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Narratives on Chinese colour
culture in business contexts
The Yin Yang Wu Xing of Chinese values
366
Kirsi Kommonen
Department of Communication,
Aalto University School of Economics, Aalto, Finland
Received January 2011
Revised January 2011
Accepted March 2011
Abstract
Purpose – This research is interested in how dynamics in negotiating cultural meanings in the
globalizing market place in China become visible in one particular aspect of culture: colour culture.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the provenance of some of the many potential meanings
invested in colours in contemporary China, and how and why these influence international business,
communication, design and marketing management in particular.
Design/methodology/approach – A qualitative empirical study with ambition for an emic cultural
approach to Chinese colour culture. Narrative analysis of accounts by Chinese colour professionals
participating in a focus group interview, and by individually interviewed managers with extensive
experience in Sino-Finnish business are reported in narrative format.
Findings – The findings support the proposed existence of a phenomenon which the author has
named “Colour culture” – a cultural set of meanings that are invested in colours. Unexpectedly, the
empirical study proposes a strong tendency towards these meanings being value based in China.
Visual manifestations of cultural values appear to be dynamic and dependent on context.
Research limitations/implications – The current study does not offer generalizable prescriptions
for contextual colour usages. The explorative, qualitative nature of this study serves as a basis for
contextual and quantifiable future research on the phenomenon.
Practical implications – Since, for the Chinese, colours manifest cultural values and are highly
emotional, not only linguistic, but also visual translation of communication is needed. For international
communication, design and marketing managers, this further implies a need for contextual
understanding of local colour culture.
Originality/value – Recognizing the existence of colour culture and its value-based proposition in
China opens up new research avenues and practical considerations for cross-cultural studies.
Keywords Business communication, China, Colour, Value, Narratives, National cultures
Paper type Research paper
Cross Cultural Management
Vol. 18 No. 3, 2011
pp. 366-383
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1352-7606
DOI 10.1108/13527601111152879
The author expresses gratitude to the foundations that have provided funding for this study: the
Finnish Foundation for Economic Education, the Foundation of the Helsinki School of
Economics, the Paulo Foundation, and the Jenny and Antti Wihuri Foundation. The focus group
interview in October 2007 was conducted in cooperation with CPS Color – many thanks to the
hosts, regional director, APAC, Simo Laitala; General Manager Wilson Wang; and regional sales
and marketing director Lucy Xia. Also, the author expresses gratitude to Lilac, Zhao Yan from
Shanghai International Studies University for interpretation at the focus group, and for
transcription of the material. Special thanks are due to researcher Wang Lei from Helsinki
University for advice on the credibility and power issues regarding the empirical study. And
finally, many thanks for invaluable advice to Professor Mirjaliisa Charles, the Helsinki School of
Economics, as well as research director Päivi Hovi-Wasastjerna, the University of Industrial Arts
Helsinki, colleagues Terhi Chakhovich, Kai Luotonen and Taija Townsend, and the reviewers
and editors of Cross Cultural Management, An International Journal.
Introduction
The global significance of China-as-a-market in both consumer and
business-to-business contexts is growing rapidly. Many aspects of Chinese culture
have oscillated at the focus of interest for both scholars and managers. However, the
various visual manifestations of Chinese values are only vaguely comprehended. The
current study bridges this gap by offering an entry point to Chinese values and their
visualizations, presenting Chinese colour culture as it reveals itself in business contexts
in today’s China. The purpose of this paper is to elaborate on the dynamic characteristics
of Chinese colour culture in a broad business context, in other words, how and why
colours can have an effect on business. It should be emphasized that the aim is not to
propose a generalizable resolution of Chinese colour meanings, but instead to explore the
provenance of some of the many potential meanings of colours in China today.
The cultural construction of social life currently stresses the centrality of the visual,
the seen and the observable (Emmison and Smith, 2007; Rose, 2003). There is a general
perception that both what is seen and how it is seen are culturally constructed (Rose, 2003)
even amidst globalization. Reportedly, colours are invested with different meanings in
China than in Western cultures (Madden et al., 2000; Kress and van Leeuwen, 2002;
Ou et al., 2004). It has even been suggested that the connotative meanings of colours may
be more important in communicating in Eastern rather than Western cultures (Bottomley
and Doyle, 2006). However, previous research offers no explanations for the dynamic
nature of these meanings. Interestingly, the present empirical studies suggest that
contemporary dynamics and changes in political, economic and socio-cultural values
brought on by globalization are becoming visible as Chinese colour culture evolves.
This study used narrative analysis to scrutinize individual interviews with
managers having extensive experience in Chinese-Finnish business and focus group
interviews with Chinese colour professionals. Contrary to expectations, the findings
disclose a strong tendency for the meanings invested in colours by the Chinese to be
value based. This indicates the need for a thorough contextual investigation of Chinese
colour culture when making management decisions regarding the colours to be used in
communication, design and marketing.
Theoretical background: perspectives on globalization
This research is interested in how dynamics in negotiating cultural meanings in the
globalizing market place become visible in one particular aspect of culture: colour
culture. Culture is conceptualized as shared meaning (Hall, 2003). Moreover, meaning is
generated through reference to physical objects or to physical experiences
(Machin, 2009). Consequently, with respect to colour, the focus is on the importance
of shared experience in the production of shared meanings for colours, a phenomenon
which I call colour culture.
The relevance of national culture may be disputed (Groeschl and Doherty, 2000;
Huntington, 1996). However, the role of nations and nation-states in global business
remains significant (Garcı́a Canclini, 2001; Huntington, 1996; Ong, 1999). The various
barriers to trade, which are typically defined by national boundaries, are one of the
most important reasons for or aspects of this significance. Also, it has been suggested
that “nation” remains a key unit of shared experience (Inglehart and Baker, 2000).
Hence, while the current study takes as its focus of interest a nation, the
People’s Republic of China, this paper is grounded at the intersection of three
The Yin Yang
Wu Xing of
Chinese values
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368
simultaneously occurring but sometimes contradictory globalization paradigms in
cross-cultural studies (Figure 1).
First, global homogenization or convergence theory suggests that cross-cultural
differences erode in the midst of globalization (for analyses see, e.g. Howes, 1996). Most
often this research corpus equalizes globalization with Westernization or
Americanization, while also “Japanization”, “Russianization” and “Indianization” are
of concern in some geographical areas (Appadurai, 1996, p. 32). Second, hybridization
theory suggests that global and local cultures create new, amalgam cultures (Appadurai,
1996; Garcı́a Canclini, 1995). Also referred to as creolization, this research corpus is
interested in how global phenomena, products and brands are given culturally specific
meanings. Third, an emerging research stream has taken a post postcolonial stance,
also labelled the radical cultural turn (Ong, 1999; Shi, 2005; Westwood, 2004). I call
this research stream empowerment, where non-Western countries, Asian “Tigers” in
particular, are seen to actively and powerfully participate in global economy, culture and
politics (Huntington, 1996, pp. 21-8; Ong, 1999, p. 35; Shi, 2005; Westwood, 2004).
Research design
The methodological stance of this research is a combined etic-emic (Polsa, 2002;
Eckhardt, 2004; Zhu and Ulijn, 2005) cultural approach (Moisander and Valtonen, 2006).
This study uses three datasets from three phases of the study: the first, consisting of
narratives from individual interviews with Finnish and Chinese managers having
extensive experience in Finnish-Chinese business, the second, consisting of narratives of
Chinese colour professionals generated in a focus group setting, and the third, consisting
of narratives from individual interviews with Chinese colour professionals and further
interviews with Finnish and Chinese managers. In the analysis, I used within-method
triangulation of the data from these three phases (Figure 2).
Individual interviews are used as a way to find insight into the phenomenon of
colour culture from the business perspective, in other words, how colour culture affects
business. I used narrative inquiry as a projective technique, allowing the interviewees
Homogenization
Convergence theory
Globalization
Hybridization
Creolization theory
Figure 1.
Three coexisting
paradigms of globalization
Empowerment
Post postcolonialism
Sources: Extracted from Howes (1996); Appadurai (1996);
García Canclini (1995); Huntington (1996); Ong (1999); Shi (2005)
I
Individual
interviews 1
The Yin Yang
Wu Xing of
Chinese values
369
III
Individual
interviews 2
'Chinese
colour culture'
II
Focus group
interview
to share knowledge without disclosing sensitive or confidential business information.
On the other hand, group interviews are particularly useful in the Chinese cultural
context since there “interpretations, evaluations, and attitudes are made collectively
rather than individually” (Eckhardt, 2004, p. 406). Consequently, I used the focus group
interview technique to find insight into why Chinese colour culture affects business in
the ways identified in the individual interviews. As I am Finnish and not Chinese, this
study cannot be considered emic as such. However, the analysis did not adopt any etic
constructs. Instead, two relevant Chinese tools that emerged in the empirical data were
applied: the concept of Yin and Yang, and Wu Xing, the theory of five elements
(Morton, 2004; Yu, 1998; Zheng, 2005).
Transcripts from the interviews were analysed using narrative analysis and content
analysis. In this study, narrative inquiry refers to the technique of having interviewees
tell stories about their particular experiences and creating joint narratives on the
discussed topics within a group setting. My argument is that colour culture evolves with
shared experiences. Consequently, narrative inquiry was a suitable method for this
study since, as Riessman (1993) points out, it opens up forms of telling about experience,
and not simply the content to which language refers. Narratives are useful for what they
reveal about social life; culture “speaks itself” through an individual’s story (Riessman,
1993). Moreover, I used content analysis to allow for discovery of subtle patterns and for
protection against an unconscious search for only those patterns which support “the
researcher’s initial sense” (Lutz and Collins, 1993). I used a method of content analysis
based on text search. I searched the transcripts for particular colour words and
expressions to see how often a colour was mentioned and to group all narratives of a
particular colour to enable comparison across multiple transcripts.
Findings: colour narratives from China
With her long recorded history, China’s past offers many potential interpretations for
current uses and meanings of colours. First, the findings from the empirical study suggest
Figure 2.
Within-method
triangulation
of the three datasets
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370
consistency in the way in which “traditional” Chinese colours are seen; second, a rather
unanimous proposition on which factors affect contemporary change; and third, a less
distinct view on what the future may hold. In the next sections, I elaborate on these three
topics via narrative vignettes, which are analytic collages of excerpts from the narratives
of several interviewees. The vignettes are given an analytic title and presented in italic
typeface. If only a single person’s view is cited this is specified by adding quotation marks,
and the gender (male/female) and nationality (CHN/FIN) of the person cited.
) or five elements of traditional Chinese Colour culture
The Wu Xing (
The dominance of the old Chinese concept of Wu Xing, the five elements (Paton, 2007;
Zhang, 2005; Zheng, 2005), clearly emerges from the narrative data. The concept of Wu Xing
came into use after the beginning of the Qin Dynasty (221 BC) and it represents five
substances: wood, fire, earth, metal and water. Later the concept was developed into various
correlations including directions, sounds, human senses, body parts, and colours (Yu, 1998;
Zheng, 2005). The five colours of Wu Xing are green or “Azure”, red, yellow, white and
black (Zheng, 2005). They carry specific but slightly altered meanings even today:
The five traditional Chinese colours
“When used on their own, the colours carry specific meanings: azure ( ) for vital force,
growth; red ( ) for sun, inspiration and happiness; yellow (
) for sunshine and brilliance;
white ( ) for withered and the start of snowing, and black (
) for dark and gloomy.
Together, the five colours reflect a hope for ‘good luck and warding off evils’” (F/CHN).
Wu Xing also had the theory and application of “mutual generation” and “mutual
conquest” as shown in Figure 3. The five phases are still used in Chinese medicine and
Fengshui design (Paton, 2007).
An understanding of the profound meanings of traditional Chinese colours requires
knowledge of their past uses and preferences during different dynasties. Perhaps,
Wood/green
Water/black
Metal/white
Figure 3.
Generating and
controlling cycles of
Wu Xing (five elements)
Fire/red
Earth/yellow
Notes: Generating cycle (black line): water generates wood, wood
generates fire, fire generates earth, earth generates metal, and metal
generates water (Zheng, 2005); the controlling cycle is depicted with
a dashed line; Wu Xing is a metaphysical construct, an expression of
correlations in nature
most importantly, the five colours represented a manifestation of each dynasty in
power; they were seen to follow each other in a cyclical motion according to the
controlling cycle of Wu Xing (Zheng, 2005). Thus, for example, fire (red) was the sign of
Zhou, defeated by water (black), the sign of Qin, and water in turn defeated by earth
(yellow), the symbol of Han (Morton, 2004). This tradition of using colours as symbols
of power is still of importance in today’s China:
The politics of colour
In the time of the emperors, they controlled the colour, and the common people were not
allowed to use the royal colour. When the emperor wore yellow, the second level was only allowed
to use purple, white or blue; the people could only wear grey. During the Cultural Revolution
people used grey and blue.
All five colours were only used in worship things. As the colours have always been controlled
and mandated by the rulers, even today people have not developed their personal colours.
In effect, the present empirical study suggests an interesting connection between the
theory of Wu Xing and contemporary colour culture residing in the issues of power and
control. For thousands of years, Chinese society has been strictly controlled; even the
use of colours was controlled during the imperial regime. Also, Mao Zedong recognised
the power of dress in projecting ideology, and during the Cultural Revolution most
people wore a blue, military style suit, while the military wore khaki suits (Powerhouse
Museum, 1997). Even though Chinese society is opening up to international influences,
these customs have persisting consequences. Even the present administration has
followed the same principle, and chosen the colour red as their emblem. Contrary to the
Western presupposition regarding Chinese red as the colour of communism, red for
the Chinese predates communist ideology by thousands of years. Consequently,
Chinese colour professionals did not refer to communism when discussing the colour
red, but spoke instead of happiness:
The red of happiness
Red expresses happiness. In Chinese history, we seem to have never disliked red. The Chinese
red is a yellowish red from cinnabar; this gives us the feeling of happiness. Consequently, red is
used in celebrations; in the bridal wedding gown, in New Year’s celebrations.
Another prevailing function of the colour red is its use to ward off evil:
Warding off evil
Traditionally, red is also used to ward off evil. The walls of the Forbidden City and even
modern buildings are coated red for this reason. During Spring Festival, red items such as
lingerie are sold. Every 12 years you have a “bad luck year”, and then you should wear red
underwear.
The “bad luck year” every 12 years refers to the Chinese Zodiac, which is a 12-year
cycle with one animal representing each year, 2011 being the year of the rabbit.
Consequently, everyone that was born during a year of the rabbit has a “bad luck year”
in 2011. Even young Chinese wear red shoes, belts or other garments for the duration of
the year of their animal sign. One Finnish manager lively described how she came to
understand this custom:
“I found out, wondering why on earth were there so many red belts in the shops in China,
because it was not a fashionable colour. [This] led me to ask why, why, why, and the meaning
The Yin Yang
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of the belt shows that you were born during the year we are celebrating, but it can be something
else red as well, it can be something invisible like underwear” (F/FIN).
Even today, the colour yellow carries an exclusive undertone of belonging to the
emperor, which dates back to the Han dynasty (202 BC-220 AD):
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Yellow of the emperor
The emperor wore bright yellow clothes, and no-one else was allowed to use yellow. Yellow or
gold was also used on the ceilings of the emperor’s buildings. Yellow represents gold as a colour;
hence it represents richness.
The colour white has very different undertones in the west than in China, where it is
the traditional colour for funerals:
Withering of the white
“Traditionally in China when a person passed away, his family would dress in white. It is not
a sad meaning, but a new starting to a new life” (F/CHN).
Participants in the present empirical study mentioned black as one of the traditional
colours, but its meanings were not further discussed. Green and blue were mostly
discussed in connection with royal buildings:
The green of vital force
Traditionally, the roofs of buildings were coloured green like in the Forbidden City. It is a
kind of blue-green, like the sky or the sea, sometimes green, sometimes blue.
The concept of this blue-green colour is difficult to grasp for the non-Chinese, since it
evades exact definition. This can clearly be seen in traditional handicrafts, where the
black, yellow, red and white remain constant, but the shades of green and blue vary.
A specific blue, however, is that of the Qing Dynasty:
Blue and the Temple of heaven
Traditionally the Chinese, we do not seem to like blue, but we can find combinations of blue
and red in Chinese temples and tombs. Blue colour was popular in the Qing Dynasty, because
people said that the emperor is the son of heaven. The temple of heaven is blue, and the roof of
the tomb of Sun Yixian is blue, while the walls are red. This is typical of the Qing Dynasty.
Yin and Yang of changing values in modern China
“The Changes discuss yin and yang.” Zhou Dunyi (in Zhuangzi, cited by Zhang, 2005).
In line with Paton’s (2006) proposition, this paper uses the ancient Chinese
cosmological system of yin and yang as a way of perceiving east and west in the
context of culture. In this system, yin and yang are mutually connected so that they are
never found without each other. There is yin within yang and yang within yin; hence,
Eastern perspectives are defined by Western and vice versa (Paton, 2006). This method
of data analysis appeared to be extremely revelatory, not only in comparing east and
west, but also many other potential opposites visible in today’s China.
The interviewees expressed traditional Chinese values in relation to Confucian
doctrines (Au and Wong, 2000). Confucianism is deeply ingrained in the way of life and
the social order even in modern China (Ng, 2000). Recently, however, the values
and lifestyles of the Chinese people have been greatly influenced by globalization and
the information age (Qi and Tang, 2004). With changing social expectations, rising
living standards, and increasing Western influences (Hung and Li, 2006), the traditional
way of thinking has been complemented by applying a variety of interpretive
strategies and self-referencing to merge traditional and global cultures (Hung et al.,
2007) especially in urban China. Even though the Western-Chinese contrast is at least
in part caused by the comparative nature of the research setting, the focus group
participants returned to this divide time and again:
The Yin Yang
Wu Xing of
Chinese values
From self-protection to self-expression
“Unlike Western people, the Chinese separate internal and external expression. The
appearance outside may be used as protection, not showing what there is on the inside. Western
people express themselves, ‘the look and the man’s feeling is the same’. But traditionally, the
Chinese followed the rule, focused on internal beauty according to Confucian teaching, and did
not care about the outside appearance. Even now, outside appearance is still more for other
people, to make them appreciate you. Thus, to follow the trend is safe. But the young generation
may start expressing themselves, finding their own colours” (M/CHN).
373
Balancing the Western and the Chinese
Development of Chinese colour culture means finding a balance between some Western ideas
and traditional background. For example, in Chinese weddings now, besides the red “Qipao”,
the brides also wear the Western white dress.
Historically, China exported its own values through trade and migration (Soontiens,
2007). In recent decades, however, technological development and accessibility has
contributed to an unprecedented exposure to Western values. In many parts of the
world this has led either to gradual acceptance of Western values or even to
replacement of traditional values with them (Soontiens, 2007). The opening-up of
society, globalization, and economic development all influence the change in Chinese
values, and it was suggested that this Westernization would continue:
From a controlled to an open society
“China has been very controlled, even the colours have been controlled. Now China is opening
up. In the next twenty years, China will become the most open country in the world; you will not
be able to see any difference between China, America and Europe” (M/CHN).
This politically correct expression of change seemed most apparent in the younger
generation. In the focus group, vivid discussion and also the clearest unanimity
emerged when discussing the generational difference and changing personal values:
From the “We” generation to the “Me” generation
In China, the generation born after 1980 has been named the after-80s generation, or the
“Me” generation. The older generation says “we” and the after-80s generation uses “I”.
Similarly, recent research findings suggest that there is an exceptionally clear
generational divide between the “post-1980s generation” (Huang, 2007) and the “older
generations” (Yang et al., 2005) in China. On the other hand, globalization was
perceived to regenerate interest in the distinctiveness of Chinese culture:
Young people and Confucius
“Our young generation wants to find our roots; we notice that foreigners know more about
Chinese history and culture than we do. We do American and European things but also want to
find our Chinese roots. It is popular to read Chinese history, read the writings of Confucius”
(F/CHN).
Globalization was seen to lead to increased awareness of global issues such as good
health and ecology:
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From human privilege to consideration of nature
“Change in ideology also imposes change in the use of colours. Now we pursue a secure,
healthy and nature-friendly ideology. Poisonous colours that were used in China even in toys are
being replaced with safer paints. This will influence our choice of colours as well” (M/CHN).
In urban life, business and leisure were considered separate; “leisure” clearly emerged
as a fairly recent, significant and positive meaning attached to a colour:
Business and leisure
On different occasions you should wear different colours. Black is kind of a safe colour on
any occasion; if you wear black it makes you secure – no matter whether it is leisure, formal or
business-like, you will be ok.
The modern colours are more transparent, lighter, and more leisurely than the traditional
colours. Perhaps, the colour with the most leisurely feel is the most successful colour.
Geographical divergence is obvious in China and, in fact, non-specifiable in a country with
an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometres, a population of an estimated 1.3 billion
people and 56 recognized ethnic groups. However, 92 per cent of the population is of Han
ethnicity. Urbanization is swift, and officially up to 40 per cent of the population is
considered urban. Commercially, interest focuses on these, gigantic, rapidly growing
cities where international influences are strong (www.china.org.cn/). Urbanization and
development of infrastructure influence the ongoing change in values and colour culture.
Even local dialects were found to influence colour choices. The group discussion pointed
out some details on the geographical divides:
Rural – urban; north – south
You cannot understand China by focusing on cities like Shanghai; that is not the real China.
Most of the people are still farmers, and many of them cherish traditional values. They use
more colourful items than urban Chinese.
“This century silver has become a popular colour for cars in China. However, in one province in
southern China, silver-coloured cars did not sell. The explanation was that in local
pronunciation, the character for ‘silver’ sounds like ‘money gone’. Hence, businessmen would
not buy a silver car” (F/CHN).
To conclude, a fusion of Eastern and Western belief systems and concepts seems to be
emerging in China. On the other hand, globalization induces interest in the local and
distinctive aspects of Chinese culture. Further, urbanization re-establishes the
importance of the rural parts of the country and agriculture – Yin becomes yang, and
yang becomes yin.
However, some values will not change, or will they? Feminine betrayal in a marriage
appeared to be such a great disgrace that it was nearly unmentionable. According to an
old saying, if the wife betrays her husband, the husband “Wears a green hat” (Mantua,
2007) and it was suggested that a green hat continues to carry this strong undertone:
The green hat of embarrassment
“[. . .] But be sure you do not give a green hat to Chinese men. This doesn’t change”
(M/CHN),
“Who knows, maybe after 20 years it will be a kind of fashion” (M/CHN).
Green hats may have wider than expected implications for sales, as any garment worn
close to the face may have this connotation of betrayal:
“Well in China there is this old tradition, that if the wife betrays her husband then the husband
wears a green hat. And because of that, green ties for example, there was no hope in getting
them [sold], now they are starting to move but for a long, long time no, no way would one have
a green tie, it would have been like admitting ‘my wife is betraying me’” (F/FIN).
The Yin Yang
Wu Xing of
Chinese values
Modern Chinese Colour culture – myriad colours and colour combinations
“Yang changes and Yin unites, and this produces water, fire, wood, metal and earth. [. . .] The
interactions [. . .] transform and generate myriad things”. Zhou Dunyi (in “Book of
comprehending”, written during Song-dynasty (960-1279), cited by Zhang, 2005).
Even today, outsiders often fall for the fallacy of a monolithic China. However, the
findings of the present empirical study were in line with the transformation of cultural
values that is apparently taking place (Gong et al., 2004). Increased pluralism was seen
to be induced by the opening-up and globalization of the market place and myriads of
values were becoming more and more apparent to the younger generations.
Global brands have established themselves very visibly on the Chinese market,
rendering it extremely competitive (Kauppalehti Optio, 2003). Consequently,
international colour trends have played a significant role in recent urban China. The
middle-class was seen to aspire for international values:
The Dream society
“Chinese people use colour to reflect what they dream for, their dream society, their ideal self.
Our ideal society now is American and European style. China opens up. In a way, to follow the
international trend is to fulfil a dream” (M/CHN).
When analysing the content of the accounts of the dream society, the ideal, words like
“elegant” and “leisurely”, “harmonious” and “contrastive” came up repeatedly. Joy was
seen to emerge from the contrasts, and contrasts were seen to create harmony:
Harmony resides in contrast
The modern Chinese colours are contrastive; they give you the feeling of happiness and joy.
When you combine different colours, it can be harmonious as well.
Understanding the continuous fluctuation of the importance of international and
Chinese trends has significant implications for marketing. As change takes place at an
extreme velocity in today’s urban China, concentration on international trends may
keep businesses from exploiting the entire available potential. The selection of colours
was seen to emerge from a combination of tradition translated into the present. Will red
and yellow turn into orange, will green become “olive green”, and may brown develop
into a “coffee colour”? Happiness, leisure and joy of life seemed to be highly valued,
and on an axis of joy, orange or red seemed to contrast with grey:
Orange – the new red?
“Orange is bright, happy, and also an international mix. The meaning of orange is brighter,
and it is not the traditional Chinese kind of bright, but mixed with some international flare,
making me think of California. This specifically will attract high-end people. Orange is also close
to the Chinese red” (M/CHN).
This positive connotation with colour orange was limited to those Chinese who have wide
international connections, and furthermore, orange seemed to be a Western interpretation
of Chinese colours rather than a colour the Chinese would choose themselves.
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Also, the Western trend of using “non-colour” like grey was questioned by one Chinese
colour professional:
Losing the joy of life?
“The present society is high in tension. If all the colours are grey, we will not have the joy of
life” (F/CHN).
376
In very personalized items the colours of gender came forward. Tradition also seemed
to play a part here:
Colours of gender
“Traditionally in southern China, green is a female colour and red is a male colour. When a
couple got married they received two blankets as a wedding gift; green for the wife and red for
the husband” (M/CHN).
“When designing the spring summer collection of ladies’ lingerie for 2007, the designer was
puzzled, for the Chinese don’t have any traditional festivals during this season. Hence, she had
to refer to the international colour trends; she included sky blue, very feminine light pink, rose
red, orange, and pansy in the collection. The designer herself liked olive green, so she tried to
include this colour in her design. Coincidently, the marketing director happened to like olive
green as well, so they agreed to include it in the collection. Olive green turned out to be the most
successful colour, perhaps because it was the colour with the most leisurely feel” (F/CHN).
Interestingly, neither the international colour trends nor the five element colour theory
nor the tradition of the green hat seem to have affected the choice and success of the
“olive green” colour in this context. As suggested by the narrative, the “leisurely feel”
of the olive green may well have contributed to its success, but it may also have had to
do with the traditionally feminine undertone of green.
The young generation wants to be different, to make a statement and to express
themselves with colours:
Colours of self-expression of the “Me” generation
In five to ten years, the younger generation will become the mainstream of the Chinese
consumer market. More attention should be put on their choices. They want to show their
personality, to be different, more colourful. They seem to like shining, bright, strong contrastive
colours. In their home, they may paint one wall green, one wall yellow, and one wall red.
Bachelors in pink
“Pink normally belongs to the girl, but nowadays more and more boys prefer this colour. We
know in China now, more and more boys are entering beauty contests; they are kind of starting
to do the girl’s job. They want to get praise and appreciation from the girls. And they also want
to show themselves, most of the girls like the beautiful boy, like F4. So pink is the colour
indicating that female power in China is rising” (F/CHN).
“Yes, so many boys wear pink, yes. Traditionally, people thought that pink is for girls. But in
my mind pink is a younger colour, not a girl colour. So I like the boys wearing pink, I think [. . .] I
feel the boy wearing pink is more beautiful than the girl wearing pink (laughing). Because the
girl wearing pink is pretty, cute, but the boys wearing pink is so [. . .] so [. . .] hmmm [. . .] is to
change the boy, the man’s image. The boy, the man is not made of iron, not hard, so hard,
several [. . .] so many parts are soft. I like, I think pink expresses well, for this. But I think the
girl, women in modern city, modern life, they want to express their energy, they can work
everything, they can express themselves with colour like blue, purple, red, some colour with
energy, with the power, power. I think in this thought men, women, girl, boy, their use of colour
can be mixed. So, pink boy is so [. . .] express their realized thought. I think boys wearing pink
can cry (laughing). The boys wearing black, wearing navy blue cannot (laughing)” (F/CHN).
The Finnish managers give different explanations for this kind of phenomena:
“What has lately been kind of surprising regarding ties is that for a long time the tie branch was
very conservative, it was like yellow, blue and red that moved there [. . .] I mean really
traditional, but now that we have had pink they want pink there. [. . .] So they kind of want to be
in it, because, in the same way, they do travel around, they go to Europe and see [. . .] if they
happen to travel to London all the time and in London pink is all you find [. . .] so maybe this
could be, ‘when they in Europe are like this so maybe I could be, too’” (F/FIN).
In other words, the Finnish managers tended to put more emphasis on the explanatory
power of international colour trends, while the Chinese colour professionals saw a
deeper connection to the societal values.
Conclusions and discussion
Not surprisingly, change was regarded as the main theme in urban China in the present
study. The opening up of the society and admiration for the Western way of life was
found to be reflected in today’s Chinese values. Interestingly, however, changes in values
induce changes in the use of colours. On the other hand, self-appreciation of the traditions
of Chinese culture might be expected to re-emerge as the nation grows more confident.
In effect, the present study finds that three prevailing approaches to globalization
theory are simultaneously relevant in the contemporary context of the Chinese market:
In some aspects, conforming to the theory of homogenization, Chinese culture is
becoming “Westernized” (Gong et al., 2004; McEwen et al., 2006). As far as colour
meanings are concerned, this development has led to Chinese designers adopting
Western colour theories such as those used in colour psychology. However, in many
cases, “Western” is given new, culturally more appropriate meanings in Chinese
contexts, which is in line with hybridization theory (Eckhardt and Houston, 2001 on
McDonalds, and Venkatraman and Nelson, 2008 on Starbucks). For example, the
extensive use of pink shirts by Chinese bachelors to impress girls is an indigenous
phenomenon, even though on the surface it could be considered merely a part of the
masculine pink trend (Koller, 2008). However, on a deeper level it is one of the ways in
which the consequences of China’s one child policy and subsequent sex ratio allowing
empowerment of girls (Ding and Hesketh, 2006; Fong, 2002; Tsui and Rich, 2002) is
becoming visible in today’s China. Finally, contemporary empowerment of the Chinese
is expected, as “Chineseness”, linked with cultural traditions such as Confucianism and
Fengshui, on the one hand, and with transnational capital and entrepreneurs on the
other, is regaining appreciation in China and the Pacific Rim, and albeit reluctantly,
acquiring respect in the Western world (Ong, 1999). Fengshui, for example, is currently
more appreciated in the west than by young Chinese, but perhaps precisely this
positive reception overseas will lead to local renewed appreciation, as well, and
consequently a renaissance of the five colours. On the other hand, Mao’s role during the
Cultural Revolution has been re-romanticized, which is visible in some new features of
commodity culture, such as Mao-style restaurants (Friedman, 2008). Capitalizing on
revolution legacy, these popular restaurants feature revolutionist imagery and
Mao-kitsch decorations using the colour palette of the era.
The most important discovery from the present study was highly unanticipated:
It proposed a powerful tendency of meanings invested in colours in China to be
value-based. This is a finding that has not been reported in previous colour studies in a
business context. To summarize, Figure 4 shows an overview of some of the main shifts
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Figure 4.
Yin-yang motion in values
in contemporary China
Individual
Traditional
Modern
Chinese
Western
Vocation
Leisure
Seniority
Youth
’We’
’Me’
Rural
Urban
Controlled
Self-protection
Open
Self-expression
in values apparently taking place in today’s China. In accordance with the philosophy of
yin and yang, it is important to notice that this should be seen as a circular movement:
when yin rises, yang diminishes, and vice versa; the motion never ceases.
As can be seen from the figure above, recent transformation in values in China
appeared to shift the focal point of appreciation to the individual over the family, to the
modern over the traditional; and to the Western or global over the Chinese. Leisure and
joy of life were increasing in significance, as business, work and career were considered
more and more demanding. The post-1980s generation, which never experienced the
more controlled society, and have come to take for granted the undivided attention of
their parents and grandparents, are focusing on themselves and have the means to
express themselves. On the other hand, it was suggested that this generation would take
a renewed interest in Chinese traditions to reclaim their identity in the globalizing world.
Negative values discussed in connection with colours in the Chinese context were
few; colour as such seemed mostly connected with positive values. The fact that all of
the interviewees were professionals working with colour may have influenced this
outcome. Nevertheless, black was described as representing the dark side of human
nature, and grey was seen as void of the joy of life. Figure 5 shows relates the change in
colour culture to the yin-yang shifts in values discussed above.
Single colours
Pure colours
Wu Xing
• Red
Figure 5.
Yin-yang motion of colours
in contemporary China
Multitude of colours
Mixed colours
International trends
reinterpreted
• Blue-green
• Pink
• Black
• Grey
• White
• Black
• Yellow
Uniform colours (Grey, khaki, navy blue)
Preferred colours (Olive green)
To sum up, the interviewees were of the opinion that traditional, clearly definable
single colours had been replaced by a large range of shades that could not necessarily
be described by a basic colour word. To further describe these colours, they made
references to nature. Even more typically, however, the meanings of colours were
expressed by discussing the feelings and emotions connected with them.
In effect, the findings of this study offer a starting point for further research on
the connections between colours and values in China, and consequently, the potential
contrasts between colour meanings and preferences in Chinese and other national
cultures. This may lead to more sophisticated understanding of findings in studies
carried out in specific contexts, such as the colour choices for particular products.
Moreover, the findings further increase interest in a more detailed analysis of the types
of values (Dolan et al., 2004) possibly manifested by colours in contexts other than
those of China. Consequently, the present study opens up new views and research
avenues on the phenomenon of colour culture. Further, it will be interesting to see if
future studies find that other national cultures, for example Indian (Bhasin, 2007) or
Finnish, suggest similar or different takes on the provenance of colour meanings.
This study did not aim at generalizable resolutions of Chinese colour meanings.
In contrast, it explored potential colour meanings to help understand how and why
colours affect international business in China. While this can be considered a limitation
of the study, it is also a strong point, as this explorative approach generated novel and
unexpected findings. Furthermore, as is typical of narrative inquiry, interpretation by
the researcher in all phases of the study is inevitable, since narratives are representations
of experiences. Because neutrality and objectivity are not possible (Riessman, 1993),
the researcher is bound to become involved in the narrating process and the person of the
researcher part of the interpretive process (Rowlinson and Procter, 1999).
To increase the validity and reliability of this study, I prepared carefully, taking into
consideration many distinctive features of Chinese culture in a group setting, and made
the process of data gathering and analysis as explicit as possible within the space
restrictions of a research paper. Finally, the main limitation of this paper is that (in contrast
to the data gathering) the reporting of findings is restricted to verbal format. Reporting
colour research without visual aids inevitably leads to multiple understandings. It has
been suggested that even a colour as globally wide-spread as “Coca Cola red” is not the
“same” red in everyone’s minds (Neyman, 1996). For future reference, I have stored the
original visual records of the materials used and created at the individual interviews and
focus group sessions of this study.
Management implications
Understanding the continuous fluctuation of the importance of international and
Chinese trends will have significant implications for communication, design and
marketing. Although, change is swift in today’s urban China, international trends may
miss some of the potential. As lucrative as it would be, the current study does not offer
generalizable prescriptions for contextual colour usages because such generalizations
would only lead to falsified stereotyping of Chinese colour culture. On the contrary,
the current study revealed that it would be inaccurate to argue that colour culture is a
constant rather than a dynamic phenomenon. However, the findings of this study did
accentuate the distinctiveness of Chinese colour culture when compared with Western
colour culture.
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380
Consequently, for communication, design and marketing management, the study
implies a need for genuine understanding of the dynamics of local colour culture in order
to make decisions for branding, product design or any other commercial visual
communications in China. International colour trends may work in China, but a
contrasting local colour choice may lead to significantly higher sales. Contextual market
research instead of general studies or at least complementing them is indispensable.
In intercultural business, there emerges a need to work with Chinese designers, who
have an innate understanding of the potential local colour meanings. Further,
approaching the market with a humble and non-colonialist attitude becomes essential. In
branding and other marketing communication, the meanings invested in colours are just
as important – if not more so – than the meanings of language, since they are connected
with emotions and values. It is vital for a brand’s success to make sure that the meanings
conveyed by visuals are “translated” into another culture. The usage of a particular
colour or colour combination in an inappropriate context may prove harmful.
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Corresponding author
Kirsi Kommonen can be contacted at: [email protected]
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