CHUGOKUGAKUEN J. 2003
Vol. 2, pp. 19-26
CHUGOKUGAKUEN
Journal
Copyright©2003 by Chugokugakuen
Original Article
http://www.cjc.ac.jp/
Comparison of Usage of Fat and Oil (Lipids) for Cooking
in Mass Feeding Facilities and Home
Junko Yokoyama *, Yoshie Suga and Masumi Moritsugu
Department of Human Nutrition, Facuity of Contemporary Life Science,
Chugokugakuen University, Okayama 701-0197, Japan
The differences in intake amount of fats and oils and in the intake ratios of the constituent
fatty acids are closely related to prevention and contraction of the life-style related diseases. In the
present paper we investigated and analyzed the usage status of fats and oils for cooking in mass
feeding facilities and in the home.
This study shows that fats and oils were used properly in 86% of cooking in mass feeding
facilities and in 72% in private homes. Twelve types of fats and oils were used in mass feeding
facilities compared with 15 in private homes. Survey results indicate that soybean oil was used most
frequently in 88 % of the mass feeding facilities, sesame oil in 76 %, butter in 64 %, margarine in 52
% and rapeseed oil in 32%. Both olive oil and sesame oil were used most frequently in 48% of home
cooking sites, margarine and butter in 41 % and 40%, respectively, and both rapeseed oil and corn
oil in 38%. Reasons for selecting cooking fats and oils in the mass feeding facilities were "good for
health" and "adhere to the brand of manufacturer", whereas the home cooking sites specified "good
for health" and "in use from a long time ago" as the major reasons. In the selection of fats and oils
. their reasonable prices were common considerations. Both the mass feeding facilities and home
cooking sites were careful about reasonable prices of fats and oils for their selection, and also careful
about preventing oxidation and deterioration of the oils.
A lot of fats and oils for food are manufactured and sold these days in Japan. A suitable
selection of fats and oils for each dish is required in consideration of harmony with food, cookery
and so on. In addition, a proper selection of fats and oils is necessary in mass feeding facilities from
the viewpoint of business management, working surroundings and nutritional administration for
each subject.
Key Words: Fat and oil, Mass feeding facility, Home cooking
Introduction
*Corresponding author.
Junko Yokoyama, PhD.
Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Contemporary Life Science,
Chugokugakuen University, 83, Niwase, Okayama 701-0197, Japan
Tel. & FAX: +8186 293 0247
Fats and oils, which are major components of lipids,
are esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids that
occur in foods are classified into saturated (5), monounsaturated (M) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (P). Components of these fatty acids differ depending on dietary
sources such as animals, poultry, fIsh and plants. Even
20
Yokoyama et al.
in the same species, fatty acid components show variation
depending on the environment and conditions in which
they grow. The differences in fatty acid components
determine the physiological function of fats and oils.
With the recent increase of fatty acid intake by
Japanese, the importance of the quality of fatty acids has
been pointed out. According to the recommended dietary
allowance, 6 th revised [lJ, for Japanese, the favorable
S :M:P intake ratio is 3: 4: 3. The intake ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids of n-6 series (n-6 PDFA) and of n-3
series (n-3 PDFA) (n-6/n-3 ratio for healthy person) is
recommended to be around 4.0. Calculations based on the
result of the national nutrition survey for the 20 year
period from 1971 to 1990 show that the average intake
ratio of n-6/n-3 was 4.2 [2J. The survey also showed
that the n-6/n-3 intake ratio tended to decline a little after
1990 (from 1991 to 1998), although there was no noticeable difference in the intake amount of fats and oils [3J.
It has been suggested that the westernization of
dietary habits and increases of fast food consumption and
of eating-out brought about an increased intake of n-6
PDFA. A simultaneous reduction of the intake of fIsh
and shellfIsh [4J and vegetables resulted in decrease of
n-3 PDFA. The survey, which used juveniles and
students as subjects, shows that the n-6/n-3 ratios of the
subjects were variable from 3.3 to 17.8, indicating considerable difference in individuals and generally high values
[5J.
.
For prevention and treatment of life-style related
diseases, study on components of intake fatty acids,
especially the n-6/n-3 ratio, is thought to be important.
In this paper we surveyed and analyzed the use of fats and
oils, which mainly contribute to the n-6/n-3 ratio [2, 6,
7J, and also investigated the cooking fats and oils.
Subjects and methods
1. Subjects of our investigation
Nutritionists of mass feeding facilities specifIed for the
extra training of the students majoring in nutrition and
families of the students were set as subjects. The use of
cooking fats and oils was investigated through a questionnaire.
2. Investigation items
(1) Choice of fats and oils depending on cooking menu
We had subjects select either "Yes" or "No" to
determine whether they chose a particular fat or oil for the
cooking menu. To the subjects who selected "Yes", we
CHUGOKUGAKUEN J.
Vol. 2
further asked them to determine the menu with the
examples such as "preference for a fat or an oil either for
deep-fried food or for salad dressing", "the choice of a fat
or an oil either for the western cooking menu (steak,
meuniere, etc.) or for another cooking menu", "the
choice of the fat or the oil either fried vegetables or
stir-fried meats for Chinese dishes or for the other
dishes".
(2) Name of fat or oil used (raw material name)
We had subjects select the name of the fat or the oil
(raw material name) from the following 15 items such as
corn oil (Zea mays L. seed oil), rapeseed oil (Brassica
rapa var. nippo-oleifera seed oil), soybean oil (Glycine
max seed oil), safflower oil (Carthamus tinctorius L. seed
oil), olive oil (Olea europaea L. ripe fruit oil), sesame oil
(Sesamum indicum L. seed oil); perilla oil (Perilla
frutescens Britton var. japonica Hara seed oil), lard (Sus
scrofa v. domesticus, fat, separated by boiling water),
beef tallow (Bos taurus v. domesticus, beef dripping fat,
separated by boiling water), butter (Bas taurus v. domesticus, milk fat, centrifugally separated), margarine (hardened or hydrogenated oil, made of fIsh oil or vegetable oil
of low melting temperature), prepared corn and rapeseed
oil, prepared corn and soybean oil, prepared rapeseed
and soybean oil, and the other oils (free description). In
cases where the subjects used fat or oil of their choice for
each cooking menu, all the fats or the oils for each menu
could be counted as multiple answers.
(3) Reasons for choosing fats or oils for daily use
We had the subjects choose the reason for picking
each fat or oil currently used from the following eight
reasons: "low price", "good for health", "in use for a
long time", "like its taste", "favor to brand or manufacturer name", "in favor of its component", "without clear
reason", and "other reason" (free description). Subjects
were advised to select multiple answers whenever appropriate.
(4) Attention to daily fat or oil selection, or use of fat or
oil
Subjects were asked to describe freely the attention
they paid when choosing the fat or oil and when the fat or
oil was used.
3. Study on cooking fats and oilJ;
The perilla oil which contains a lot of alpha (a)linolenic acid (n-3 PDFA) was studied for its cooking
quality and preferred taste. We cooked a meal using
perilla oil. Then 14-second year students of the Chugoku
Junior College evaluated the meal.
2003
(1) Dishes prepared without heating
We put perilla oil as A and a general plant oil mixture
(the mixed oil of rapeseed and soybean) as B (a control).
We prepared 3 types of dressings that were composed of
1 part vinegar and 2~ 3 parts A or B oil (vinegar-oil
bases) in addition to some seasonings. Japanese style
dressings were completed by the mixing of suitable soy
sauce and salt with the above vinegar-oil bases. The
western style dressings used A and B oils and an appropriate amount of salt and pepper. The Chinese style
dressings used soy sauce, salt, sugar and sesame
together with the above bases. In addition, we prepared
two series of mayonnaises mixing the A or B oil with egg
yolk, vinegar, salt, pepper, sugar and mustard. All
dressings and mayonnaises were served with four fresh
vegetables (as salads) to the students for the oil evaluation.
(2) Dishes cooked with heating
a) Fried food
We cooked 4 vegetables and pork meats with a
salt-pepper mixture, the perilla oil (oil A) and the regular
mixed vegetable oil (oil B).
b) Deep-fried food (tempura)
We used olive oil only as oil C, and a mixture of olive
oil and perilla oil as oil D (balanced oil) which is commercially available and contains 30% or more a-linolenic acid.
A mixture of 2 parts of olive oil and one part of perilla oil
was prepared at our laboratory of the Chugokugakuen
(the olive-perilla mixed oil; oil E). Using oils C, D or E,
and an electro-magnetic cooking device, we fried
sectioned sweet potato (30 g per section) for 2 minutes
and 50 second at a temperature of 170 DC.
(3) Evaluation items
To evaluate salads, fried vegetables and pork, subjects selected from the following items, "like A" "I like
A oil-used ones", abbreviated as "like A", hereafter,
"like B", "like both A and B", "dislike both A and B",
"cannot decide". Subjects also had to write about their
opinion and reflect freely.
For the evaluation of the fried sweet potatoes, subjects selected from the following items, "like A", "like
B", "like C", "like both A and B", "like both A and C",
"like both B and C", "dislike all A, B and C", "others"
(free description) and "cannot decide". Subjects also were
able to write the point they hit upon and reflect freely.
With regard to deep-fried sweet potatoes (tempura of
sweet potato), the chosen frequencies were individually
totaled for each selection in the following matters, "like
C", "like D", "like E", "like both C and D", "like both
Usage status of fat and oil in mass feeding
21
C and E", "like both D and E", "dislike all C, D and
E", "others" (free description) and "cannot decide".
Results
1. Number of answers
Responses were compiled from 27 mass feeding facilities, including 7 hospitals, 13 elementary schools, 3
enterprises and 4 facilities for welfare of the aged, and
from 64 home cooking sites.
2. Choices of fats and oils depending on
dishes
Fig. 1 shows frequency of proper use of cooking fats
and oils depending on menus. 86 % of the mass feeding
facilities and 72 % of home cooking sites answered that
they chose cooking fats and oils depending on menus. As
shown in Fig. 2, 50 % of the mass feeding facilities
answered that they most frequently make choices based
on whether the dishes were composed of fried food or
composed of dressing oils. 28 % of them made choices
(A) Mass feeding facilities
(B) Home cooking sites
Proper use
D Improper use
Fig. I
Frequency of cooking fats and oils depending on menus.
50
Fried dishes or
for dressing
Chinese dishes or
for the other dishes
Western dishes or
for the other dishes
40
f.I Mass feeding facilities
Other cases
D Home cooking sites
l--_l...--_.L---_.l---_.l---_"---_
o
Fig. 2
10
20
30
40
50
Choices of fats and oils depending on dishes.
(%)
60
22
CHUGOKUGAKUEN J.
Yokoyama et al.
depending on whether the dishes are the Chinese ones or
the other ones. And 13 % of them made choices concerning whether the dishes were western ones or other ones.
On the other hand, 40 % of home cooking sites admitted
that they made choices of cooking fats and oils depending
upon whether the dishes are western ones or other ones.
A level of 31 % of homes admitted that they made choices
whether the dishes were the Chinese ones or the other
ones. 20 % of the surveyed homes admitted that they
made choices concerning whether the dishes were fried
ones or salads.
3. Utilization frequency of cooking fats and
oils in raw material names
Fig. 3 shows utilization frequency of various cooking
fats and oils. In the mass feeding facilities, soybean oil
was used most frequently, in 88% of the facilities;
sesame oil in 76 %, butter in 64 %, margarine in 52 %,
rapeseed oil in 32 %, and corn and olive oils both in 28
% of the facilities.
At the home cooking sites, however, olive oil and
sesame oil were used both in 48 % of the sites, margarine
and butter in 41 % and 40%, respectively, and rapeseed
oil and corn oil both in 38 %.
4. The reason for selecting cooking fats and
oils in use
The results of multiple answers about the reason for
selecting cooking fats and oils are shown in Fig. 4. The
most often cited reason for oil selection was cost. This
was the case in both mass feeding facilities (24%) and
home cooking sites (26 %). The mass feeding facilities
specifIed the reason for the selection as "good for health"
22 % and "adhere to the brand of manufacturer" 17 %.
On the other hand, the home cooking sites specifIed
"good for health" and "in use from long time ago" as
reasons 17% alike. Only 2% of the homes chose "adhered to the brand name" as a reason.
5. The points on which the subjects were
careful in selecting and using cooking fats
and oils
Both the mass feeding facilities and home cooking
sites were careful in preventing oxidation and deterioration
of cooking fats and oils. Subjects were careful about such
points as "cautious on production date and available term"
and "be quick in use of cooking fats and oils after the
package is opened". Some of the mass feeding facilities
answered "considering the choice of cooking fats and oils
depending on the condition of a patient". On the other
hand, some of the home cooking sites frequently answer-
(A) Mass feeding facilities
• used
0
Vol. 2
not used
~;;;;;;;1l1~8~8g
Soybean
Sesame oil
oil ~
76
Butters
4
Margarines
Rapeseed oil
Com oil
Olive oil
Rapeseed, Soybean oil
Others
Lard
Corn, Rapeseed oil ~====:::'::=:======~
Corn, Soybean oil F============I
Safflower oil
Perilla oil ~o=============j
Beef tallow ~O==============l(%)
o
20
40
60
80
100
(B) Home cooking sites
48
iiliim~4~8~~~~3
Olive oil
Sesame
oil
Margarines
41
Butters
40
Rapeseed oil
38
Com oil
~~
.
_
Rapeseed, Soybean oil
Beef tallow
Safflower oil C~===========i
Lard
Perilla oil ~~==========
Soybean oil
Corn, Rapeseed oil ~:===========
Others
Com, Soybean oil fF:2
; ?==========:::==J(0f0)
;;;:::::::=========
o
Fig. 3
20
40
60
80
100
Utilization frequency of fats and oils in raw material names.
Lower price
i24.4
Good for health ~iililiiiiiiiiiiiii~!2T
~
22.q 26.2
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
Adhere to brand
name
In use from long ~• • • •lUll-,
time ago b--~-~----'
Indefinitely • • • • •&.U;~
Adhere to the
Composition
Taste
Others
~="--.
P"""'''-'=-'-'----;
Fig. 4
D Home cooking sites
I===L-:..:..::.,
o
5
feeding facilities
[I
10.2
15
.
.
20
25
The reason for selecting cooking fats and oils.
(%)
30
Usage status of fat and oil in mass feeding
2003
ed "using olive oil for menu because a newspaper recommended".
6. Desirable oil taste for dishes prepared
without heating
Taste tendency of salads prepared with one of three
dressings (described in the section of Subjects and
methods) and mayonnaise are shown in Fig. 5. There
were no "dislikes" concerning each salad oil. When A
(perilla oil) was compared with B (the mixed vegetable oil)
in Japanese dressing, 80 % answered "like both A and
B", while 10 % answered "like A" and only 5% preferred
B oil, which was composed of rapeseed and soybean oil.
The result shows that there was no signifIcant effect due
to types of salad oils. Concerning the western style
dressing oils, 16% answered "like A" (perilla oil).
Together with "like both A and B" the answers represented 84 % of the total. Oil spices did not influence choices.
In the case of the Chinese dressings, the most frequent
answers (36 %) were "like A (perilla oil)" compared with
the other dressings and mayonnaise. This suggests that
the flavor of perilla oil blends well with sesame which is
an ingredient of Chinese dressings.
On the other hand, when oil is used as a mayonnaise
ingredient, "like A", "like B" and "like both A and B"
each accounted for roughly 30 % of answers. When the
amount of fatty acids was integrated from the data of the
table of the food lipophilic components in Japan [8], and
the n-6/n-3 ratio was calculated for each dressing, the
n-6/n-3 ratios of the dressings prepared with mixed
vegetable oils distributed within 104 and 2.0, and those of
the dressing prepared with perilla oil within 0.2 and 0.5.
23
Japanese style
dressing
Western style
dressing
Chinese style
dressing
Mayonnaise
Like B (the mixed vegetable oil)
D Not clear
Fig. 5
Favorite oil taste for salad.
• Like perilla oil
Like the mixed vegetable oil
[I Like both oils
D Not clear
Fig. 6
Favorite oil taste for stir-fried vegetables.
7. Desirable oil taste for fried dishes
Favorite taste of oil for stir-fried vegetables is shown
in Fig. 6. 55 % of the subjects answered "like B", the
mixed vegetable oil (rapeseed and soybean oils). Only 6
% answered "like A" (perilla oil), and 18 % answered
"like both A and B". This infers that there were
differences of favorable taste in oil types. On a flavor of
oil, participant comments included the impression that
perilla oil smells like grass, or the mixed vegetable oil is
fragrant. The n-6/n-3 ratio of the vegetables stir-fried by
use of the mixed vegetable oil was 104. On the other hand,
that fried by use of perilla oil was 004.
Fig. 7 shows the preferences for deep-fried sweet
potato sections (sweet potato tempura). Many subjects
(87 %) cooked the deep-fried sweet potatoes using"oil E"
which was prepared by mixing 2 parts of olive oil and one
part of perilla oil in our laboratory. The oil D was a
• Like oil C
11 Like oil E
fIl Like both oils C and E
D
Not clear
Fig. 7
Favorite oil taste for a deep-fry of sweet potato sections.
Oil C, olive oil; Oil E, a mixture of 2 parts of olive oil and one part
of perilla oil.
24
Yokoyama et al.
CHUGOKUGAKUEN J.
market-sold, "balanced" mix oil composed of perilla oil
and olive oil containing a-linolenic acid level at 30% or
more. However, no subject preferred this oil. Some of
the subjects' impressions were as follows: the smell of
perilla oil was rather strong, and had a strange taste. The
calculated n-6/n-3 ratio of the deep-fried sweet potato was
14.1 for olive oil alone, 0.7 for our mixed oil, and 0.5 for
the olive-perilla mixed oil, the market-sold balanced mix
oil including 30% or more of a-linolenic acid.
Discussion
The fat and oil (lipid) have physiological functions not
only as an energy source but also as suppliers of essential
fatty acid and other lipophilic materials. The differences in
the intake amount of lipid and the intake ratio of constitutive fatty acids are intimately related to prevention or
contraction of the life-style related diseases. The questions "what kinds of fats and oils and how much of them
should be eaten for good health" are not so easy to
answer with present knowledge [9J. There are many
opinions on the favorable intake ratio between polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids [10, 11J. The ratio of
contents between the n-6 series and n-3 series of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) differs by the type of fats and
oils taken, especially in the vegetable oils (Fig. 8) [8J.
It has been reported that safflower oil and com oil,
which are rich in the n-6 PUFA (linoleic acid), are
recommended because of their effect in preventing arterio-
II Saturated fatty acid
D Monounsaturated fatty acid
It] Polyunsaturated fatty acid
n-6/n-3
Lard 1iiiiiiiiii~Wii.l~n~iiiiiiiiiilr===:4;;:'8==~;5l 14.4
Beef tallow
~8
4 8 4 11.0
Pacific saury oil
50
0.1
Safflower oil*
382.0
Sesame oil
74.7
Com oil
33.7
Palm oil
40
32.0
Olive oil
76
13.0
Margarines
42
11.9
Soybean oil
25
6.7
Mixed vegetable oil*
35
4.9
Rapeseed oil ~
60
2.0
Perilla oil 8 16
0.2
(0/0)
Fig. 8
Fatty acid composition and n-6/n-3 ratio of oil used.
*Safflower oil: High linoleic var., refined.
*Mixed vegetable oil: Rapeseed oil 3 parts and soybean oil 7 parts,
refined.
Vol. 2
sclerosis by lowering cholesterol [12J. However, many
other data indicated that excess intake of linoleic acid is
related·to various diseases [13, 14J. Since monounsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid, was suggested to be useful
[15J, many vegetable oils rich in oleic acid, such as olive
oil, rapeseed oil (Canola oil), high oleic acid safflower oil,
etc. have been widely marketed. In the Fifth Edition of
Food Composition Table in Japan [16J, safflower oil is
shown as a high oleic acid-refIned oil with just a note
indicating a high linoleic acid content. Studies on the
physiological function of n-3 series PUFA [14, 17, 18J
have also made progress in elucidating the oils' functions
such as prevention of circulatory diseases, antiinflammatory and anti-allergic actions and growthinhibitory effect on cancer cells. As a result, perilla oil
and perilla oil-blended oil which mainly contained the
a-linolenic acid (one of n-3 series PUFA) have been
widely on the market. Moreover, fats and oils enriched
with diacylglycerol, middle chain triacylglycerol (MCT)
and a-linolenic acid have received attention for their
effects on decreasing triglyceride and cholesterol [19J.
Given the current situation of production and distribution
of various types of oils, proper choice of cooking oils is
required.
The present investigation to inform about the uses of
cooking fats and oils showed that the subjects of mass
feeding facilities appeared to use as many as 12 kinds of
oils, and the subjects of home cooking sites to use 15
kinds of fats and oils. Reasons for selecting cooking fats
and oils in mass feeding facilities and home cooking sites
were attained by a questionnaire, and multiple answers
were collected and analyzed. The most frequent reason
for selecting fats and oils was "low price" in both mass
feeding facilities and home cooking sites. The mass
feeding facilities frequently answered "in use from long
time ago" and also answered, "the city office decided the
fats and oils in use". The result suggests complacency in
set habits and lack of decision-making powers by the
users. In contrast, the home cooking sites answered that
they change from the fats and oils in use to olive oil or
sometimes to perilla oil (even though both olive and perilla
oils are a little bit more expensive) based on the information from mass media of "good for health".
Both the mass feeding facilities and home cooking
sites showed a lot of interest in the quality control of fats
and oils. Some mass feeding facilities selectively used
cooking fats and oils depended on the condition of their
patients. Regarding nutrition control in hospitals, the
2003
choice of cooking fats and oils according to patient
condition should be considered more seriously in the
future.
Use of perilla oil as a cooking oil was suggested to be
effective for dietetic treatment (diet therapy) of patients
with allergic diseases, atopic dermatitis and bronchial
asthma by the rectification of the n-6/n-3 ratio of intake
fatty acids [20, 21J. However, there were few reports
concerning the cooking characteristics and taste tendency
of perilla oil. In this report, we found that it is not the
difference of kinds of fats and oils but the influences of
other seasonings that are reflected in taste tendency at
least in the use of preparation without heating. We could
confirm the taste compliance when the mixed oil was
changed to perilla oil. On the other hand, there exists a
problem that the perilla oil containing much n-3 PUFA is
prone to oxidization. Therefore, precaution should be
taken to avoid oxidation, especially when perilla oil is
heated, even though perilla oil usually contains small
amounts of a-tocopherol which act an antioxidant.
Our preliminary experiments show that perilla oil
exhibits an unpleasant smell caused by the oxidized oil
fumes, when deep-fried food was made using boiling
perilla oil. This is a problem in the workers' environment
in mass feeding facilities where large volumes of food are
prepared over a long time. Therefore, we tried to shorten
the cooking time using perilla oil only, and also tried to
use olive oil and the olive-perilla mixed oil which are stable
to oxidation. The commercially available olive-perilla oil
for frying at high cooking temperatures was also
examined.
In the case of stir-fried vegetables, however, the
flavor, taste and eating preference changed depending on
oils used. The special flavor of perilla oil was strengthened by cooking, although there were many answers that
could not clearly differentiate between the perilla and other
oils.
About 90 % of the subjects supported the use of the
olive-perilla mixed oil as it provided best flavor and taste
when frying sweet potatoes. Therefore, in either case, it
is possible to use perilla oil for cooking; however it is not
a practical recommendation because perilla oil is 15 to 20
times more expensive than the general vegetable mix oil
composed of rapeseed and soybean oils, in addition to the
factor of heat instability.
One of the merits of using of fats and oils for cooking
is that high temperature cooking becomes possible. For
this reason, fried food and stir-fried food have been
Usage status of fat and oil in mass feeding
25
increasing as a trend in the school lunch which requires
production of large amounts of food within short time
[22J. High temperature cooking using oil has appeared
frequently even in canteen food in an industrial factory for
the main or additional vegetable dishes [23J.
It is recommended to choose the cooking oil for each
dish with its way along with cooking materials, their
usefulness in cooking that distill the taste from cooking
materials, heat stability and antioxidant characteristics.
From the perspective of taste, there was no one almighty
cooking oil; and it is not recommended to impose one
species of oil [24J. Furthermore, the staffs of the mass
feeding facilities should choose their cooking oils from the
stand point of management and business control of their
facilities, and should consider nutritional control (diet
control) for all the subjects concerned. Now, we would
like to strictly focus on the future.
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Accepted March 31 , 2003.