Chapter 5
Normative theories and mass
communication
Virginia Tech Massacre
• Most media covered the event on April 16, 2007
• The killer sent a package of video materials to NBC
• Brian Williams said that his own family could not watch it
but “however uncomfortable it is, it proves this is
journalism”
• This was a type of libertarianism view of the press
– Libertarianism: a normative theory that sees people as good and
rational and able to judge good ideas from bad
– Essentially, assumes the intellectual ability of the audience
• CBC news did not air any of the NBC
footage (sent by the killer) because a
news chief said “I had this awful ..feeling
there were parents watching these
excerpts on NBC who were unaware that
they will lose their children in some future
copycat killing triggered by these
broadcasts”
• The 1st amendment was designed to allow
for freedom of press
• Noted media critic, Todd Gitlin said that
such killers are ‘endlessly bitter men’
– They turn themselves into broadcasters as
well…the broadcasters do not share the
killer’s purpose, exactly, but they serve it.”
Media reform
• Contemporary media are criticized for going too
far, for showing horrible scenes (killings) once
too often
• During the days of Yellow Journalism (19th
century), newspapers showed little regard for
accuracy, objectivity, etc.
• Thus, some type of media reform was needed
– Should media do something merely to get headlines?
– What should we expect from the media during a
crisis?
• Answers to these and other questions are
found in normative theory: a theory that
describes an ideal way for a media system
to be structured and operated
• Normative theories don’t have scientific
explanations
• They describe what should be if values
and principles are to be realized
• Social responsibility theory: a normative
theory that substitutes media industry and
public responsibility for total media
freedom on the one hand and for external
control on the other
Origin of normative theories of
media
• Radical libertarianism: they believed there should be no
laws governing media operations
• The absolute belief in Libertarian’s faith in good and
rational public and totally unregulated media
• Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black, in reference to
“Congress should make no law…abridging the freedom
of the press…” stated “No law means no law”
• These were sometimes called 1st amendment absolutists
• At the other end were people like Harold Lasswell and
Walter Lippmann who were in favor of technocratic
control where the media could not be trusted to
communicate responsibly…technocratic control of media
Origin of Libertarian Thought
• During the 16th century Europe, there was authoritarian
control by kings and queens
• Social and political movements arose, especially the
Protestant Reformation, that granted greater freedom for
individuals over their lives
• In Areopagitica (1644) by John Milton, Milton asserted
that in a fair debate good and truthful arguments will
always win over lies and deceit
• Thus, it followed that a new and better social order could
be forged
• This became known as the “self-righting principle”
• It is interesting to note that Milton worked for Cromwell
and restricted the rights and speech of Catholics
Thomas Jefferson
• He was in favor of Libertarianism but
sometimes favored authoritarian
orientations
– He voiced deep frustration with extreme
negative criticism during his second term as
president
• But for the most part he put Libertarian
ideals at the heart of the US experiment
with democratic government
Bill of Rights
• The first ten amendments to the US
constitution are the “bill of rights” including
the 1st amendment
• But among these amendments are
potential conflicts
• Eg. Conflict between free press (first) and
fair trial (six)
•
Amendment I
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion,
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of
grievances.
Amendment II
A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be
infringed.
Amendment III
No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without
the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
prescribed by law.
•
Amendment IV
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon
probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
Amendment V
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a
presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in
the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject
for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
Amendment VI
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an
impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district
shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the
accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for
obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.
Other conflicts with press freedom
• After 9/11, the government created the
“Patriot Act” that imposed a variety of
restrictions on Americans’ communication
freedom.
• Also, free speech does not mean the
freedom to be wreckless or endanger
people
– E.g. you can’t yell “fire” in a crowed theatre if
there is none
The marketplace of ideas: a new
form of radical libertarianism
1723-1790 Adam Smith
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According to Smith the institutions most appropriate to a period of
commercial interdependence would provide for the governing
authority to pursue a laissez faire (let alone) policy in relation to the
economy.
Smith justified this by arguing that people, through applying their
talents and assets where they contributed to the production of the
things potential buyers wanted, sought to earn monies.
Under laissez faire systems individuals, acting in their own selfinterest as economic agents, would tend to dedicate themselves to
those economic activities that brought them the greatest reward in
terms of income be it in the form wages, rent, or profit.
Smith showed that by giving themselves to such highly rewarding
economic activities in their own self interest people would also be
maximising the economic well-being of society.
• Media professionals argued for a self-regulating
“marketplace of ideas’ not unlike Adam Smith’s
view of the open marketplace of laissez-faire
• Thus, the news media and others would put
before the public all ideas and the public would
choose the best from this marketplace
• Today, for example, “fair comment” allows for
comedy shows to make fun celebrities and
politicians more out of the marketplace of ideas
than simply first amendment
• Can you equate ideas with products as in
a “marketplace”?
• Text gives a diagram on this called “which
model of marketplace
– Hershey’s makes candy bars efficiently and
on an inexpensive production line
– NBC produces programs for advertisers
– Are these “products” the same thing?
Marketplace/ strength and
weaknesses
• Strengths
– Limits government control
– Puts trust in people/audience
– Assumes “good” content will prevail
– Allows for natural fluctuations in tastes, ideals,
and discourse
• Weaknesses
– Equates media content with tangible
consumer products
– Has optimistic view of audience’s media
consumption skills
– Allows to much trust in profit-motivated media
operators
Government regulation of media
• There was concern by the early 20th century that selfregulation of the new media (radio, eg.) would not be
enough given the excesses of yellow journalism in
previous century
• Debate developed over what to do with radio
• When telephones were first developed, there was
chaos..
– Anyone could set up telephone companies and
people had to buy phones from just that one company
– Solution; allow for some type of monopoly on
supplying phone service so long as there was gov’t
regulation of services and prices
• Contrary to newspaper space, the government decided
that the radio airwaves belonged to the people and
government regulation occurred here too
Professionalism of journalism
• In 1923, the American Society of Newspaper Editors set
standards for “the canons of journalism
• There was a sense that news media felt they had to
emulate other professional fields
• “muckraking” journalists saw themselves as the 4th
estate
• The 4th estate meant that the news media were to act
like an independent social institution that ensured that
other institutions served the public (e.g. the government)
• The Hutchins Commission on Freedom of the Press in
1942
• The more I read the papers
The less I comprehend
The world and all its capers
And how it all will end.- Ira Gershwin, 1938
Realigning Journalism with Democracy:The Hutchins Commission,
Its Times, and Oursby Annenberg Senior FellowStephen Bates
• The 1947 report of the Commission on Freedom of the
Press stands as a landmark in the history of press
criticism.
• Written by Robert Maynard Hutchins and a dozen other
preeminent intellectuals of the day, A Free and
Responsible Press offers an astute, literate, and
impassioned indictment of the nation's mass media.
• The 133-page report contends that the press is free for
the purpose of serving democracy; a press that shirks its
democratic duties will lose its freedom.
• The report calls on the press to improve itself in the
name of morality, democracy, and self-preservation.
Limitations of professionalism
• 1. professionals in every field, including
journalism, have been reluctant to identify
and censure colleagues who violate
professional standards
• Standards overly abstract and ambiguous
– E.g. pursue truth aggressively and present the
news accurately…
• 3. in contrast with medicine and law,
media professionals don’t have common
educational training and licensing
– When is a journalist a journalist or a blogger?
– Are bloggers journalists?
– The whole concept of journalist is changing in
a world where anyone can blog, set up a
news paper, etc.
– So, standards are even more difficult
• 4. news media practitioners tend to have
less independent control over their work
– They don’t own the newspapers or networks
– Business side has more control over editorial
• 5. violations of professional standards
rarely have immediate, directly observable
standards
The Chicago School
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A group of social researchers at U of Chicago in 1940s envisioned
modern cities as great communities
For these great communities to develop, all constituents had to work
together and contribute
These were seen as pluralistic groups
The Chicago School opposed marketplace of ideas theory and
argued that an unregulated media served the interests of the socially
and economically elite
Some members of the Hutchinson Commission supported a “press
council” made up of people like themselves and having power to
prevent hate propaganda (this was the era of Hitler)
Most members of the commission were opposed to direct form of
press regulation
It emphasized social responsibility
• Social responsibility defined (by McQuail)
– Media should accept and fulfill certain
obligations to society
– These obligations are mainly met by setting
high or professional standards of information,
truth and accuracy
– The media as a whole should be pluralistic
and reflect the diversity of their society (ie.
The Chicago School)
Other normative theories
• Revolutionary concept: a normative theory
that describes a system in which the
media are used to service the revolution
(e.g. in Cuba)
• Authoritarian concept: advocating the
complete domination of media by a
government for the purpose of forcing
those media to serve government (e.g.
similar to above)