that
represent different market segments. This case study will take the investigation by GarcíaYeste further by switching focus and looking at two different kinds of magazines; a magazine
for women and a magazine for men. With a focus on two magazines aimed at different sexes,
the aim is to include a minor gender approach into the analysis of the results.
1
1.1 Aims
The aim with this study is to do a case study, investigating the use of English borrowing and
code-switching in the advertisements in one issue each of the Swedish magazines Amelia and
King. Amelia is a women’s magazine with a focus on relationships and fashion, while King is
a men’s magazine that concentrates on fashion and other interests such as music and
technology. A second aim of the study is to investigate what products are supported by the
advertisements where English is used in these two magazines, but also to do a small study
comparing the use of English in advertisements in the women’s and men’s magazine. To
accomplish this, the research questions are:
1 To what extent are recent English borrowings and code-switching used in the
advertisements in the magazines Amelia and King?
2 Are there specific product categories that more frequently contain recent English
borrowings and/or code-switching?
3 Are there any differences between Amelia and King regarding the two previous questions?
This study aims to answer these three questions with the main focus on question number one
that is targeted at the overarching aim of the study.
2 Background
This section begins with brief descriptions of three concepts that are important to the study:
borrowing, loanwords, and code-switching. Then, section 2.2 describes the concept of
English as a global language. Next, in section 2.3 there is a brief survey of the use of English
in the Swedish language and society. Both section 2.4 and 2.5 focus on advertisements.
Section 2.4 deals with the use of English as a foreign language in advertisements, whilst
section 2.5 is about gender in advertising.
2.1 Some important concepts
To understand the content of this study it is important to know the definition of the three
terms borrowing, loanwords, and code-switching. The reason why these names are used and
not other equivalent names of the phenomena is because borrowing, loanwords, and codeswitching are the names that were most frequently used in the material that was used to
write this background. These terms are often confused and since the results will be presented
using these categories, this section aims to explain these terms and the differences between
2
them. First, the concepts borrowings and loanwords are described. Second, the term codeswitching and the differences between code-switching and the use of borrowings are
explained.
2.1.1 Borrowing and loanwords
The term borrowing is used for all kinds of borrowing of, for example, words, sounds, or
grammatical elements from other languages into a recipient language (Haspelmath 2009:36;
Mestrie et al. 2009:243). Usually, these elements are not incorporated into the recipient
language without change; rather, the words are adapted regarding morphology, phonology,
syntax, and meaning when they are imported into the recipient language. Borrowed words
are also called borrowings or loanwords. The language from which the loanwords are
borrowed is called the donor language, whilst the language that receives the word is the
recipient language (Haspelmath 2009:37).
The most common type of borrowing is convenience borrowing, which fulfills a
lexical need for concepts or items often caused by changes in society. Such words are more
easily and thus more frequently borrowed than words that already have equivalents in the
recipient language (Sharp 2001:6; Stålhammar 2004:85). It is difficult to explain why
borrowings replace already existing native words. Haspelmath (2009:47-48) and Gottlieb
(2004:50), however, believe that this happens because the speakers adopt foreign words that
originate from a donor language that the speakers associate with prestige and find attractive.
It may be difficult, however, to determine if a word is borrowed into a language or if it already
belongs to the native language. Haspelmath (2009:38) points out that one can never exclude
that a word has not been borrowed. Consequently, the question whether a word is native or
not should always be related to the knowledge of the history of the word. Therefore, it is
impossible to say that a word is not borrowed in an absolute sense. Following the same line,
Gottlieb (2004:61) talks about Danish and states that “so much of what we now consider
good old Danish must at one time have sounded like a bad translation from German.”
Borrowings, or loanwords, consist of direct loans and translation loans. Direct loans
can be divided into borrowings with or without adaptation to the spelling and morphology of
the recipient language, whereas translation loans are translated directly into the recipient
language, for example the Swedish translation hårddisk from the English word hard disk
(Stålhammar 2004:92). Direct loans are common when the donor language is well-known to
the recipient language speakers who choose not to adapt the pronunciation of the word.
Instead, they use the original pronunciation from the donor language, which creates direct
loans (Haspelmath 2009:42). Linguists identify borrowings by looking at their shape and
meaning and comparing those aspects to similar words in other languages, which could
indicate if the word is borrowed or not (Haspelmath 2009:43-44). One important difference
3
between borrowings and code-switching is that a borrowed word can be used as a regular
part of the language in the speech of monolinguals (Haspelmath 2009:40-41).
2.1.2 Code-switching
Code-switching is a universal concept that occurs frequently in bilingual and multilingual
societies. The term code-switching describes the situation when a speaker alternates between
two or more languages in the same discourse or utterance (Sharp 2001:7; Haspelmath
2009:40-42). Gottlieb (2004:49) and Haspelmath (2009:40-41) describe code-switching as a
concept that is easily mixed up with the use of borrowings or loanwords, as the boundary
between the two phenomena is diffuse. Nevertheless, if a word that is of foreign origin is a
part of the speaker’s native lexicon, it is to be considered a borrowing, but if the word does
not exist in the speaker’s native lexicon, it is a single word code-switch. However, the smaller
the code-switch is, the more difficult is it to decide if it should be regarded as a borrowing or
a single word code-switching, since code-switching as well as borrowings can appear as single
items (Sharp 2001:11). Normally, borrowings show signs of phonological or morphological
adaptation, whilst code-switching does not (Haspelmath 2009:40-41). Urge (2010:13-14)
describes two different kinds of code-switching: intra-sentential and inter-sentential codeswitching. Intra-sentential code-switching is used when words from another language are
mixed into an utterance, while inter-sentential code-switching is used when a whole
utterance is in a different language.
2.2 English as a global language
This section about the widespread use of English is included to demonstrate the deeper
purpose of this study; that English is increasingly used in Sweden. The term lingua franca
stands for a language used between people who cannot understand each other by using their
native languages (Mesthrie et al. 2009:489). English is today’s Lingua Franca, just as Latin
was the Lingua Franca of the Roman Empire and during the Middle Ages (Aijmer & Melchers
2004:1; Stålhammar 2004:97; Puntoni et al. 2009:4). Aijmer and Melchers (2004:1) describe
English as a life-line for language communication regarding, for example, science, business,
and tourism. Lindblom (2013:78-79) states that 380 million people consider English their
native language, whilst 100-1000 million people use English as a second or foreign language.
English has a great influence around the world, and the term Anglicism is used to define
language features that are adapted, adopted, or inspired by English and used in languages
other than English. This far, English has conquered great parts in the areas of popular music,
entertainment, fashion, sports, business, and advertising to the extent that English words
from these areas are used and thought of as words of the native languages in different
countries around the world (Gottlieb 2004:44).
4
2.3 The use of English in the Swedish language and society
Even though the increased use of English as a foreign language has gained attention in recent
years, there are still few studies of the use of English in Scandinavia and how it affects the
Scandinavian languages. This section gives an overview of the use of English in Sweden today
while the subsection describes the Swedish language law.
At the Swedish internet forum Språkförsvaret1 there are many discussions regarding
the fact that Swedes get in contact with English everywhere: in school, by listening to music
or watching movies, in social media, and on the Internet in general. 2 Lund (2013:63) claims
that English is used on basically every product in the grocery store, even though these
products are aimed at Swedish customers in the first place. Regarding this widespread use of
English in Swedish in various places and contexts, Abrahamsson (2013:13) feels that Swedish
no longer is to be considered the national language of the country. One of his examples is
taken from the birth of the Swedish heir in 2012 when Prince Daniel, at a press conference,
described his happiness by saying mina känslor är all over the place, ‘my feelings are all over
the place’.
Both Königsson and Hrakhouskaya (2010:3) and Gahrton (2013:174) state that
Anglicisms are used to such an extent in Sweden that people are starting to react in a negative
way. In the last couple of decades, there have been debates about the influence of English and
what might happen to the languages where English intrudes on the native language (Aijmer &
Melchers 2004:1). Crystal (2008:705) mentions the expression linguistic power in the sense
that the linguistic power of, for example, English makes people who do not master English
less powerful. In fact, foreign languages can turn out a threat to the domestic language as
they become too widespread (Königsson & Hrakhouskaya 2010:3). A study done by
Königsson & Hrakhouskaya (2010:67) show that Swedish consumers do not mind the
extensive use of English, a fact that the investigators believe can have negative consequences
for the Swedish language.
2.3.1 Language law restrictions in Sweden
Since few people are aware of the existence of language laws, this section aims to inform the
reader about the Swedish language law and the fact that one of its aims is to restrict the use of
other languages than Swedish. The law is of interest here since such laws do not seem to be
present in the area of, for example, advertisements, which is the focus in this study. Aijmer
and Melchers (2004:1) claim that the increased use of English has led to concerns regarding
Språkförsvaret is a Swedish website that was started in 2002. In 2005 it became a network and a
non-profit organization for persons interested in saving and maintaining the value of the Swedish
language.
2 Språkförsvaret. 2010b. Referat från seminariet ’reklam på engelska kulturellt ofredande’. Available at
[http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaret-vcb4v.se/sf/index.php?id=811].
1
5
how to preserve smaller languages that are endangered by this global language and that
“language death in Scandinavia should by no means be ruled out.” Many countries have
adopted language policies to constrain the influence of other languages. In fact, there are 470
language laws in the world, which show that language is an area where political laws might be
necessary (Gahrton 2013:170-171). Svenska Akademien (The Swedish Academy) regularly
releases dictionaries as an orientation and introduction to Swedish words. However, Gahrton
(2013:172) criticizes Svenska Akademien since it does not come up with new Swedish words
to replace new imported words like, for example, technical terms. On the other hand, one of
the main tasks of the Swedish Centre for Terminology (TNC - Terminologicentrum) is to
suggest Swedish equivalents of new foreign terms and the organization claims on its
homepage to work with all kinds of terminological needs of users of languages for special
purposes. 3
In July, 2009, a new language law was adopted in Sweden. The new language law
contains provisions on the Swedish language, the national minority languages, and the
Swedish sign language. The purpose of the law is to specify the position and usage of Swedish
and other languages in Swedish society. It states that Swedish is the principal language in
Sweden and that Swedish should be used in all areas of society. This responsibility for the use
and development of Swedish applies mainly to the public sector. Consequently, government
agencies have a responsibility for ensuring that Swedish terminology in their various areas of
expertise is accessible, used, and developed.4 However, Gahrton (2013:173-174) criticizes this
new language law, since he believes that the aims are too low and since there is no way to
check that it is adhered to.
2.4 The use of English as a foreign language in advertisements
To get an overview of the use of English as a foreign language in advertisements, this section
offers information about the results of previous investigation in the area. Foreign words in
advertisements are a natural consequence of globalization; as global brands arise, so does the
need for multinational marketing (Königsson & Hrakhouskaya 2010:3). Königsson and
Hrakhouskaya (2010:2) describe language as a factor with great impact on how the consumer
perceives advertisements. Some companies use a globalised approach, which means that they
target a wider group of consumers by using the same advertisement, usually written in
English, in many different countries. A glocalised approach, however, means that the
advertisement is adapted to different languages, but might still contain common elements in
English like slogans or catchphrases. This glocalised approach helps eliminating the risk of
3
http://www.tnc.se/
Information about the language law is available at:
http://www.regeringen.se/content/1/c6/12/92/67/c7740716.pdf
4
6
misunderstandings, but is more expensive than a standardized advertisement in a global
language. Hence, the majority of international companies worldwide go halfway by using a
mixed language and promote the product both in the native language and in English
(Königsson & Hrakhouskaya 2010:1; García-Yeste 2013:78).
In the study by Königsson and Hrakhouskaya (2010:2), the authors state that many
advertisements in Sweden contain a mixed language. There are many plausible reasons for
this use of mixed languages in advertisements. To investigate these reasons further,
Språkförsvaret did a study, in which they asked different Swedish companies if they thought
that the use of English had increased in Swedish advertisements.5 The majority of the
companies, for example, Lindex, Preem, ICA, Vattenfall, Nordea, Volvo Personbilar, and
Telia Sonera, all gave positive answers that revealed that they had noted an increased use of
English. The Swedish bank Nordea argued that it is difficult for them to find adequate
financial expressions in Swedish that could replace the already existing ones in English. The
clothing company Lindex explained that they use English since they are an international
company with stores in more than ten countries. The telephone company Sony Ericsson,
however, motivated their choice of using English in their advertisements by explaining that
their aim is for their customers to understand their message and that English sometimes can
be the most effective way to accomplish this aim.
Piller (2001:160) claims that the language used in the slogan of an advertisement
becomes the master voice of the advertisement and expresses authority and expertise. Just as
Italian is often used in advertisements for food, Piller (2001:165-170) has observed that the
implied readers of bilingual advertisements are often considered young, intelligent, and
sophisticated persons with aims to change the future, live the good life, become successful,
and pursue a challenging career. Hence, bilingual advertisements mainly support technology,
expensive items like watches etc., nature and adventure, as well as music and entertainment.
A comprehensive study of advertisements in Swedish magazines by García Yeste
(2013:71) revealed that the ten magazines in the study contained 430 advertisements, out of
which 73 (17%) contained English to some extent. Of these 73 advertisements, only nine
(12%) were written entirely in English, whilst the other 64 advertisements (88%) contained a
mix of English and Swedish. The results also showed that the parts that contain English more
often are the headline and the signature, which contains information about the company or
product. The subhead, which is the text below the headline, is another important carrier of
English. The last part that often contains some English is the main text. However, the
subhead and the main text are usually not completely in English and mainly consist of the
5
Språkförsvaret. 2010a. ”Engelska i reklamen”. Available at [http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaretvcb4v.se/sf/?id=1192].
7
name of the product or a single phrase in English (García-Yeste 2013:72-76). In this study,
the results show that English is not frequently used on its own, but mostly in combination
with Swedish (García-Yeste 2013:81). García-Yeste (2013:82) thinks that these results
indicate that companies prefer glocalised strategies to be able to reuse parts of their
campaigns and only adapt some parts of the advertisement to the audience.
2.5 Gender in advertising
As a secondary aim of this study is to investigate if there are any differences between a
women’s and men’s magazine, it is of importance that the reader get some information about
gender in advertising. Today, the study of language and gender focuses on how language
shapes gender and vice versa (Clark et al. 2008:505). While sex is biologically constructed,
gender is socially constructed and shows how society expects people to behave depending on
their sex, thus, split into masculine and feminine (Sunderland 2006:22, Eliasson 2007:5,
Clark et al. 2008:505, Talbot 2008:510).
The term gender stereotypes is used about stereotypes that contain a conceptual
meaning that may create some kind of discrimination against men or women, for example,
sexist interpretations that are covertly communicated (Velasco-Sacristán 2010:69). Often,
gender stereotypes are not sexist in themselves, but they become sexist due to implicatures
that the reader gets from the advertisements (Velasco-Sacristán 2010:71). Traditional male
stereotypes are often based upon reason and violence, while innovative male stereotypes
involve beauty and seduction. Regarding female stereotypes, emotion and tenderness are
traditional stereotypes, while freedom and escapism are considered more innovative
stereotypes (Velasco-Sacristán & Fuertes-Olivera 2006:1994). Often, magazines are aimed at
either female or male readers with a gender stereotypic content and language (Willemsen
1998:851). Women’s magazines include fashion, beauty, relationships, and sex. Lifestyle
magazines for men offer “male” interests like film, music, books, lifestyle, and male fashion.
This kind of magazines already exists in numerous titles for women, but is a somewhat new
and growing phenomenon for men (Gauntlett 2008:142-143).
Advertising can tell us about both society and psychology (Núñez 2009:304). Popular
media affect people’s feelings, responses, and actions, both in general and in relation to
gender (Gauntlett 2008:25). Hence, the responsibility of the media includes what sort of
social identities they project, as advertisements greatly influence the way people construct
their identities (Piller 2001:153; Núñez 2009:302). Gauntlett (2008:60) argues that
advertisers nowadays are taking their social role seriously and that they are aware of the fact
that it is not good business to offend their customers with sexist stereotypes. Since
advertising companies today also want to come across as modern, they often do not include
old gender stereotypes except maybe in ironical ways (Gauntlett 2008:64). Gauntlett
8
(2008:189) maintains that the view offered in the media, and the view of gender and identity
in general, is changing, even if it is a slow process.
Regarding the use of languages in advertisement, Piller (2001:171) says that bilingual
advertisements often imply a male reader. She gives the example of watches, where not a
single bilingual advertisement of watches in her study showed a woman’s watch. Hence, the
bilingual narrator is usually considered to be male, either by picturing men or by featuring a
product that is gendered. However, her study also shows that both men, and in fact, even
sophisticated businesswomen, seem to be linked to bilingualism as they all indicate success.
I had a difficult time finding resources about gender roles in advertising language, but
it was even more difficult to find studies regarding the language use in gendered advertising.
Therefore, this study hopes to contribute new knowledge in this area.
3 Methods
The overarching aim of this study was to identify the use of code-switching and recent
borrowings in advertisements in two Swedish magazines. Two secondary aims were to study
what kind of products the advertisements that contain English support and to see whether
there is a difference in the use of English in the advertisements in women’s and men’s
magazines. This section describes the methods used. Section 3.1 explains the criteria for how
code-switching and recent borrowings were identified, section 3.2 presents the material used,
section 3.3 deals with the procedure for categorizing the material, and section 3.4 shares
some problems of categorization that appeared during the analysis of the results.
3.1 Criteria for identifying instances of recent borrowings and different
kinds of code-switching in the study
To be able to identify recent English borrowings and code-switching in the advertisements,
criteria for how to identify what counts as such are needed. In order to determine whether a
word was a recent English borrowing or a code-switch, The Contemporary Dictionary of the
Swedish Academy6 (SAOL) and The Swedish Academy’s historical database7 (SAOLhist) were
used. SAOL is considered the most up-to-date Swedish monolingual dictionary and SAOLhist
offers historical information regarding the origin of the majority of the words in SAOL and
what year they were first listed in SAOL (see Figure 1).
6
7
http://spraakdata.gu.se/saolhist/index.html
http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/SAOLhist/
9
Figure 1. Screenshot of the SAOLhist webpage.
As can be seen in the screenshot from the website SAOLhist (Figure 1), it is very useful and
offers a lot of information about Swedish words and different editions of SAOL. Figure 1
shows in what years the different editions of SAOL were published. After 1950, only five
editions have appeared: 1950, 1973, 1986, 1998, and the most recent one in 2006. In many
cases, however, many words in the study were recorded in the Swedish language in some way
before they were listed in SAOL. Nevertheless, I have chosen to use the year a word was listed
in SAOL as the main criterion for when the word truly was considered Swedish.
To find borrowed words or code-switching, the advertisements were read through by
me, a native Swedish speaker fluent in English. If a word that seemed to be of English origin
had been recorded in SAOL before 1950, I counted it as a Swedish word. If the word first
appeared in SAOL in or after 1950, however, I counted it as a plausible recent borrowing. To
determine if a word was English I checked the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) to make
sure that it was not a borrowing in English. 8 When I came across an English word that was
not listed in SAOL I categorized it as code-switching.
In the area of code-switching, this study also distinguishes between the terms intrasentential, inter-sentential and total code-switching. Intra-sentential code-switching occurs
when words from another language are mixed into an utterance, while inter-sentential codeswitching is used when a whole utterance is in a different language. In other words, for an
English word to be considered an intra-sentential code-switch, it needs to appear inside a
Swedish utterance. Consequently, if an advertisement is entirely in Swedish except the
headline, which is in English, the headline would be considered an inter-sentential codeswitch since it appears in an environment where Swedish is used. However, if an
8
http://www.oed.com
10
advertisement is entirely in English, it would be considered a total code-switch since the rest
of the magazine is in Swedish.
In the study, I made the decision not to count English in names of companies, product
names, i.e. in proper names, or in texts on images of the products. I consider these names to
function solely as names and they contribute no extra meaning. On the other hand, company
slogans will be included, as they add to the meaning of the advertisements. Following the
same line as with names of products, terms like Fairtraide and Facebook will not be included
in the study. Another delimitation is that calques, or loan translations, used in the
advertisements, will not be considered. An example of a calque is glastak, which is a direct
translation from English into Swedish.
Finally, it needs to be stated that there might be some English words that were
overlooked in the material, even though the analysis of the advertisements was made
thoroughly and several times. To avoid a repetitive use of the term recent borrowings, I will
from now on refer to it only as borrowings.
3.2 Material
One of the aims with this case study is to see if there are any differences in the extent to
which English is used in advertisements aimed at women and men. The material chosen for
this study is all half or full-page advertisements in the September issues of the two lifestyle
magazines Amelia and King from 2013. Even though the study is limited and based upon
only one issue each of these two magazines, a quick look at the advertisements in the
magazines showed that the advertisements contained a fair number of English words. There
are several magazines that could be used to represent typical women’s and men’s magazines,
but Amelia and King were chosen since they are the most popular magazines in the lifestyle
magazine category according to www.tidningstorget.se. A difference between the two
magazines is that they might be aimed at different age groups; Amelia could suit every
woman from the age of 25 and older, whereas King might have an upper limit of perhaps 3540 year old men. Every issue of Amelia sells around 90,000 copies. The September issue
contains 154 pages and the headlines on the front page are about style, personality, beauty,
relationships, men, and home styling. Every issue of King, on the other hand, sells
approximately 30,000 copies. The September issue of King also contains 154 pages and the
headlines on the front page are about fashion, movies, work-out, computer games, and
interviews with various celebrities. King does not sell nearly as many copies as Amelia and it
might have a stronger focus on fashion than Amelia has, but since King is the most popular
magazine for men it was chosen as the male equivalent of Amelia. All advertisements, except
the small advertisements on pages 148-153 in Amelia, were counted. Those pages in Amelia
are called “advertisement service” (annonsservice) and contain 30 small advertisements.
11
Altogether, 108 half or full-page advertisements were investigated from the two magazines.
In total, there were 56 advertisements in Amelia and 52 in King. If similar advertisements by
the same company appeared more than once in the same issue, each advertisement was
counted since the aim was to look at the total use of English in all half or full-page
advertisements in these magazines.
3.3 Procedure
The categorization of the words and how their origin was determined required an organized
investigation, which will be described in this section. First, every advertisement was assigned
to a category based on the language or languages used in the advertisement: entirely in
Swedish (i.e. no code-switching), a mix of Swedish and English, and English exclusively.
Three other languages were represented in four of the advertisements: French, Spanish, and
Italian, but since the number of advertisements that contained other languages than Swedish
and English was limited, I chose not to investigate the use of these languages further. In
addition, there were five advertisements in King that did not contain any language at all
except for the name of the brand.9 The total number of advertisements, including the ones
mentioned above, were 56 in Amelia and 52 in King.
Second, based on the method García Yeste (2013) used in his study, an Excel spread
sheet was used for the survey on the use of the two languages in the advertisements. GarcíaYeste (2013:67-71) explains that advertisements contain five different parts: visual elements,
headline, subhead, main text, and signature. For a visual representation of these terms, see
Appendix A, where I have used the advertisement from Nimue on page 80 in Amelia as an
example. Visual elements are not regular text, but text that could be on photographs or on a
picture of the product. The headline is the text one notices first and it often contains a few
words or a slogan of some kind. Underneath the headline is the subhead, which is used to
expand the headline with attractive information, or a slogan if it was not already used in the
headline. A main text is not always present, but when it is, it usually explains the product
further and offers descriptions or information for the reader. The signature is often at the
bottom or in the corners of the advertisement and usually shows advertisers’ details,
contacts, or logo. An empty box in these sheets means that that category was not part of the
advertisement (see Appendices B, C, D, and E). There are, of course, always visual elements
in the advertisements, but they do not always contain text.
To investigate the use of different languages in the advertisements, I used the same
categorization of the different parts in the advertisements as García-Yeste, but in the Excel
sheet I also noted page number, company name, and the type of product advertised, since
9
P. 12-13 Sand /Clothes, p. 14-15 Morris /Clothes, p. 18 Cavaliere /Clothes, p. 23 Hugo Boss /Clothes, and p. 32
Oscar Jacobson /Clothes.
12
this kind of information is necessary for the present study. The different product categories
arranged for this study were home, work, cars, travelling, technology, computer games, food,
alcoholic beverages, books, jewellery, watches, shoes, clothes, beauty products, hygiene
products, and health. Finally, English code-switching and borrowings were listed for all the
advertisements. To illustrate some examples of code-switching and borrowings, I once again
refer to Appendix A. In this advertisement, both Swedish and English are used, which means
that this advertisement is categorized as containing a mix of the two languages. The company
name is Nimue and their product is skincare, and consequently the advertisement belongs to
the category beauty products. When it comes to visual elements, the photo in the
advertisement shows bottles on which the information is in English. In the headline, Swedish
is used with an instance of English intra-sentential code-switching: “den nya generationens
derma-cosmeceutical hudvård”: since derma-cosmeceutical is not a word listed in SAOL, it is
considered a code-switch. Swedish exclusively is used in the subhead. In the main text,
however, Swedish is used together with some English intra-sentential code-switching, first of
all the same code-switch as in the headline, but also “en unik avancerad antiage-teknologi”
and “specifika formulas”. Since anti-age and formulas are not listed in the most recent
edition of SAOL (2006) they cannot be counted as borrowings. Consequently, these words
are examples of intra-sentential code-switching. The main text also contains five English
borrowings: auktoriserade, and the compound words webshop, hyperpigmenterad,
refillsystem and mineral-make-up. These words are all considered borrowings since they
were introduced in SAOL in or after 1950: auktoriserade in the edition from 1950, webben in
1998, shop and hyper in 1973, and both refill and makeup in 1986. The signature, however, is
entirely in Swedish. As mentioned above, all these aspects from every advertisement were
listed in an Excel sheet to facilitate the analysis of the results.
The most difficult part of this investigation was to determine what words were
English borrowings and what words were not yet borrowed and should consequently be
regarded as code-switching. All parts in the advertisements that contained Swedish were
thoroughly studied in the search for borrowings or code-switching. When a word appeared
that I thought might have an English background due to my knowledge of Swedish and
English, I looked it up in SAOL. If the word appeared in SAOL I searched for the word in
SAOLhist to see in what edition the word first appeared in SAOL. If the word had been
recorded in SAOL before 1950, I excluded it from the study. If the word first appeared in
SAOL in or after 1950, however, I counted it as a plausible borrowing. However, when a word
appeared that was not listed in SAOL I categorized it as a an English code-switch.
To show how the categorization of words was made, I will describe the procedure
used for the words vårflört, uppdatering, hudcreme, mobilsurf, finish, and feelgood, which
were used in advertisements in Amelia. I assumed that flört was a relatively new English
13
borrowing. Contrary to my assumption, SAOL and SAOLhist showed that it was listed in
SAOL as early as 1923. Hence, vårflört was not included as an English borrowing.
Uppdatering was another word that I thought was an English borrowing. This time, my
hunch was correct: it was listed in SAOL, and SAOLhist showed that it was introduced as a
Swedish word in 1973. To make sure that it was borrowed from English I looked up update in
the OED, where the origin was said to be American English. The word hudcreme was
investigated in the same way as uppdatering. The word creme (or kräm) was listed in SAOL
1973, but as the OED listed creme as a French borrowing (first recorded in 1845) it was not
included in my investigation. The compound word mobilsurf had to be investigated both
regarding mobil and surf separately since both parts were likely to have an English origin.
They were both listed in SAOL, and SAOLhist showed that mobil was introduced in 1973 and
surf in 1998. It needs to be pointed out that att surfa was introduced in SAOL earlier, but not
in the sense ‘to surf the web’, which was the meaning of the word mobilsurf. Since both mobil
and surf appeared in the OED as words of English origin, mobilsurf was categorized as an
English borrowing. The word finish was similar to surf, as finish in the sense ‘end struggle’
was listed in SAOLhist prior to 1950, but finish in the sense ‘treatment of a surface’ was not
listed until 1973. Finish, according to the OED, is an old English word and thus, finish was
categorized as an English borrowing. The same principle applies to the words pool and
facilitet. The word feelgood, however, was not included in SAOL. Nevertheless, it appeared in
the OED, which made it an English code-switch.
3.4 Problems of categorization
I had some doubts whether to include derivational morphemes or not, such as hyper-, super,
and miss-, which are of English origin. It appears that English influences Swedish also on the
morphological level, and my decision was therefore to include derivational morphemes as
well as compound words.
Two words that were difficult to categorize need to be discussed as well, droppa and
Cola. Droppa, in the sense of liquid dropping, was of course listed in SAOL earlier than 1950,
but the meaning of the word in this advertisement is ‘abandon or discontinue’ and this sense
is not listed in SAOL. It would be possible to classify this as a calque (loan translation), but as
this second sense is not listed in SAOL, I categorized the word as an intra-sentential codeswitch. The second word, Cola, is an abbreviation of Coca Cola. It seems strange to use half
the product name, or even to use Cola instead of the Swedish word läsk, which would mean
any soda, in an advertisement for a hotel. It has to be taken into consideration that it could
also be used as a proper noun for Coca Cola. However, I chose to categorize it as an intrasentential code-switch since it is not obvious that the advertisement wants to point out that it
is Coca Cola they intend in their text.
14
4 Analysis and results
This section presents the results obtained in the analysis of the material. Section 4.1
demonstrates the use of English borrowings and code-switching in Amelia and King, whereas
section 4.2 contains an analysis of the use of English in relation to the advertised product
categories. Finally, section 4.3 compares the results from the two magazines.
A total number of 56 advertisements were found in Amelia, out of which 21 (38%) did
not contain any English, 34 (61%) contained a mix of English and other languages, and one
(2%) was in English exclusively. In King, 52 advertisements were found where two (4%) did
not contain any English, 27 (52%) were a mix of English and other languages, and 18 (35%)
were entirely in English. (The five advertisements without any text were omitted from further
studies; see section 3.3 above). The Excel sheets with a survey of the results are to be found in
Appendices B, C, D, and E.
4.1 Borrowings and code-switching in advertisements in Amelia and
King
This section presents the results for the overarching aim of the study; a survey of borrowings
and code-switching in the advertisements in the two magazines Amelia and King. It begins
with the use of borrowings (section 4.1.1) and then it continues with a survey of intrasentential (section 4.1.2), inter-sentential (section 4.1.3), and total code-switching (section
4.1.4).
4.1.1 Borrowings in advertisements in Amelia and King
This section deals with the use of English borrowings in the advertisements in Amelia and
King. Since the borrowed words are now added to The Contemporary Dictionary of the
Swedish Academy, they count as Swedish. Therefore, borrowings can appear in both
exclusively Swedish advertisements and in advertisements that consist of a mix of Swedish
and English.
To understand these results it is important to understand the way the tables are
organized. The first column contains the name of the company, the second column shows
where the borrowing was found, and the third column contains the borrowing itself. When a
part of the word is in parenthesis it is because it is the word outside the parenthesis that is
borrowed. The year in parenthesis is the year the borrowing was first introduced in SAOL.
When there are two years in the parenthesis it shows the different years for the introduction
of the separate parts of a compound word, for example, mobilsurf (1973/1998) means that
15
mobil was introduced in 1973 and surf in 1998. If there is only one year in the parenthesis
even though it is a compound word, it is because both words were introduced the same year.
Out of 56 advertisements in Amelia, a total number of 23, or 41%, of the
advertisements contained English borrowings (see Table 1). In total, these 23 advertisements
contained 43 borrowings that are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Borrowings in the advertisements in Amelia.
SWEDISH EXCLUSIVELY
NAME OF COMPANY
PLACE IN AD BORROWING
Gabor
Signature
(kod)-skanner (1986)
Apoteket
Main text
(hälso)-coach (1986)
Medica Nord
Main text
inaktiv (1950)
Telia
Headline,
Signature
refill-(kortet) (1986)
Pastejköket
Headline
okej (1986)
Lithells
Main text
surfa (1998)
Destination Gotland
Headline
(jorden-runt)-weekend (1950)
mobilsurf (1973/1998)
A MIX OF SWEDISH AND ENGLISH
NAME OF COMPANY
PLACE IN AD BORROWING
Lancôme Paris
Main text
miss(färgad) (1950)
Unionen
Main text
WC (1950), (löne)-coachning (2006), stress (1973),
mejl (1998), hamburgare (1973), koncern-(språk) (1950),
(jobb)-mejl (1998), mobbning (1973)
Samsung
Signature
uppdatering (1973)
Ariel
Main text
(PET)-plast (1950)
Dove
Main text
lotion (1986), schampo (1973)
Eucerin
Main text
make-up(-rester) (1986), Make-up (1986)
Nimue
Main text
webshop (1998/1973), refill-(system) (1986),
(mineral)-make-up (1986), auktoriserade (1950),
hyper-(pigmenterad) (1973)
Tena
Main text
super-(tunna) (1986)
ICA
Headline
Main text
juice-(bar) (1973)
Wine World
Signature
scanna (1986)
Fiat
Main text
(parkerings)-sensorer (1986)
Guldfynd
Main text
finish (1973)
Pirat Förlaget
Main text
pocket (1986), jackpott (1986), (mat)-kreatör (1973),
juice (1973)
intrig-(byggande) (1986)
Campos de Luz
Headline
super-(fynd) (1986)
Oral B / Health
Main text:
plack (1986)
Sankt Jörgen Park Resort
Main text
poolen (1950), chips (1973)
Signature
(konferens-)facilitet (1973)
16
In total, seven of the advertisements that contained borrowings were entirely in Swedish,
whilst the other 16 advertisements contained a mix of English and Swedish. The majority, or
77% (33), of the borrowings were found in the main text, although a small number of
borrowings were found in the headline and signature as well. As an example of what an
advertisement with borrowings in Amelia looked like, I will use the advertisement for the
company ICA on page 102 in Amelia.
Figure 2. Examples of borrowings in an advertisement in Amelia.
17
As Figure 2 shows, there are two borrowings in the advertisement. The first, juice-(bar),
appears in the headline, while the other, juice, is in the main text at the bottom of the page10.
Only five out of 52 advertisements in King, or 10% of all the advertisements,
contained English borrowings. Table 2 shows the ten borrowings that were found in the
advertisements in King.
Table 2. Borrowings in the advertisements in King.
A MIX OF SWEDISH AND ENGLISH
NAME OF COMPANY PLACE IN AD BORROWING
MQ
Main text
blazer (1950)
Scorett
Main text
boots (1986)
Samsung
Main text
Signature
rankad (1973), gymmet (1986)
optimera (1973)
Fjäråskupan
Signature
tagga (något) (2006)
Approach Range
Main text
(golf) green (1986), (golf) bunkrar (1986),
uppdateringar (1973), automatiserade (1950)
All ten borrowings were found in advertisements that contained a mix of English and
Swedish, while no borrowings were found in the advertisements that were entirely in
Swedish. The majority, or 80% (8), of the borrowings were found in the main text, and the
remaining two were found in the signature. As an example of what an advertisement with
borrowings in King looked like, I will use the advertisement for the company Approach
Range on page 141 in King (see Figure 3).
10
Drink is an English borrowing, but as it was included in SAOL in 1923 it does not fulfill the requirements of a
recent borrowing.
18
Figure 3. Examples of borrowings in an advertisement in King.
As Figure 3 shows, four examples of borrowings are to be found in this advertisement. All
four borrowings, green, bunkrar, uppdateringar, and automatiserade, appear in the main
text at the bottom of the page.
4.1.2 Intra-sentential code-switching in advertisements in Amelia and King
In this section, I will present the results regarding intra-sentential code-switching in the
advertisements in Amelia and King. Intra-sentential code-switching is when an English word
appears in a Swedish sentence. Table 3 and Table 4 are structured in a similar way as Tables 1
and 2, but instead of a list of borrowings and the year they were introduced in SAOL, the
19
third column contains the phrases in which intra-sentential code-switching was found in the
advertisements. The code-switch is in italics.
Out of 56 advertisements in Amelia, a total number of 15, or 27%, of the
advertisements, contained intra-sentential code-switching. Table 3 shows the 27 codeswitches that were found in Amelia.
Table 3. Intra-sentential code-switching in the advertisements in Amelia.
NAME OF COMPANY
PLACE IN AD INTRA-SENTENTIAL CODE-SWITCH
Dan Sukker
Signature
I vår app
Clinique
Main text
Cliniques nya formula
Rexona
Subhead
Rexona med motionsense
Unionen
Main text
smartphonestress är ett nytt ord
casual fridays hela veckan lång
Samsung
Headline
Main text
fler tablets att välja på
en tablet som passar just dig
vi har många olika tablets
använder sin tablet för olika saker
flera tablets att välja mellan
Vichy Laboratories
Signature
Thermalskt källvatten
Vichy Laboratories
Signature
Thermalskt källvatten
Garnier
Main text
Hitta din drömfärg med vår Shade Finder
Nimue
Headline
derma-cosmeceutical hudvård
Main text
derma-cosmeceutical hudvård
en unik avancerad antiage-teknologi
specifika formulas
Tena
Subhead
Tena droppar myterna (to drop) (see section 3.4)
ICA
Main text
juice, shots och andra hälsosamma drinkar
Fiat
Main text
AC, elmanövrerad sufflett, start&Stop, radio med CD
Mp3-spelare, parkeringssensor, 7 krockkuddar,
höjdjusterbar ratt, eluppvärmda stoar, Hill Holder,
ESP, dualdrive elektrisk servostyrning
Pirat Förlaget
Headline
Drottningen av feelgood
Campos de luz
Main text
Bag-in-box 139 kr
Sankt Jörgen Park Resort
Main text
Cola på rummet
SPASTARS awards 2013 Årets spakök
Most of these intra-sentential code-switches, or 19 (68%) of them, occurred in the main text,
while the remaining were spread out in the headline, subhead, and signature. As an example
of what an advertisement with intra-sentential code-switching in Amelia looked like, I will
use the advertisement for the company Pirat Förlaget on page 114 in Amelia (see Figure 4).
20
Figure 4. Examples of intra-sentential code-switches in an advertisement in Amelia.
As Figure 4 shows, there is only one intra-sentential code-switch in the advertisement above.
The code-switch is “drottningen av feelgood”, which appears in the headline at the top of the
page.
Only four out of 52 advertisements in King, or 8% of all the advertisements,
contained intra-sentential code-switching. Table 4 shows the six code-switches that were
found in the advertisements in King.
Table 4. Intra-sentential code-switching in the advertisements in King.
NAME OF COMPANY PLACE IN AD INTRA-SENTENTIAL CODE-SWITCH
Scorett
Main text
sneaker i skinn
Scorett
Main text
sneaker i skinn
Samsung
Main text
skicross-landslaget
ögonen på skicross
bli skicrossåkare
Stay Hard
Signature
Använd koden WELCOME i kassan
The majority, or 5 (83%), of the intra-sentential code-switches found in King appeared in the
main text, and the remaining code-switch appeared in the signature. As an example of what
an advertisement with intra-sentential code-switching in King looked like, I will use the
advertisement for the company Samsung on page 106 in King.
21
Figure 5. Examples of intra-sentential code-switches in an advertisement in King.
As Figure 5 shows, there are three examples of intra-sentential code-switching in this
advertisement, "skicross-landslaget", "ögonen på skicross", and "bli skicrossåkare". All three
22
appear in the main text, the first at the top of the page (underneath the quote) and the other
two in the middle of the page. (The text below the quote at the top of the page could also be
considered a subhead, but as the font size of the text is so small it appeared more adequate to
consider it a part of the main text.)
4.1.3 Inter-sentential code-switching in advertisements in Amelia and King
In this section, I will describe the inter-sentential code-switching in the advertisements, in
other words, the advertisements where English utterances are mixed with Swedish. All
advertisements that contain inter-sentential code-switching are to be found in Appendix D.
In total, 35 (63%) of the 56 advertisements in Amelia contain inter-sentential codeswitching. English is most frequently used in the visual elements since many advertisements
contain pictures of the products on which there are English texts. In fact, 21 ads (38%) of the
total 56 advertisements contains visual elements that are exclusively in English. A mix of
Swedish and English is more common in the main text and signature. An interesting aspect is
that there is no main text that is entirely in English. Nevertheless, Swedish is still the most
common language in general in the advertisements in Amelia. As an example of what an
advertisement with inter-sentential code-switching in Amelia looked like, I will use the
advertisement for the company Pantene on page 46 in Amelia.
23
Figure 6. Examples of inter-sentential code-switching in an advertisement in Amelia.
As Figure 6 shows, there are two examples of inter-sentential code-switching in this
advertisement, both the language in the visual elements (the bottles) and in the signature (at
the top of the page) are entirely in English, while all the other parts of the advertisements are
in Swedish.
In King, 27 advertisements (52%) of the 52 advertisements contain inter-sentential
code-switching. English is most common in the signature, mainly since many companies use
24
English slogans such as ‘designed by’ or ‘made in’. In total, 18 ads (35%) of the total 52
advertisements contain signatures entirely in English. A mix of Swedish and English occurs
more often in the main text than in other parts of the advertisements. Parts entirely in
Swedish are very unusual in King. In fact, the use of English exclusively is more common
than Swedish both in the headline and the subhead. It is noteworthy that no signature is
entirely in Swedish and that the use of English exclusively in the main text is rare. Overall, it
can be said that the use of English in the advertisements in King is as common as Swedish. In
total, there are 77 different parts (visual elements, headline etc.) in the 52 advertisements
that contain text, and of these 77 parts, 33 are entirely in English while 32 are entirely in
Swedish. As an example of what an advertisement with inter-sentential code-switching in
King looked like, I will use the advertisement for the company Scorett on page 59 in King.
25
Figure 7. Examples of inter-sentential code-switching in an advertisement in King.
As Figure 7 shows, there are two examples of inter-sentential code-switching in this
advertisement as well, both the language in the visual elements (on his jersey) and in the
26
signature (in the orange square) are in English, while all the main text (in the white square) is
in Swedish. It could be discussed whether “brands to love” should be categorized as main text
or signature, but as it stands together with the webpage to the company it would most likely
functions as a slogan.
4.1.4 Total code-switching in advertisements in Amelia and King
Apart from the intra-sentential and inter-sentential code-switching, there are also
advertisements that contain total code-switching. These advertisements are entirely in
English and thus they form a total code-switch since the magazines in themselves are in
Swedish. Amelia contains one advertisement with total code-switching, while King contains
18 such advertisements (see Appendix E). As an example of what an advertisement with total
code-switching, I will use the advertisement for the company Vitamin Water on page 71 in
King. As Figure 8 shows, this advertisement contains no Swedish, despite the fact that it
appears in a Swedish magazine.
27
Figure 8. Example of total code-switching.
28
4.2 The use of English in relation to the advertised product categories
This section deals with the use of English in relation to the different product categories in the
advertisements. Hence, the borrowings and code-switches are organized into 16 categories
based on the products that were advertised. The different product categories are home, work,
cars, travelling, technology, computer games, food, alcoholic beverages, books, jewellery,
watches, shoes, clothes, beauty products, hygiene products, and health. In section 4.2.1, I will
account for the results in Amelia, and the results in King are presented in section 4.2.2.
4.2.1 Survey of English borrowings and code-switching in advertisements for
different product categories in Amelia
In the advertisements in Amelia, 14 different product categories were represented (see Table
5). No advertisements that belonged to the product categories computer games and watches
were found. It is difficult to analyze the results of some of the product categories in Table 5 as
they are represented only by one or two advertisements. It would be misleading to say that
100% of the advertisements in the product category books contains borrowings and codeswitching when these results are based on one single advertisement. Hence, to make the
results more valid, I will only discuss product categories that were represented by three or
more advertisements. The dotted line in Table 5 indicates which categories will not be
discussed because of their low number of advertisements. It should also be said that the
column with code-switching includes both intra-sentential and inter-sentential codeswitching.
29
Table 5. Survey of borrowings and code-switching in relation to different product
categories in Amelia.
No of
No of
advertisements
Advertised
No of
No of
advertisements
with total code-
product
advertisements
advertisements
with code-
switching
with borrowings
switching
(English
categories
exclusively)
Beauty prod.
15
5
33%
11
73%
1
7%
Health
6
3
50%
2
33%
-
0%
Alcoholic bev.
5
2
40%
3
80%
-
0%
Food
5
2
40%
2
40%
-
0%
Hygiene prod.
5
1
20%
4
80%
-
0%
Home
4
2
50%
2
50%
-
0%
Cars
3
1
33%
1
33%
-
0%
Clothes
3
-
0%
2
67%
-
0%
Travelling
3
2
67%
1
33%
-
0%
Shoes
2
1
50%
2
100%
-
0%
Technology
2
2
100%
1
50%
-
0%
Work
2
1
50%
1
50%
-
0%
Books
1
1
100%
1
100%
-
0%
Jewellery
1
1
100%
1
100%
-
0%
The advertised product category that contained most borrowings was beauty products (five
ads). The product categories that contained the highest percentage of advertisements with
borrowings in relation to the total number of advertisements in their product categories were
travelling (67%), health (50%), and home (50%). Regarding the use of code-switching, the
advertised product categories that contained the highest number of code-switching were
beauty products (eleven ads) and hygiene products (four ads). The product categories that
contained the highest percentage of advertisements with code-switching in relation to the
total number of advertisements in their product category were hygiene products (80%),
alcoholic beverages (80%), beauty products (73%), and clothes (67%). Only one
advertisement in Amelia contained total code-switching and it belonged to the category
beauty products.
30
4.2.2 Survey of English borrowings and code-switching in advertisements for
different product categories in King
In the advertisements in King, nine different product categories were represented (see Table
6). No advertisements that belonged to the product categories books, cars, hygiene products,
jewellery, travelling, and work were found. I will stick to the same method of presentation as
I did in section 4.2.1 and thus the analysis will only discuss product categories that were
represented by three or more advertisements (see the categories above the dotted line in
Table 6). As in Table 5, the column with code-switching includes both intra-sentential and
inter-sentential code-switching.
Table 6. Survey of borrowings and intra-sentential code-switching in relation to
different product categories in King.
No of
No of
No of
advertisements
Advertised product
No of
advertisements advertisements
categories
advertisements with borrowings with codeswitching
with total codeswitching (English
exclusively)
Clothes
19
1
5%
6
32%
13
68%
Shoes
14
1
7%
12
86%
2
14%
Alcoholic bev.
4
-
0%
4
100%
-
0%
Technology
3
2
67%
3
100%
-
0%
Food
2
-
0%
-
0%
1
50%
Watches
2
-
0%
-
0%
2
100%
Beauty prod.
1
-
0%
-
0%
-
0%
Computer games
1
-
0%
1
100%
-
0%
Home
1
1
100%
1
-
0%
100%
The advertised product category that contained the highest number of borrowings was
technology (two ads). The product category that contained the highest percentage of
advertisements with borrowings in relation to the total number of advertisements in its
product category was also technology (67%). Moving on to the use of code-switching, the
advertised product categories that contained the highest number of code-switching were
shoes (twelve ads) and clothes (six ads). The product categories that contained the highest
percentage of advertisements with code-switching in relation to the total number of
advertisements in their product category were alcoholic beverages (100%), technology
(100%), and shoes (86%). In total, 18 advertisements in King contained total code-switching
and the majority of them (13 ads) belonged to the product category clothes.
31
4.3 Comparison of results
In this section, I will compare the results presented in the previous sections to determine if
there are any differences between the use of borrowings and code-switching in the
advertisements in Amelia and King.
The two magazines differ to some extent in their use of borrowings and codeswitching. An interesting difference is that Amelia contains about four times as many
borrowings and intra-sentential code-switches as King. Regarding the use of inter-sentential
code-switching, however, the results of the two magazines does not differ as much since
about half the number of advertisements contain inter-sentential code-switching in both
magazines. In contrast, the biggest difference between the Amelia and King is the use of total
code-switching, i.e. the appearance of advertisements entirely in English. In Amelia, there is
only one advertisement that is entirely in English, while there are 18 such advertisements in
King.
Regarding the use of borrowing and code-switching in relation to the advertised
product categories in the two magazines, few categories were common in both magazines. In
Amelia, borrowings and code-switching were common in the categories hygiene products,
alcoholic beverages, travelling, health, and clothes, while in King, they appeared in the
categories alcoholic beverages, technology, and shoes. Only one of the categories that
contained a high percentage of advertisements with code-switching in relation to the total
number of advertisements in its product category was the same in both magazines, namely
the category alcoholic beverages. Total code-switching is impossible to compare since Amelia
only contained one such advertisement.
A difference that should be mentioned is the general use of language in the
advertisements in the two magazines. In Amelia, 54% of the advertisements contain English
to some extent, while 87% of the advertisements in King do. The use of a mix of Swedish and
English, however, does show more similar results since this is found in about half the
advertisements in both magazines. While Swedish still is the main language in the
advertisements in Amelia, it has started to become threatened by English in King since this
study shows that English is as common as Swedish in the advertisements in King. In other
words, glocalised advertisements are more common in Amelia, while globalized
advertisements are more common in King. These results confirm what Piller (2001:171) says
about bilingual advertisements that often imply a male reader (see section 2.5). What might
be good to keep in mind is the slightly different intended reader age of the magazines. It
might be that the results would have been different if the magazines were aimed at persons at
the exact same age.
32
Regarding the use of borrowings and code-switches in relation to the product
categories, it is possible to compare the results in Amelia and King to a study done by
Königsson & Hrakhouskaya (2010) in which they asked Swedes in what language they prefer
different kinds of advertisements. The majority of the Swedish consumers (except the ones
older than 60 who preferred only Swedish) preferred Swedish only in advertisements about
medicine, technology, insurance, banking services etc. However, they believed that some
advertisements might work better in English, such as entertainment and beauty products
(Königsson & Hrakhouskaya 2010:56). In other words, advertisers of beauty products could
use even more English in their advertisements than they do now, while it might be a good
idea for the advertisements about technology to cut down on the frequent use of English
words.
5 Conclusion
This study was aimed to answer the three research questions in section 1.1 regarding the
extent of borrowings and code-switching in the advertisements in Amelia and King; if there
were some product categories that tended to use more borrowings or code-switches, and if
there were any differences between the two magazines.
The results showed that the advertisements in Amelia contained more borrowings
and intra-sentential code-switching than the advertisements in King, while the extent of
inter-sentential code-switching in the advertisements of the two magazines was more similar.
Total code-switching, however, was very rare in the advertisements in Amelia but common in
the ones in King. Regarding the use of borrowings and code-switching in the different
product categories, a few categories, like alcoholic beverages, were similar in the
advertisement of the magazines. Product categories with a frequent use of borrowings and
code-switching were hygiene products, alcoholic beverages, travelling, health, and clothes in
Amelia, and alcoholic beverages, technology, and shoes in King. The two largest differences
between the two magazines are that Amelia contained four times as many borrowings and
intra-sentential code-switches than King and that King contained many more advertisement
entirely in English. In addition, English in general was more frequently used in King than in
Amelia.
Since I have not come across other studies that have investigated the frequent use of
borrowings and code-switching in advertisements I have nothing to compare my results with.
Nevertheless, a study that investigates more lifestyle magazines than one in each gender
category might produce different results. For further studies, it would be interesting to
investigate the differences between women’s and men’s magazines further to look for more
33
similarities or differences in texts, and perhaps not only in advertisements but in articles as
well. A comparative study between, for example, 1970, 1990 and today would also be
interesting, in order to see the development of the use of English in Swedish advertisements.
The present study could be of interest for linguists, teachers, persons that are interested in
the use of English in Swedish, and for persons that are responsible for advertisements in
Swedish magazines.
34
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37
Appendix A
COMPANY NAME
Code-switch
HEADLINE
VISUAL ELEMENTES
SUBHEAD
Recent borrowing
Recent borrowing
Code-switch
Code-switch
Code-switch
MAIN TEXT
Recent borrowing
Recent borrowing
Recent borrowing
SIGNATURE
38
Appendix B
Advertisements all in Swedish found in Amelia and King.
When the boxes in the tables are empty, that means these parts were not part of the
advertisement.
SWEDISH EXCLUSIVELY IN AMELIA
Page nr Company name / Product
Visual elements Headline
Subhead
p6
Blomster Landet / Home
Swe
p 14
Moroccanoil / Beauty
Swe
p 22
Lätta / Food
Swe
Swe
P 31
Villa Garros / Alcoholic bev.
(French)
Swe
p 37
Tamaris / Shoes
p 59
Gabor / Shoes
p 72
Apoteket / Health
p 77
Nordsjö Idé & Design / Home
p 78
Medica Nord / Beauty
p 90
Telia / Technology
p 92
Pastejköket / Food
Swe on prod
p 100
Lithells / Food
p 122
(French)
Main text Signature
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Hårkontroll / Beauty
Swe on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 131
Alvedon / Health
Swe on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 136
Destination Gotland / Travelling
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 138
Naturbiblioteket / Health
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 140
Lau Rie / Clothes
Swe
Swe
p 141
Yasuragi Hasseludden / Travelling
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 144
Biolac / Health
Swe on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 146
Ryds bilglas / Cars
Swe on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 155
Volkswagen / Cars
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe on prod
Swe on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
SWEDISH EXCLUSIVELY IN KING
Page nr
Company name / Product
Visual elements Headline
Subhead
Main text Signature
P 137
Spendrups / Alcoholic bev.
(Spanish)
(Spanish)
(Spanish)
Swe
Swe
p 150
Arla / Food
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
39
Appendix C
All borrowings found in the advertisements in Amelia and King.
The borrowings found in Amelia.
ADVERTISEMENTS ENTIRELY IN SWEDISH
Page nr Company name / Product
Borrowings
p 59
Gabor / Shoes
Sign: (kod)-skanner (1986)
p 72
Apoteket / Health
Main text: (hälso)-coach (1986)
p 78
Medica Nord / Beauty
p 90
Telia / Technology
Main text: inaktiv (1950)
Headline: refill-(kortet) (1986)
Sign: mobilsurf (1973/1998)
p 92
Pastejköket / Food
Headline: okej (1986)
p 100
Lithells / Food
Main text: surfa (1998)
p 136
Destination Gotland / Travelling
Headline: (jorden-runt)-weekend (1950)
ADVERTISEMENTS WITH A MIX OF SWEDISH AND ENGLISH
Page nr Company name / Product
Borrowings
p 2-3
p 20-21 Unionen / Work
Main text: miss(färgad) (1950)
Main text: WC (1950), (löne)-coachning (2006), stress (1973),
mejl (1998), hamburgare (1973), koncern-(språk) (1950),
(jobb)-mejl (1998), mobbning (1973)
p 32
Samsung / Technology
Sign: uppdatering (1973)
p 34
Ariel / Home
Main text: (PET)-plast (1950)
p 60
Dove / Beauty
Main text: lotion (1986), shampo (1973)
p 70
Eucerin / Beauty
p 80
Nimue / Beauty
Main text: make-up(-rester) (1986), make-up (1986)
Main text: webshop (1998/1973), refill-(system) (1986),
(mineral)-make-up (1986), auktoriserade (1950),
Hyper-(pigmenterad) (1973)
p 88
Tena / Hygiene
p 102
ICA / Home
Main text: super-(tunna) (1986)
Headline: juice-(bar) (1973)
Main text: juice (1973)
p 104
Wine World / Alcoholic bev.
Sign: scanna (1986)
p 106
Fiat / Cars
Main text: (parkerings)-sensor (1986)
p 110
Guldfynd / Jewellery
p 114
Pirat Förlaget / Books
Main text: finish (1973)
Main text: pocket (1986), jackpott (1986), (mat)-kreatör (1973),
intrig-(byggande) (1986)
p 116
Campos de luz / Acoholic bev.
Headline: super-(fynd) (1986)
P 128
Oral B / Health
p 134
Lancôme Paris / Beauty
Main text: plack (1986)
Main text: poolen (1950), chips (1973)
Sankt Jörgen Park Resort /Travelling Signature: (konferens-)facilitet (1973)
40
The borrowings found in the advertisements in King.
ADVERTISEMENTS WITH A MIX OF SWEDISH AND ENGLISH
Page nr
Company name / Product
Borrowings
p 49
MQ / Clothes
Main text: blazer (1950)
p 53
Scorett / Shoes
p 106
Samsung / Technology
Main text: Boots (1998)
Main text: Rankad (1973), gymmet (1986)
Sign: optimera (1973)
p 138
Fjäråskupan / Home
p 141
Approach Range / Technology
Sign: tagga (något) (2006)
Main text: (golf) green (1986),
(golf) bunkrar (1986), uppdateringar (1973),
automatiserade (1950)
41
Appendix D
All code-switches found in the advertisements in Amelia and King.
In this appendix, all advertisements consist of a mix of English and Swedish since they
contain inter-sentential code-switching. When the boxes in these tables are empty, it means
that those parts were not part of the advertisement.
The code-switches found in the advertisements in Amelia.
INTRA-SENTENTIAL CODE-SWITCHING IN AMELIA
Page nr
Company name / Product
Intra-sentential code-switching
P4
Dan Sukker / Food
Sign: I vår app
p9
Clinique / Beauty
Main text: Cliniques nya formula
p 18
Rexona / Hygiene
p 20-21
Unionen / Work
p 32
Samsung / Technology
Subhead: Rexona med motionsense
Main text: smartphonestress är ett nytt ord
casual fridays hela veckan lång
Headline: fler tablets att välja på
Main text: en tablet som passar just dig
vi har många olika tablets
använder sin tablet för olika saker
flera tablets att välja mellan
p 43
Vichy Laboratories / Beauty
Signature: Thermalskt källvatten
p 45
Vichy Laboratories / Beauty
Signature: Thermalskt källvatten
P 68
Garnier / Beauty
p 80
Nimue / Beauty
Main text: Hitta din drömfärg med vår Shade Finder
Headline: derma-cosmeceutical hudvård
Main text: derma-cosmeceutical hudvård
en unik avancerad antiage-teknologi
specifika formulas
p 88
Tena / Hygiene
Subhead: Tena droppar myterna
p 102
ICA / Home
p 106
Fiat / Cars
Main text: juice, shots och andra hälsosamma drinkar
Main text: AC, elmanövrerad sufflett, start&Stop, radio med CD
Mp3-spelare, parkeringssensor, 7 krockkuddar, höjdjusterbar ratt,
eluppvärmda stoar, Hill Holder, ESP, dualdrive elektrisk
servostyrning
p 114
Pirat Förlaget / Books
Headline: Drottningen av feelgood
p 116
Campos de luz / Acoholic bev.
p 134
Main text: Bag-in-box 139 kr
Main text: Cola på rummet
Sankt Jörgen Park Resort / Trav. SPASTARS awards 2013 Årets spakök
42
INTER-SENTENTIAL CODE-SWITCHING IN AMELIA
Page nr Company name / Product
Visual elements
Headline
Subhead
Main text Signature
p 2-3
Lancôme Paris / Beauty
Eng on prod
Eng
Swe
Swe/Eng
p4
Dan Sukker / Food
Swe/Eng on prod Swe
p9
Clinique / Beauty
Eng on prod
Swe
p 11
Estée Lauder / Beauty
Eng on prod
p 18
Rexona / Hygiene
p 20-21 Unionen / Work
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Eng on prod
Eng
Swe/Eng
Swe text in pict
Swe
Eng
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe
p 29
Triumph / Clothes
p 32
Samsung / Technology
Eng on prod
p 34
Ariel / Home
Swe/Eng on prod Swe
p 40
Always / Hygiene
Eng on prod
Swe
p 43
Vichy Laboratories / Beauty
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe/Eng
p 45
Vichy Laboratories / Beauty
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe/Eng
p 46
Pantene / Hygiene
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
Eng
p 52
Flash / Clothes
Swe
Swe/Eng
p 60
Dove / Beauty
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe/Eng
p 62
Weleda / Hygiene
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe/Eng
p 67
Nivea / Beauty
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 68
Garnier / Beauty
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe
p 70
Eucerin / Beauty
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe/Eng
p 80
Nimue / Beauty
Eng on prod
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe
p 88
Tena / Hygiene
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe
p 94
Guld Fågeln / Food
Swe/Eng on prod Swe
Swe
Swe
p 102
ICA / Home
Swe
Swe
Swe/Eng
p 104
Wine World / Alcoholic bev.
Swe
Swe
p 106
Fiat / Cars
Eng
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe
p 109
Modern Wines / Alcoholic bev. Eng on prod
Eng
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 110
Guldfynd / Jewellery
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 112
Modern Wines / Alcoholic bev. Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 114
Pirat Förlaget / Books
Swe on prod
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe
p 116
Campos de luz / Acoholic bev.
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe
p 128
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe
p 134
Oral B / Health
Sankt Jörgen Park Resort /
Travelling
Swe/Eng
Swe/Eng
p 143
BMI Smart / Health
Swe on prod
p 156
Essie / Beauty
Swe/Eng
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe/Eng
Eng
Swe
Swe
Eng
Eng on prod
43
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe/Eng
Eng
Eng
Swe
Swe/Eng
The code-switches found in the advertisements in King.
INTRA-SENTENTIAL CODE-SWITCHING IN KING
Page nr
Company name / Product
Intra-sentential code-switching
p 58
Scorett / Shoes
Main text: sneaker i skinn
p 63
Scorett / Shoes
p 106
Samsung / Technology
Main text: sneaker i skinn
Main text: skicross-landslaget
ögonen på skicross
skicrossåkare
p 147
Stay Hard / Clothes
Sign: Använd koden WELCOME i kassan
INTER-SENTENTIAL CODE-SWITCHING IN KING
Page nr
Company name / Product
p 8-9
Visual elements
Headline
Subhead
Main text Signature
H&M / Clothes
Eng
Eng
Swe
p 21
Victorinox / Clothes
Swe
Swe
Swe
Eng
p 45
MQ / Clothes
Eng
Eng
Swe
Eng
p 47
MQ / Clothes
Eng
Eng
Swe
Eng
p 49
MQ / Clothes
Eng
Eng
Swe
Eng
p 52
Scorett / Shoes
Eng
Swe
Eng
p 53
Scorett / Shoes
Eng
Swe
Eng
p 54
Scorett / Shoes
Swe
Swe
Eng
p 55
Scorett / Shoes
Swe
Eng
p 56
Scorett / Shoes
Swe
Eng
p 57
Scorett / Shoes
Swe
Eng
p 58
Scorett / Shoes
Swe/Eng
Eng
p 59
Scorett / Shoes
Swe
Eng
p 60
Scorett / Shoes
Eng
Swe
Eng
P 61
Scorett / Shoes
(Italian)
Swe
Eng
p 62
Scorett / Shoes
Eng
Swe
Eng
p 63
Scorett / Shoes
Swe/Eng
Eng
P 87
Peroni / Alcoholic bev.
(Italian)
Eng
Swe
Eng
p 106
Samsung / Technology
Eng on prod
Swe
Swe
Swe/Eng
p 114
Carlsberg / Alcoholic bev.
Eng on prod
Eng
Eng
Swe/Eng
Eng in picture
Eng
Eng in picture
Eng
Eng in picture
(Italian)
p 122-123 GTA / Computer games
Swe
Eng
Eng
p 130
Bose / Technology
Swe
Swe
p 138
Fjäråskupan / Home
Eng
Swe
p 141
Approach Range / Technology Swe /Eng on prod Swe
Bornicon Salming / Alcoholic
bev.
Eng on prod
Eng
p 143
p 147
p 148
Stay Hard / Clothes
Bryggmästarens / Alcoholic
bev.
Swe on prod
44
Swe/Eng
Swe/Eng
Swe/Eng
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe
Swe/Eng
Swe/Eng
Appendix E
Advertisements entirely in English found in Amelia and King.
When the boxes in the tables are empty, that means these parts were not part of the
advertisement.
ENTIRELY ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS IN AMELIA
Page nr
Company name / Product
p 16
Elizabeth Arden / Beauty
Visual elements Headline
Eng
Subhead
Main text Signature
Eng
Eng
ENTIRELY ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS IN KING
Page nr
Company name / Product
Visual elements Headline
Subhead
Main text Signature
p 2-3
Denim and Supply / Clothes
Eng
Eng
Eng
p 4-5
Brothers / Clothes
Eng
Eng
Eng
p 6-7
Tiger of Sweden / Clothes
p 10-11
Barbour / Clothes
p 16-17
Jofama / Clothes
p 25
Tailor Store / Clothes
Eng
Eng
p 26
Oscar of Sweden / Clothes
Eng
Eng
p 35
Dr. Denim Jeans / Clothes
Eng
p 37
Anthony Morato / Clothes
Eng
p 39
Hugo Boss / Watches
Eng
p 42
Seiko / Watches
Eng
p 51
Scorett / Shoes
Eng
p 71
Vitamin Water / Food
p 82
Nike / Shoes
Eng
p 98-99
Peak Performance / Clothes
Eng
p 145
Adrian Hammond / Clothes
p 155
G-star / Clothes
p 156
Gucci / Clothes
Eng
Eng
Eng in picture
Eng
Eng on prod
Eng
Eng
Eng
Eng in picture
Eng
Eng
Eng
Eng
Eng
Eng
Eng
Eng
Eng
45