Journal of Cleaner Production 124 (2016) 14e20
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
A systematic review and agenda for using alternative water sources for
consumer markets in Australia
Sujana Adapa*, Navjot Bhullar, Simone Valle de Souza
University of New England, Armidale 2351, New South Wales, Australia
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 26 October 2015
Received in revised form
20 January 2016
Accepted 18 February 2016
Available online 26 February 2016
Water scarcity is a common phenomenon identified in many countries and Australia is no exception.
Australia is the driest continent and has been prone to severe and prolonged drought conditions in recent
years. Yet the quality of drinking water is taken for granted in Australia and existing evidence showcases
a huge setback in the uptake of alternative sources of water by Australian consumer markets. In order to
understand the existing situation and identify the barriers and opportunities associated to alternative
sources of water, a systematic review of existing research in the area of alternative sources of water for
consumer markets has been conducted. The importance of water as a precious resource to sustain human
life and a review of relevant literature of alternative sources of water (mainly recycled and desalinated)
and issues surrounding centralised and decentralised water systems are discussed. Results are reported
from extant research upon public acceptance of consumer satisfaction, contextual factors, demographic
variables and perceived benefits and costs associated with the intention to adopt, and the adoption and
use of recycled and desalinated water. Our findings highlight the limitations of prior studies and outline
the strategic importance of a much needed marketing-related 7Ps research framework for promoting the
consumption and use of alternative water sources within the Australian consumer market. Similarly the
discussion highlights the relative importance of investing in various marketing interventions in
enhancing Australian consumer markets awareness, acceptance and uptake of alternative sources of
water. The uptake of alternative sources of water amongst Australian consumer markets is envisaged to
be enhanced through critical understanding of the various aspects associated to product, price, place,
promotion, people, process and physical evidence. In sum, the present systematic review provides the
most relevant issues surrounding the usage of alternative sources of water within the Australian consumer market; elicits the importance of public acceptance, consumer satisfaction, demographic variables, contextual factors apart from benefits and barriers to recycled water; and proposes a research
framework that needs to be addressed by future research.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Recycled water
Reclaimed water
Review
Marketing framework
Consumer markets
1. Introduction
Water is an essential part of the human life. The world's total
water resources are 97.5% saline water and just 2.5% of freshwater
(Rozin et al., 2015). A small proportion of the less than 1% identified
as usable freshwater on Earth is mainly derived from snowfall,
rainwater, groundwater, surface freshwater and other living
biomass (Rozin et al., 2015). Water is identified as a precious
resource as water scarcity is a common phenomenon identified in
many countries due to ever-growing population, urban
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Adapa).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.02.083
0959-6526/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
development, depletion of natural resources, and environmental
degradation (ADB, 2013; UNESCO, 2014; Deloitte, 2012). Global
climate change due to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions has
been identified to most likely exacerbate existing water stressors
resulting in water scarcity (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, 2008; Newell and Pitman, 2010). The National Health
and Medical Research Council (NHMRC, 2004), Australia, estimated
that by 2025, approximately 50% of the world's population will
experience water shortages. One third of the people in the world
currently live in countries experiencing moderate to high water
stress levels (Hatt et al., 2006). Available reports indicate that poor
water quality levels result in the death of over five million people
every year (DEH, 2004). Major concerns regarding water scarcity
are evident in the Middle East, the American Southwest and
S. Adapa et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 124 (2016) 14e20
Australia. As a result, many countries across the world have been
focussing on investing heavily upon technological treatments to
create alternative water sources to meet the demand for potable
water (NRC, 2012).
Australia comprises about 0.3% of the planet's population, but
contributes 1.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions, making its per
capita emissions one of the highest in the world (Australian Bureau
of Statistics [ABS], 2010). The ABS (2002) also indicates that
Australia is the driest continent and has been prone to severe
drought conditions in recent years. Droughts develop over a prolonged period of time and the impact of structural damages caused
by drought severity is difficult to document. ‘Water deficiency’ is
included in most of the definitions put forward for the term
drought by the National Drought Mitigation Centre, Australia
(NDMC, 2012). Decreased levels of water availability and water
quality tend to be the most common features associated with the
most drought-affected areas (Akenazy et al., 2003). Such prolonged
drought conditions across Australia have resulted in a range of
water demand management initiatives such as regulation, information campaigns to reducing water use, and incentives for
installing and uptake of water efficient devices (Fielding et al.,
2012; Willis et al., 2011). Therefore, the sustainable management
of this resource has become imperative, especially for droughtprone countries like Australia. One of the strategies to meet the
challenge of this ever-increasing human demand for water is to
explore and harness alternative sources of water supplies. To achieve sustainable supply of water for human consumption, there is a
need to better understand a range of determinants including the
drivers of, and barriers to, using alternative water sources in
Australian consumer markets. To this end, the present study
attempted to conduct a comprehensive systematic review of
existing literature, the findings of which are to be used to suggest
an agenda for further research in the area.
1.1. Water resource and its availability in Australia
The availability of the freshwater in Australia is highly variable
due to uneven rainfall. Therefore, the country relies heavily on
groundwater supplies and stores larger volumes of water per person than any other country in the world (NHMRC, 2004). The
quality of drinking water in Australia is taken for granted and the
public expect a range of refined aesthetics in the form of purity,
taste, flavour and odour when they consume drinking water.
Drinking water comes from two important sources: surface water
from rivers or artificial dams; and groundwater that can be accessed
from a bore (Careghini et al., 2013). Approximately 70% of the water
is used for carrying out various agricultural activities in Australia,
followed by substantial proportions used for industrial and domestic purposes.
Water treatment actions have been available historically
through the purification of natural systems via rivers and lakes.
Advanced water treatment plants include: primary treatment
focussing on the physical separation of wastes from water; secondary treatment emphasising the usage of acceptable microbes to
neutralise the unwanted biological elements; tertiary treatment
using the filters further to remove additional biological material
that is deemed to be unwanted; and advanced treatment using the
membranes to remove additional chemicals (Rozin et al., 2015;
Carey and Migliaccio, 2009). Governments, institutions and water
agencies embrace disinfection treatment as a final step before the
treated water is released to the public for potable and non-potable
uses. Advanced countries have, at the least, implemented primary
and secondary water treatment actions in many facilities as per
prevailing legal and regulatory requirements. Although cost
intensive and technologically developed, many water treatment
15
facilities in advanced countries are embracing tertiary and
advanced systems to produce safe water (Hamawand et al., 2013;
UNESCO, 2012). A greater proportion of Australian homes and
gardens use treated water of drinking quality for activities such as
gardening, showering, laundry, etc. (Byrnes, 2000). The quality of
water in Australia is improved by various treatments and protection
techniques including coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and
filtration to ensure the provision of safe water for consumption
(Byrnes, 2000).
Approximately 85% of the Australian population resides in urban
areas and the water consumption in many urban areas has
increased beyond anticipated demand, often outweighing supply
levels (Mankad and Tapsuwan, 2011). Given that water is a precious
resource, it is essential for Australian water agencies and government authorities to focus on educating the public about the
ongoing practice of the responsible consumption of drinking water,
water conservation, the use of alternative sources of water, and
reducing the wastage of water of drinking quality (Gundry et al.,
2004; Chaturvedi and Bandyopadhyay, 2014). In light of this discussion, water reuse, recycling and reclamation are identified as
integral to wastewater management (Tosco et al., 2014). Australia
has lagged behind many countries in the introduction of water
reuse schemes; however, over the past few years Australian water
agencies have focused on the development of appropriate strategies related to the management of the water cycle and the reduction of the amount of wastewater (Higgins et al., 2002).
The Australian Federal government and State Government authorities have focused on implementing restrictions to potable
water use in order to mitigate extended drought conditions. These
water restrictions vary according to the location and availability of
the groundwater. For example, Victorian Government water restrictions range from Stage 1 to Stage 4 in metropolitan Melbourne.
In some other locations in Victoria, these water restrictions range
from Stage 1 to Stage 6 (Hurlimann, 2011). The Victorian Government also implemented a ‘Target 155’ program to encourage water
conservation in 2008 (Government of Victoria, 2008), whereby
information related to saving water has been circulated to households with water bills. The NSW State Government introduced the
BASIX framework in 2005 whereby new and renovated dwellings
need to comply with water conservation standards (NSW
Department of Planning, 2008). Queensland water authorities
have developed a long-term water strategy to cope with urbanisation through recycled and desalinated water options (QWC,
2010).
It is evident that effective water conservation strategies are
formulated by federal and state government authorities across
Australia to mitigate prolonged drought conditions and associated
water stress levels. However, research related to the acceptance,
awareness, adoption, consumption and use of alternative water
sources by the public, who are the end users of treated water, seems
to be limited (Dolnicar and Saunders, 2005). Marketing frameworks
and market research serve as vital links in matching the products
and services offered by a company to the needs and wants of customers. Companies essentially offer products and services and
companies become successful through the promotion of their
product and service offerings by strategically identifying the needs
and wants of customers and businesses (Saunders and Wong,
1993). The core value generated from the product or service offering needs to be communicated to the end users in an effective
manner for further uptake and consumption.
Integral to marketing activity is the marketing environment that
determines product modifications and extensions to suit to the
needs and wants of end users. If the product cannot be modified,
there is a potential to identify a prospective market for the existing
product, thus allowing for marketing the product under
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S. Adapa et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 124 (2016) 14e20
consideration to a new target segment (Dolnicar and Saunders,
2005). These principles of marketing are ubiquitous and can be
applied for many products and services of a for-profit and not-forprofit nature. Therefore, such marketing principles should be
applicable to enhance the provision of alternative sources of water
within consumer markets as recycled water and desalinated water
poses significant challenges to end users due to the type of product,
nature of product, and production processes. Effective marketing
interventions can play a significant role in shaping end users' attitudes in adopting these alternative sources of water.
1.2. Aims
The aim of this review is to propose measures to encourage
consumer acceptance of alternative sources of water; to support the
effective formulation of recycled water consumption policies; and
to focus upon adaptation measures that might motivate the public
to consume recycled water through effective marketing related
interventions by summarising available published articles and
research reports.
The research objectives, therefore, are:
To systematically review published literature on the public
acceptance and/or consumption of recycled or desalinated
water;
To explore the critical factors that hinder the acceptance and/or
consumption of recycled or desalinated water; and
To critically analyse existing research and suggest avenues for
further investigation.
2. Literature review
Town water supply systems collect and distribute water from
catchments such as reservoirs, dams, etc. (Cook et al., 2009).
Treated wastewater is often referred to as recycled water. In order
to overcome water scarcity, several countries have implemented
water reuse initiatives as the technology to recycle wastewater and
augment water quality have been available for at least over two
decades (Elimelech, 2006). Many nations classified alternative
water sources into two distinct categories: non-centralised initiatives and centralised augmentation. Non-centralised initiatives
relate to informal and small-scale use of water alternatively
through rainwater tanks, reuse of domestic water usages and so
forth. Centralised augmentation refers to large scale solutions that
meet the needs of a suburb, a region or a city through recycled
water, desalinated seawater, etc. (Hurlimann, 2011). Wastewater
treatment approaches vary from conventional centralised systems
to contemporary decentralised and cluster systems (Massoud et al.,
2009).
Centralised systems are large and publicly owned and treat large
volumes of waste water far from the generation point (USEPA,
2004). Since centralised systems generally are out of sight, public
awareness about them tends to be limited. Waste water of individual buildings are treated by decentralised systems at or near the
generation point (Carey and Migliaccio, 2009; Tchobanoglous et al.,
2004). The public tends to obtain more information about the
functionality of decentralised wastewater treatment systems as
they tend to be localised. On the other hand, cluster systems can
serve up to 100 homes, can be centralised or decentralised, and are
popular in areas with poor soil conditions, dense population and
adverse topography (USEPA, 2004). Centralised and decentralised
wastewater treatment systems have coexisted in some contexts
(Nhapi and Gijzen, 2004).
The Namibian capital Windhoek used conventional water
treatment plant for direct potable water recycling in 1969 (Dolnicar
et al., 2010). California in the USA implemented measures to use
indirect potable water recycling for at least 30 years. Successful
wastewater treatment projects in the USA include Water Factory 21
in California, the Fred Harvey Water Reclamation Facility in Texas,
and the Upper Occoquan Sewerage Authority Water Recycling
Project in North Virginia (Po et al., 2003). The first desalination
project for the treatment of seawater was commissioned in Kuwait
in 1951 (Hamoda, 2001). Since then, several water recycling projects have been successfully implemented in Israel, Singapore and
Europe (Po et al., 2003). Australia has been slow in implementing
water recycling initiatives, partly due to public outcry and community resistance evident through activist groups such as Citizens
Against Drinking Sewage (CADS), and Sydney Community United
against Desalination (SCUD) in Australia (Dolnicar et al., 2010).
Approximately 60 million people in the USA use onsite wastewater treatment system as a common water conservation practice
(Bradley et al., 2002) and 12% of the Australian population use
decentralised wastewater treatment systems (Ahmed et al., 2005).
In Germany and Japan local governments are proactive in building
centralised water treatment systems and promoting household
installation for water conservation (Nolde, 2007). Decentralised
systems have been employed at several locations in Canada and in
Greece; around 14% of people in Greece use decentralised systems
(Tsagarakis et al., 2001). On-site water storage and reuse systems
tend to be predominant in Brazil and Central Africa (Ghisi and De
Oliveira, 2007). Turkey has avoided centralised systems due to
the cost reasons and here decentralised and cluster systems have
coexisted for several years (Engin and Demir, 2006). Selection of the
most appropriate treatment technology needs to take into account
economic affordability, environmental sustainability and social
acceptability (Massoud et al., 2009).
Given the complexities associated with the treatment of
wastewater and the pressures involved in the development of an
integrated water management cycle, effective marketing interventions are vital in changing the perceptions of the public and
in creating enhanced awareness to end users about the many
benefits associated with alternative sources of water. Marketingrelated research in the context of recycled water and desalinated
is limited and is largely structured around exploring the factors
affecting the public's intention to reuse water (Dillon, 2000). Prior
work related to marketing research in the area of recycled and
desalinated water is presented in Results section categorised into
(1) public acceptance; (2) consumer satisfaction; (3) contextual
factors; (4) demographic variables; and (5), perceived benefits and
barriers.
3. Methods
The researchers followed the general qualitative data analysis
and/or content analysis guidelines in conducting a systematic review of published literature on the public acceptance and/or consumption of recycled or desalinated water (Saunders et al., 2009;
PRISMA). Key search terms used by the authors in performing
this review were obtained from informed scoping of the extant
literature (Bryman and Bell, 2011). Input terms and outcome terms
Table 1
Input terms and outcome terms used in the search process.
Input terms
‘Water consumption conservation’
Combination
‘And’, ‘Or’, ‘With’
words
Outcome terms ‘Recycled’, ‘Desalinated’, ‘Groundwater’, ‘Quality’, ‘Quantity’,
‘Perceptions’, ‘Opinions’, ‘Attitudes’, ‘Behaviour’, ‘Acceptance’,
‘Usage’, ‘Potable’, ‘Non-potable’
S. Adapa et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 124 (2016) 14e20
used in the search process were presented in Table 1 (Jupp, 2006;
Bryman, 2008). The databases searched included Google Scholar,
InfoSearch, WebofKnowledge and Cambridge Scientific Abstracts.
Several inclusion and exclusion criteria were followed through
the usage of exposure and outcome terms in the search process
(Saunders et al., 2009). Inclusion criteria focused upon the explicit
link between the public acceptance and/or consumption of alternative sources of water, research contexts, research study methods,
and period of research study. Research papers not published in
English were not considered for inclusion in the review process.
Data obtained from relevant papers were further extracted into key
thematic categories and sub-categories that fit marketing related
terminology.
The five thematic categories identified on the basis of the frequency counts generated through the literature search process
relate to: (1) public acceptance e included studies focused upon the
awareness and knowledge of the public towards recycled water,
acceptance and adoption of recycled water for potable and nonpotable uses by the public; (2) consumer satisfaction e emphasis
upon studies that focused on positive and negative perceptions of
the public towards risk, trust and satisfaction levels associated with
the use of alternative sources of water for potable and non-potable
purposes; (3) demographic variables e included studies focused
upon the values and behaviour of individuals with the usage and/or
non-usage of alternative sources of water being based upon the
influence of demographic variables such as age, gender, level of
income, marital status, level of education, etc. (4) contextual factors
e focused upon studies whereby situation specific, culture specific,
policy related and institution oriented changes demonstrated significant changes in the attitudes of the public towards implementing water conservation practices through the usage of
alternative sources of water; and (5) benefits and barriers e studies
included in this category explored the public's perception of
economies of scale, historical factors and pricing structures associated with alternative sources of water.
4. Results
Research examining public perceptions of the use of alternative
water sources and water conservation for small-scale use has been
conducted in the past. However, research related to centralized
initiatives including solutions in the form of recycled water and
desalinated water acceptance, adoption and usage is in its infancy
in Australia (Hurlimann, 2011). A systematic review of extant
literature from a marketing perspective of alternative water sources
resulted in the following categories.
4.1. Public acceptance
The willingness to use recycled water was found to be largely
influenced by the intention to use alternative sources of water
(Baumann, 1983). The public acceptance and use of recycled water
gained a positive reaction from respondents for purposes involving
low human contact such as watering the garden, laundry, toilet
usage, etc., and received negative responses for purposes involving
high human contact such as drinking (Marks et al., 2006; Dolnicar
and Schafer, 2009; Dolnicar and Saunders, 2006). Greek farmers
exhibited a willingness to use recycled water on the availability of
positive information (Tsagarakis and Goergantzis, 2003). Dolnicar
and Schafer (2009) conducted another study in Australia and
identified that respondents expressed similar opinions in relation
to desalinated water. Dolnicar et al. (2010) explored the effect of
information on the acceptance of recycled and desalinated water in
a study based upon 1000 Australian respondents and found a
17
positive association between the provision of information and
public acceptance of alternative sources of water.
Lohman and Milliken (1985) investigated the relationship between information provision and the acceptance of water reuse in
USA and found that the respondents' knowledge about recycled
water, their trust in the water agency, and an overall understanding
of the potable reuse influenced their acceptance of recycled water.
Knowledge about recycled and/or desalinated water seems to be a
precursor to the acceptance and use by respondents (Hurlimann
and McKay, 2004; Roseth, 2008). This connection was supported
in an investigation carried out by Jeffrey and Jefferson (2003) in
England and Wales. Similar results were obtained from a study
conducted by Hills et al. (2002) in England, where signage in
washrooms was found to have influenced respondents' acceptance
of recycled water.
4.2. Consumer satisfaction
Hurlimann et al. (2008) noted that at Mawson Lakes, Australia,
respondents trusted the water authority more when they were well
informed about recycled water and, further, respondents exhibited
greater levels of satisfaction with the use of non-potable recycled
water. In another study conducted by Hurlimann (2007) at the
Mawson Lakes community, respondents' perceptions of risk towards recycled water were negatively related to perceptions of
feeling well informed. Limited research has been conducted upon
actual household use and satisfaction with recycled and desalinated water (Hurlimann, 2011). A research study conducted on the
household use of (and satisfaction with) alternative sources of
water in the state of Victoria, Australia, concluded that the usage of
alternative sources of water varied depending on the purpose of the
water use (Hurlimann, 2011). Hurlimann et al. (2008) noted that
the respondents' satisfaction with the use of recycled water was
enhanced due to positive perceptions associated with the Water
Authority's communication processes, their trust in the Water
Authority, the fairness associated with the implementation of
recycled water systems, and the quality and financial value associated with recycled water in Mawson Lakes, South Australia.
4.3. Demographics
Demographic variables play a vital role in reflecting the
behaviour and values of an individual. The installation of water
saving devices was significantly influenced by the respondents'
level of education and level of income (Flack and Greenberg, 1987).
Similarly, other demographic variables such as age, income and
gender also influenced public acceptance of water reuse projects
(Dolnicar and Schafer, 2007). Additionally, respondents' knowledge about water treatment and reuse initiatives positively
influenced the public acceptance of alternative sources of water.
Several studies also focused on identifying the profiles of the respondents based on the adoption and use of recycled and desalinated water and further segmented into various adoption
categories (Sims and Baumann, 1974; Kasperson et al., 1974; Olson
et al., 1979; Carley, 1985). The role of gender has been investigated
in a research study that found that men tend to be strong predictors for the acceptance and use of recycled water (Marks, 2004;
Nancarrow et al., 2008). The influence of demographic variables in
relation to the use of recycled and desalinated water remains
inconsistent and inconclusive (Hurlimann et al., 2009). Other demographic variables found to be positively associated with the
water conservation include the number of residents in the
household, the value associated with the property and the type of
dwelling (Dolnicar et al., 2012).
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S. Adapa et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 124 (2016) 14e20
4.4. Contextual factors
Imposed water restrictions changed public attitudes and motivated them to adopt some form of water conservation practices in
the USA (Flack and Greenberg, 1987). Madi et al. (2003) observed
that farmers switched to the use of reclaimed water for agricultural
purposes in Tunisia and Jordan by comparing the pricing of freshwater versus reclaimed water. A few researchers have also studied
public attitudes towards water conservation due to government
imposed water restrictions (Friend and Coutts, 2006; Allon and
Sofoulis, 2006; Randolph and Troy, 2007). The impact of water
restrictions on the attitudes of the community was investigated by
Nancarrow et al. (2002), who concluded that the imposition of
severe water restrictions did not have any impact on the consideration of alternative lawn and garden watering times in Perth,
Western Australia. Head and Muir (2007) studied the changing
cultures towards water use in Eastern Australian states and
observed that the respondents had a greater commitment to reduce
water consumption by way of implementing appropriate mechanisms of efficient water storage and distribution.
4.5. Barriers and benefits
Economic costings, health concerns and environmental consequences were identified to be major impediments to the public
acceptance of recycled and desalinated water (Bruvold, 1988;
Dishman et al., 1989; Marks et al., 2002). Additionally, the presence of microbiological agents and chemical pollutants deterred
public acceptance of recycled water for direct potable use in
Australia (Higgins et al., 2002).
Studies exploring the advantages associated with the use of
recycled and desalinated water are limited to date. Hurlimann
(2011) identified housing status, costs associated with the use of
recycled water, existing policies and inflexibility of infrastructure as
key barriers to households' use of alternative water sources
(Hurlimann, 2011). The existing pricing structures for recycled
water and potable water tend to be non-transparent. The pricing
associated with recycled water used for potable purposes seems to
be complicated often determined on the basis of various water
treatment options (Byrnes, 2000; Hurlimann and McKay, 2007).
Lack of community support has been identified as a major barrier to
the use of recycled water (Hurlimann et al., 2008).
Respondents identified potential cost savings, a reduced impact
on the environment and the enhanced nutritional value of the
recycled water as the major benefits associated with the use of
alternative sources of water in Australia (Marks et al. 2002). Factors
contributing to the use of alternative sources of water and water
conservation practice include availability of adequate information
(Sah and Heinen, 2001; UNESCAP et al., 2006); past experience
with droughts (Burton et al., 2007; Kideghesho et al., 2007);
perceived long-term benefits (Institute for Sustainable Futures,
2003); and general awareness towards the environment
(Dickinson, 2001).
5. Discussion
Effective water conservation and sustainable water management practices are evidently seen as a way to move forward as
global water crisis levels are increasing at an astonishing rate
(Bagatin et al., 2014). Many nations have taken measures to
implement wastewater recycling and seawater desalination projects. The implementation of these projects involves significant
policy attention and direction from government authorities. The
Council of Australian Governments (COAG) water reform initiative
of 1994 is at the forefront of water recycling efforts in Australia
recognising the importance of water to the Australian community.
The second COAG Water Reform framework, popularly known as
the National Water Initiative (NWI), has been formulated to
encourage water conservation practices in urban areas through
promotion of the uptake of recycled water (COAG, 2004).
Additionally, extended drought periods across Australia have
spurred calls for reducing the consumption of potable water. In
response, several Australian State Government authorities have
initiated strategic water policy responses for encouraging sustainable water management across Australia. Of these policy initiatives,
recycled water projects that have gained significant attention in
Australia in recent years relate to dual water supply systems in
greenfields suburbs, watering sporting fields with recycled water,
and the provision of recycled water to supplement potable water
supplies (Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and
Engineering, 2004). There exists a potential for the integrated
treatment and management of recycled stormwater, as this is not
widely practiced in Australia. Available reports indicate that only 4%
of rainwater and stormwater is recycled in Australian cities (Dillon,
2004); the average stormwater runoff actually equates to average
annual urban water usage (Mitchell et al., 1999).
However, public acceptance of recycled and desalinated water is
vital in the uptake of alternative sources of water (Haddad et al.,
2010). Although a willingness and intention to adopt recycled
water and desalinated water seem to have attracted greater
attention from researchers, most of these studies pose significant
methodological challenges. Methodologically speaking, a majority
of these studies focused on the qualitative measurement of various
constructs while the studies that focused upon empirical measurement neglected the value of including control groups. Similarly,
most of the studies omitted important elements of consumption
including the odour, taste and appearance of recycled and desalinated water and the relative impact these have on users' acceptance, adoption and use of these alternative sources (Comrie et al.,
2003).
The marketing aspect of alternative sources of water is much
neglected and existing information covers only limited aspects
related to consumer markets. The relative importance of various
marketing interventions in exploring consumers' awareness,
acceptance and uptake of recycled and desalinated water can be
explored. For example, the application of the 7Ps marketing
framework (exploring consumer attitudes towards the product,
price, place, promotion, people, process and physical evidence
related to recycled water) will foster the identification of the critical
enablers and barriers to the usage of alternative water sources.
Exploring consumers' perceptions and attitudes towards recycled
water will help researchers to formulate effective strategies to
mitigate the distaste commonly associated with alternative sources
of water (Po et al., 2003; Rozin et al., 2015).
Water pricing structures need to be kept simple and disclose
associated economies of scale to the public. Water agencies needs
to work in conjunction with government officials to achieve a fair
pricing model in order to generate significant public interest in the
usage of alternative water sources. Various stakeholders such as
government officials, industry personnel, financial intermediaries,
technology providers and community heads need to focus on
embracing fair management and open disclosure techniques to
educate and inform the public about water treatment centralisation
and decentralisation related service delivery mechanisms and the
associated quality of water. The effectiveness of using various
promotional aids such as broadcast and print media, social media,
public relations and sales promotion techniques needs to analysed
to stimulate public interest in, and change public attitudes towards,
the uptake and use of alternative water sources. The overall effectiveness and impact of Integrated Marketing Communications
S. Adapa et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 124 (2016) 14e20
(IMC) to enhance consumers' favourable attitudes towards the
uptake of alternative water sources needs to be analysed.
In order to explore the physical evidence element associated
with recycled water, comparative studies need to be undertaken
measuring the odour, colour, taste, flavour and aesthetics of natural
versus recycled water from the consumers' view point. Similarly,
the merit of introducing control groups and test groups and
exploring contributing factors (as well as barriers) to consumer
adoption of recycled and desalinated water can be investigated. The
role of cultural values associated with the usage of water and
alternative sources of water, with specific emphasis on the
ethnicity of the consumers, will help provide an overall understanding of the similarities and/or differences associated with the
uptake and use of alternative sources of water in consumer markets. Segmentation and targeting of consumers in terms of their
awareness of recycled and desalinated water will help marketers to
formulate effective strategies and product positioning hierarchies
for recycled and desalinated water.
6. Conclusion
This study presents the results of a systematic review of aspects
related to public perceptions of recycled and desalinated water.
Results indicate that consumer markets are underexplored in
existing research. Available literature pays little attention to consumer related dimensions such as public acceptance, consumer
satisfaction, demographic variables, contextual factors and
perceived barriers and benefits in the public's awareness and uptake of alternative sources of water. Investigating consumer markets and consumers' awareness, adoption and use of recycled and
desalinated water is much needed for the promotion of alternative
sources of water, environmental reasons and to creation of an
enhanced sense of community. Therefore, future studies need to
take into account the applicability of 7Ps marketing framework to
improve consumer understanding of alternative sources of water.
Similarly, market research studies need to overcome the aforementioned methodological constraints and focus on developing a
comprehensive theoretical framework by exploring the consumers'
perceptions and attitudes towards product, price, place, promotion,
people, process and physical evidence aspects of recycled water.
The systematic review undertaken provides the most relevant issues surrounding the usage of alternative sources of water within
the Australian consumer market; elicits the importance of public
acceptance, consumer satisfaction, demographic variables,
contextual factors apart from benefits and barriers to recycled
water; and proposes a research framework that needs to be
addressed by future research.
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