NATIONAL DEFENCE ACADEMY OF LATVIA
Uģis ROMANOVS
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUES IN TEACHING NATO OPERATIONAL
LEVEL PLANNING
Master’s thesis
Advisor:
Dr. Augustine Meaher
Director of Department of Political &
Strategic Studies
Tartu 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 3
Chapter I. Constructivism and main characteristics of the adult learning environment............... 8
1.1.
General ........................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.
Constructivism learning theory ...................................................................................... 8
1.3.
Implementation of Kolb’s Experiential Learning ........................................................ 12
1.4.
Learning environment .................................................................................................. 16
1.5.
Conclusions of Chapter I ............................................................................................. 20
Chapter II Student engagement techniques for teaching NATO Operational Level Planning
Process ........................................................................................................................................ 22
1.1. Student engagement techniques for introduction students with NATO Operational
Level Planning Process ........................................................................................................... 22
1.2. Student engagement techniques for teaching Operational Planning Process Phase 3 –
Operational Orientation .......................................................................................................... 27
1.2.1.
Development of the operational design ................................................................ 27
1.2.2. Analysis of the Strategic Framework, Operational Objectives and Operational
Environment ........................................................................................................................ 30
1.2.3.
Analysis of the Centre of Gravity (COG) ............................................................. 40
1.2.4.
Determination of the decisive points/conditions and effects ................................ 41
1.3.
Conclusions of Chapter II ............................................................................................ 44
Chatper III Assessment of the effectivenets of the selected teaching methods .......................... 48
1.1.
Action research ............................................................................................................ 48
1.2.
Action research outline ................................................................................................ 49
1.3.
Research findings and areas of further research .......................................................... 56
Thesis .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Terms and abbreviations ............................................................................................................. 65
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................. 67
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 68
Appendixes ................................................................................................................................. 74
Appendix A. Student’s Guide (extracts) .................................................................................... 75
Appendix B. Bloom’ s Taxonomy.............................................................................................. 80
1
ANNOTATION
The author of the research identifies the most helpful approaches and student engagement
techniques that educators at military educational institutions could use when teaching adult
learners the NATO operational planning process. The research is comprised of three parts. In
the first part author is analysing the main characteristics of the learning environment of
operational level military educational institutions and proposes teaching techniques and
instructional activities. The second part of the study offers an analysis of the key elements of
the COPD based NATO Operational Planning Process with the purpose to identify the main
learning topics, standards and the sequence of teaching. The third part of the study is a
practical application of teaching materials, thus testing methods and assessment techniques.
The outcome of the study advocated that the main key factors which should be appreciated
when building instructional design for international staff college learning audience include
cultural and cognitive diversities, differences in learning styles, role of the student in the
construction of the knowledge and aspect of motivation to learn.
The key words of the study are: operational planning process, adult learning and student
engagement techniques.
2
INTRODUCTION
“The sooner I can get rid of the questions that are outside the military scope, the happier I will
be! Sometimes I think I live ten years each week, of which at least nine are absorbed in
political and economic matters” [1, p. 95], those are the words of General Dwight D.
Eisenhower in his letter to General George Marshall, Chief of Staff of the US Army, regarding
the situation in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.
Unfortunately, this can never happen. No military leaders have ever gotten rid of the questions
outside the military scope, neither during the planning nor execution of operations. Military
planners at all levels have to appreciate the complexity of the contemporary operational
environment, which is rapidly changing due to the significant number of variables (military,
religious, ethnic, economic, information, etc.); populated with a significant amount of non-state
actors; and influenced by rapid development and spread of information technologies.
The contemporary operational environment requires a comprehensive approach1 to problem
solving and it sets high demands for planners and decision-makers. In order to operate
effectively, military decision makers need abilities, which are related to the category of
productive cognitive and interactive skills associated with critical thinking, creativity, problemsolving and interpersonal communications. This means that officers must be taught not what to
think but how to think. William S. Lind, the author of the Manoeuvre Warfare Handbook has
come to the similar conclusion discussing requirements for the education and training of the
Marine Corps: “True education removes the need for checklists and “school solutions,”
enabling commanders to approach each problem equipped with a large array of possible
solutions, placing the problem in a larger context and evolving innovative answers”. [2, p. 57].
He argues that in order to provide professional development opportunities professional military
education needs a high quality effective learning environment; desired educational outcomes
can only be achieved through using teaching methods and instructional activities which are
promoting students to think critically [2, p. 59]. C. M. Reigeluth’s confirms Lind’s arguments,
“In order to develop good, effective skills in students, it is necessary to teach them good,
effective methods”. [3, p. 347]. The selected methods have to “develop the analytical and
decision making skills, the internalisation of learning, learning how to grapple with messy reallife problem, the development the skills in oral communications and often team work. It is a
rehearsal for life”. [4, p. 30].
1
“Whilst there is no commonly accepted definition for ‘Comprehensive Approach’, there is broad agreement that
it implies pursuing an approach aimed at integrating the political, security, development, rule of law, human rights
and humanitarian dimensions of international missions.” [88]
3
Both authors are refering to the design of the learning environment for adult learners.
Educators have to appreciate six main principles of androgogy: “(1) the learner’s need to know,
(2) self-concept of the learner, (3) prior experience of the learner, (4) readiness to learn, (5)
orientation to learning, and (6) motivation to learn” [5, p. 13] and have to be prepared to create
learning situations supporting thos principles and incorporate other factors, like the language
and cultural diversities. Unfortunately in the military and particularly in international military
educational institutions instructors often approach teaching by relying on intuition and their
own life experiences, rather than a professionally justified curriculum, teaching and assessment
methods. Even professional educators may unknowingly fall into the trap of trying to coach
others, relying too heavily on their own preferred learning styles rather than adapting to the
style of those whom they are attempting to educate. [6, p. 5]
For example, Baltic Defence College (BALTDEFCOL) is one of several international military
educational institutions whose mission is to educate operational and strategic level planners
and decision-makers. The core activity of BALTDEFCOL is teaching the Joint Command and
General Staff Course (JCGSC). The average course is composed of Majors and Lieutenant
Colonels from around 15 different countries2. These officers represent all services. – Army,
Navy, Air Forces and Special Operations The “aim of the JCGSC is to prepare selected officers
for command and general staff appointments within a combined joint headquarters and to be
aware of future trends and their potential effect on operations” [7, p. 8].
One of the learning subjects at BALTDEFCOL, which is used as a tool to promote productive
cognitive and critical thinking skills, is Operational Level Planning Process (OLPP).
BALTDEFCOL has adapted the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Comprehensive
Operations Planning Directive (COPD) as a conceptual framework in teaching the OLPP The
teaching subject is considered as one of the most demanding and overarching topics taught at
BALTDEFCOL. Officers of the Joint Command and General Staff Course (JCGSC) 2011/12
of Baltic Defence College in their fedback regarding the effectiveness and quality of the
teaching methods employed for teaching OLPP suggested following improvements:
1. Operational Level Planning Process is a new topic for most of the audience, therefore
more time and effort should be devoted to the introduction of the overall planning
process;
2
According to the information provided by the Baltic defence College in time period from 2009 to 2014 the JCGS
has attended 247 students from 25 different countries Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, BiH, Canada, Czech
Republic, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Germany, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova,
Montenegro, Norway, Poland, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden, Ukraine, USA
4
2. Instead of lecturing, teaching the key elements of the operational planning process
requires a more individual approach and discussions;
3. Teaching points must be supported by examples;
4. Communication regarding the purpose of the syndicate and individual tasks must
improve in quality;
5. Provide a simplified schematic to allow see and understand overall OLPP;
6. Diverse understanding of the subject by different staff members created confusion;
7. Increase the involvement of the students in the teaching process;
8. The COPD provides very broad overview of the planning process; therefore it would be
recommended to develop an additional methodology, which would allow understanding
OLPP better;
9. Inadequate time for assigned tasks.
From the students’ point of view the effectiveness of the teaching methodology with a
simplified approach to the teaching, composed mainly of lectures, syndicate work and few
individual studies, was not very effective for achieving the learning objectives.
Students’ feedback indicates that the principles of adult learning were not incorporated
sufficiently into the teaching of OLPP. To achieve successful results with the learning
audiences composed of adults the instructors must appreciate the fundamental requirements of
andragogy – “to facilitate people to become autonomous and independent”. [8, p. 92].
According to Bríd Connolly, author of numerous publications on adult learning, “it is vital to
recognise that facilitation is not as absence of direction and expertise or a chaotic melee,
leaving people to their own devices. Rather it is a highly organised, critically reflective, skillbased process that depends on the approach and expertise of the facilitators, and underpinning
principles of respect, tolerance, trust and transparency”. [7, p. 92] When it comes to military
educational institutions, besides particular military knowledge, professional development
should be associated with teaching theories and practical applications.
The research subject is student engagement techniques. The study will answer the following
question: What are teaching methods and instructional activities are effective in teaching of
NATO Operational Level Planning Process in a multinational operational level educational
institution?
The first part will analyse the main characteristics of the international adult learning
environment. The outcome of this research will allow the selecting of appropriate student
engagement techniques and instructional activities. The second part of the study will identify
and examine the key elements of COPD based NATO Operational Planning Process. The
5
analysis of the literature, sources and documentation will allow for the identification of main
learning topics of the module, standards and the sequence of teaching. The methods of the
research applied for this part of the study is descriptive – analytical method. By merging
conclusions from the first two parts of the study it should facilitate developing teaching
syllabus used in the practical part of the study.
The practical part will include the application of teaching materials, methods and assessment
techniques developed earlier in the study. The results of the practical part are assessed using
quantitative research methods. The conclusions are presented in the final part of the study thus
providing the answer to the research question: What teaching methods and instructional
activities are most effective in teaching of NATO Operational Level Planning Process in
multinational operational level educational institutions?
Baltic Defence College Joint Command and General Staff Course 2012/13 will be used as a
case for the research. As mentioned earlier in this chapter the college uses the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) Comprehensive Operations Planning Directive (COPD) as a
conceptual framework in teaching the OLPP. It is important to note that the sequence of the
main planning events and products in COPD are adapted from different concepts of the
military theory, and is based on the similar national publications, mainly UK Ministry of
Defence (MOD) Joint Doctrine Publication 5-00 (JDP 5-00) and US Joint Publication (JP) 5-0,
Joint Operation Planning. Additionally, the main characteristics of the adult learners3 are
universal. Therefore conclusions of this paper can be generalised and used by other military
national and international educational institutions in teaching OLPP.
Several factors and conditions limit the scope of the research:
1. NATO planning documents are constantly being amended. The Allied Command
Operations Comprehensive Operations Planning Directive (COPD) V1.0 (Dec 2010) is
the key document for this study
2. There is a substantial number of overlapping teaching and learning theories which are
constantly evolving. In order to create more focused context for the study, the author
will apply two of the most influential adult learning concepts of constructivism: Kolb’s
Experiential Learning and Knowles’s Module of Adult Learning Environment.
Constructivism is among the most influential learning theories and is considered as
3
According to Knowles “there are at least four viable definitions of adults”: biological, legal, social, and the
definition used in this study – psychological definition. It states that we become adults when we arrive at a selfconcept of being responsible for our own lives, of being self-directing definition. The study utilises the
psychological definition of adults as it is considered as the most appropriate in regard to the learning. [5, p. 62]
6
“one of the most significant areas for current research and practice in adult education”
[9, p. 1]
3. The study utilises the theory of Andragogy. According to the contemporary theories the
Andragogy includes intentional and non-intentional learning situations. [5, p. 343]. This
study will be limited to the intentional learning part of andragogy.
4. Due to the word limits the study will analyse only key concepts of Phase 3 of the
COPD based Operational level planning process.
7
CHAPTER I.
CONSTRUCTIVISM AND MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE ADULT LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
1.1. General
The purpose of this chapter is to identify factors which should be considered when designing
teaching methods for teaching OLPP. There are a substantial number of overlapping teaching
and learning theories and concepts which are constantly evolving. The major learning theories
are behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism. Constructivism is among the most influential
theories of learning and is “one of the most significant areas for current research and practice in
adult education” [9, p. 11]. Therefore, in order to create more focused context for the study, the
author will apply two of the most influential adult learning concepts of constructivism: Kolb’s
Experiential Learning and Knowles’s Module of Adult Learning Environment. Additionally, in
order to limit the scope of the research, the analysis will include only the dominant
characteristics of the learning environment at Baltic Defence College: differences in cognitive
experience, the language and cultural diversities and the differences in level of motivation of
the training audience.
1.2. Constructivism learning theory
The main difference between learning theories is in distinct view how knowledge, skills and
attitudes are acquired. “Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill. One is in
providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of
learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical
problems”. [10, p. 277]. The major learning theories are behaviorism, cognitivism and
constructivism.
Behaviorism is a broad set of theories based on the idea that “behavior is shaped by the
consequences that follow the behavior”. Behaviorism theories are ignoring cognitive and
psychological factors of the learning. Learners are regarded as “passive responders” to the
environment. [11, p. 20]. The cognitivism learning theory considers learner as an information
processor and learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata [12]. The constructivism
“idea rests on the notion of continuous building and amending of previous structures, or
schemata, as new experience, actions and knowledge are assimilated and accommodated”. [13,
p. 10]. The theory promotes the idea that the learning process accrues though the reflection on
the learner’s own experiences and the teaching must be designed of appropriate educational
strategies encouraging and promoting engagement of the students into “knowledge
interpretation processes” [14, p. 29]. In constructivism according to Kirschner, Sweller, and
8
Clark “learners, rather than being presented with essential information, must discover or
construct essential information for themselves”. [15, p. 1]. This factor sets a number of
challenging requirements for teachers. Firstly, educators must transition from the role of the
lecturer to guide, mentor, coach, tutor and facilitator [16, p. 12] who are able to give up their
own preferred learning styles and adopt to the style of those who they are attempting to coach
[17, p. 5]. Military education institutions should take seriously preparation of directing staff
members take these roles thus enabling a learning environment where lecturing becomes one
of, but not the dominating teaching method. Secondly, educators have to be prepared to
facilitate integration of the core characteristics and factors of the adult and experiential learning
(according to Kemp, characteristics of the experiential learning closely match adult learning
principles [18, p. 221]) as described later in this chapter. Thirdly, teachers must know the
training audience. “The trainee characterisation provides a starting point for training delivery”.
[19] Understanding the training audience will allow the selection of teaching strategies
encouraging students to reflect upon their experiences thus setting preconditions for
constructing new knowledge. But teaching strategies and methods usually are standardised
and/or built before the students arrive at the education institution. This situation leaves the
preparation of the training audience as the primary tool to set proper learning environment.
Another aspect characterising constructivism is a view that the construction of new knowledge
can occur only under circumstances where learners see the purpose of the learning and are
involved in the development of the learning goals. This aspect were emphasised at PhD Kevin
Basmadjian’s speech at the Excellence and Education Seminar at Quinnipiac University. He
stated that “constructivism sees the learning as a process of sense-making (as opposed to
acquisition of knowledge from somewhere outside the learner). Learners are co-constructors of
knowledge”. [20, p. 11]. Therefore the effective engagement of the learners and establishment
of the learning environment for the ‘sense making’ can occur only if the learning challenges
are relevant to the learners’ capabilities and correspond to their interests. In other words: the
teaching design has to appreciate students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. According to
Raymond J. Wlodkowski, the author of “A Comprehensive Guide for Teaching Adults;
Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn”, the learning environment must establish four essential
motivational conditions: establishing inclusion or creation of positive social climate,
developing attitude, enhancing meaning and engendering competence. [20, p. 114]. Although
further analysis of the motivational theories is beyond the scope of this research, factors of the
motivational framework will be utilised in the development and selection of the teaching
strategies and methods.
9
In constructivist learning environment the learning process is equally important as the
outcome. “The problem drives the learning. Students learn domain content in order to solve the
problem, rather than solving the problem as an application of learning” [3, p. 218]. This
characteristic of the constructivism learning theory emphasises important factor, which should
be incorporated into the teaching. The problem context for learning must be realistic and within
the scope of tasks the learner considers relevant for his future benefits. One of the most popular
problem contexts for military education institutions is a case study. The designing of the
problem context is a very complex and time demanding activity. When developed, the problem
context (the case study) should accumulate learning audiences’ interest and create real world
environment. It can be achieved by manipulation with the format which is used to present the
problem context and by highlighting possible correlation of the setting factors with learning
audiences’ daily responsibilities. “When one becomes aware of a disequilibration (experience
cognitive conflict, according to Piaget) between one’s existing explanatory schemes and one’s
new experiences, one is moved to restore equilibrium by reconstructing the explanatory
schemes; that is, one adapts one’s explanatory schemes to fit experience”. [21, p. 23]. It means
that a case has to present a learning environment that allows the acquisition of new and
adequate experience. It has to “provide an authentic context which reflects the way knowledge
is used in real life; invite innovation and exploration by allowing for the complexity of the real
world” [22, p. 3]. A general perception of the case study context is that it must be a real world
historical event. But the true purpose of the case is to replicate socio-historic context which is
relevant to the learners, engages and challenges them. It means that fictitious scenario if
developed and presented properly can serve the purpose as good as real world case. There are
however factors limiting the effectiveness of historical case studies in military educational
institutions:
a. Due operational security reasons most of the NATO planning documents and lessons
identified from the most recent operations are still classified. For example, the strategic
planning directive or operational plan for Operation Unified Protector can be accessed only
on NATP secure network. This factor limits students’ access to the required information,
and sets high standards for the infrastructure.
b. National interpretation of the causes of the event and outcomes will differ. This can create
unfavourable learning environment if the participants cannot agree on basic elements of the
problem. For example, interpretations of the main causes of the recent Yugoslav Wars
differ significantly depending on the party presenting facts.
10
c. Uncontrolled data. For example, the Internet offers more than 2 500 000 search results
related with the Operation Iraqi Freedom. There is very high probability that every new
discussion would involve new and in many cases unjustified facts. This creates a very
fragile learning environment, where the instructor does not always have control over the
discussion and consequently – the learning process.
d. Case preparation for teaching the NATO comprehensive operational level planning process
requires significant analysis of the parties and actors directly or indirectly involved into
conflict. Therefore the effort placed in preparation of the case background materials will
overwhelm the learning value.
The weakness of the use of artificial scenario for case teaching is the absence of a historic
solution of the case. At the same time, the solution of the problem from previous courses
course can be a very good substitute. The decisions can also be manipulated by the instructors
to shape the discussion. Another approach could be the integration of real life events and facts
into the artificial framework, for example, credit potential opposing forces with attributes,
interests and capabilities of Libya or Somalia. If students recognize the elements of
contemporary conflicts in the scenario, it promotes interest to solve the problem consequently
creating preconditions for constructing new knowledge and skills. According to Dr. Eric
Sibul4,
One the disadvantages of fictitious peoples, countries, continents for scenarios – is
that the students waste a lot of time learning of information to support the
exercise. Information of no value otherwise. Even if you use a hypothetical
situation you can still use real human and physical geography thus and you
accomplish secondary learning goal of operating environment familiarization
which can be very useful in general staff education.
It can be summarised that the teaching model which is based on constructivism learning
theory should be designed so that it engages learners’ “cognitive and affective domains”
[23, p. 264] thus promoting them to construct essential information or “make sense” of
new experiences for themselves. The educators have to be able to give up their “own
preferred learning styles” [24, p. 5] and methods and adapt to the learners’
requirements. One of the most influential and effective instruments to “aid scientific
understanding and progress, as well as theory development and research” [25, p. 29] is
Kolb’s Experiential Learning theory. It is described in the following chapter and used as
the main vehicle to build the teaching design for the operational planning module.
4
Dr. Eric Sibul is a professor at the Baltic Defence College in Tartu, Estonia
11
1.3. Implementation of Kolb’s Experiential Learning
The first and the dominating factor of the learning environment at the Baltic Defence College
and other military education institutions is that the training audience is composed of adult
learners. Therefore, the teaching approach must follow the main principles of andragogy –
“humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous learners and teachers as facilitators of
learning” to ensure the best results. [26, p. 336].
“Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle provides one of the most useful (or rather highly influential)
descriptive modules of adult learning process” [27, p. 12]. The theory lies in the constructivism
learning paradigm and is based on the thesis that new skills, knowledge and attitudes for adults
are acquired through concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization,
and active experimentation rather than passive learning. The learning environment has to create
opportunities for the training audience to adapt smoothly through elements of the cycle,
ensuring “conscious and deliberate learning from the experiences” [24, p. 7]. This kind of
learning environment can be created only through selection of proper instructional activities
and teaching methods.
Figure 1. The Experiential Leaning Cycle and Basic Learning Styles (Kolb, 1984). [28, p. 39]
Typically the learning cycle starts with the concrete experience or gathering the facts. The most
typical methods and activities include lectures, simulations, other in class activities to recall
someone’s experience. For example, one of the learning topics of the operational planning
process is the Knowledge Development and Comprehensive Preparation of the Operational
Environment (CPOE). It is a new concept introduced in NATO with the purpose to enable the
assessment of a wider spectrum of factors of the operational environment. If the teaching is to
be initiated at this stage, it could be done by introducing audience with the examples
12
illustrating problems NATO has faced during contemporary operations due week
understanding of the operational environment. This should recall audiences’ experiences and
set preconditions for the next stage – observations and reflection.
The second stage is reflective observation which is a bridge between concrete experience and
abstract conceptualization. The reflective observation is the stage of the learning process where
student reflects on what he has noticed during the experience stage of the learning. In this stage
students evaluate the facts. The traditional methods applied for the reflection are group
discussions, brainstorming or answering to the questions. Using the same example of the
NATO concept of the Knowledge Development – the next step would include class
discussions, brainstorming and sharing experiences about the particular subject.
Abstract conceptualization is a process where conclusions identified during the reflection stage
are developed into a hypothesis, put into context, linked with other experiences, and related to
the earlier acquired theories. During this phase instructors should provide additional facts and
theory, supporting achievement of the learning standards. The most common methods to
facilitate conceptualization are modelling situation and development of projects. In regard to
the Knowledge Development it the introduction of the audience with its theory, background,
structure and procedures and Comprehensive Preparation of Operational Environment (CPOE).
This phase would include distribution of the assignment and the training audience’s orientation
and preparation for the task.
The final stage of the learning cycle is active experimentation, where the projects, concepts and
hypothesis are tested. During this stage with the case of Knowledge Development students
would conduct Comprehensive Preparation of the Operational Environment by applying earlier
acquired theoretical knowledge. After accomplishment of the task students would arrive back
into the first stage of the cycle with new, concrete experience.
13
Figure 2. Teaching CPOE though Kolb’s Experiential Leaning Cycle
The operational planning process is composed of a number of interdependent activities. Every
step and supporting concept of the planning process should be taught as a separate subject but
within the context of the overall planning process with links identified and explained. If Kolb’s
Learning Module is applied to the teaching of the operational planning process, instructors
have to create learning opportunities so that the content of every learning objective or in some
cases supporting objectives should be run through all for stages (small cycles); and the whole
learning period of the operational planning process has to include all four stages as well (large
cycle).
Another very important aspect when teaching adults is appreciation of the different learning
styles represented in the audience. “Research has shown that there are many individual
differences among learners that interact with the core adult learning principles to shape adults’
learning behaviours”. [26, p. 424].
There are different typologies for categorising learners’ individual differences. Elizabeth
Turesky and Dennis Galagher in their research regarding application of Kolb’s learning theory
in teaching adults’ leadership skills learned that development of these skills is “highly
individual process. Nevertheless, these individual differences tend to fall into patterns
approximating Kolb’s four modes [24, p. 7]”. In 1971 David Kolb developed the learning style
inventory, including four main categories of learners: divergers, accommodators, assimilators
and convergers. Figure 2 is a graphical depiction of the learning styles in the context of Kolb’s
learning stages. According to Kolb, people with diverging learning style are better with the
generation of ideas, and prefer to work in groups. The dominating adaptive competences
14
belonging to diverging learning style is valuing skills. Assimilating learning style’s dominating
features are capability understanding wide range of information and putting into context. The
most appropriate teaching methods for this category of learners are readings, lectures,
exploring analytical models. The main adaptive competences are thinking skills. Converging
style’s main strengths are the ability to solve problems and make decisions. The preferable
learning situations are related with experimenting with new ideas, simulations and practical
applications. The main adaptive competences belong to the decision skills. The
accommodating learning style’s mainly relies on intuition and information provided by other
people than on logical analysis and facts. In the formal learning environment the main
preferences are related with accomplishment of assignments in team work and through testing
different approaches. The main adaptive competences are related with actions skills. [28]
Figure 3 summarises the main characteristics of abovementioned learning styles.
Figure 3. Learning styles chart (adapted from Kolb: learning styles inventory(2005)) [24, p. 11]
Multinationality of the training audience is another factor broadening the scope of the learning
styles. The main factors brought into the play by multinationality of the training audience are
cultural and linguistic diversities. These factors are discussed later in this Chapter.
Different learners require different learning situations. Exemplary teachers can offer classes of
very high quality using different teaching formats – lecture, discussion, active or cooperative
learning assignments. [29, p. 203]. Although the training audience at Baltic Defence College is
composed mainly of students belonging to the category of accommodating and converging
learning styles, the learning situations created during the teaching of the operational planning
15
process must cover all four steps of the learning cycle thus promoting learning for all students
and all learning preferences.
1.4. Learning environment
Besides learning styles of the training audience there is a significant number of different
external and internal factors influencing learning and teaching environment. Knowles, Holton
and Swanson have developed comprehensive Andragogy in Practice Module which depicts the
main characteristics of the adult learning environment.
Figure 4. Andragogy in practice model [26, p. 79]
The model represents three groups of factors or rings of the adult learning: goals and purpose
of the learning, individual and situation differences, and core adult learning principles. The
authors of the module emphasizes that three rings of module constantly interact therefore
learning transaction is multifaceted activity. [26, p. 78]
The external ring represents the goals and purposes for learning. Knowles depicts three
categories of goals – societal, individual and institutional. Learning environment at Baltic
Defence College represents two categories – individual goals of the students, and institutional
goals of student sending organization and the college. Individual growth is the dominating
factor in the development and implementation of the learning programs, although in some
cases institutional goals of sending organizations is affecting inner ring of the module,
16
particularly motivation to learn. It is possible because the selection of the students is
responsibility of particular organisations and therefore composition of the training audience is
based on institutional interests and goals, not interests of particular members of the training
audience. An additional BALTDEFCOL institutional interest is to increase the proficiency of
the Directing Staff members in operational planning process and development of institutional
experiences in teaching this subject thus setting preconditions for improvement. As a result the
college would like to involve the maximum amount of instructors at the expense of the quality
of delivery. Furthermore, teaching a topic does not automatically translate into improved
knowledge or proficiency.
The middle ring represents three categories of individual and situational differences, including:
subject matter differences, situational differences and individual learning differences. All three
categories have direct implications when developing teaching strategy for Operational Planning
Process.
The Operational Planning Process involves variety of different concepts. The scope of
complexity of different concepts varies. Some of them, like Centre of Gravity Analysis or
Operational Design are very complex and require significant involvement of the instructors in
teaching these subjects and are time consuming. Some concepts, like Actions’ Analysis
Assessment, are very basic and can be acquired in a self-directed manner. Engagement
techniques and teaching time allocated for every concept supporting Operational Planning
Process must be selected based on the complexity of the subject and training audiences’ prior
experiences. The literature does not offer any useful tool which could be applied for the
categorisation of the complexity of the teaching subject. The chart below depicts author’s
proposed criteria for defining the complexity of the subject.
17
Level 1
Low
Structure of the
concept
Language and
terminology
Knowledge
demands
Examples
Includes some
unfamiliar terminology
and vocabulary
Requires little personal
experience
Level 2
Medium
Connections among
different elements and
other concepts in
some cases are
implicit and subtle.
The organisational
structure consists of
several levels that may
be difficult to
identify/construct
Contains unfamiliar
terminology and
vocabulary
Demanding towards
personal experience
Action analysis,
assumptions
Risks and risk
assessment
Connections among
different elements and
other concepts are clear
and explicit. The
organisational structure
of the concept is simple
Level 3
High
Connections among
different elements and
other concepts are
implicit and subtle. The
organisational structure
consists of several
levels that are difficult
to identify/construct
Extensive amount of
new terms and specific
vocabulary (jargon)
Requires extensive
personal experience
Centre of gravity
concept, operational
design concept
Figure 5. Classification of the subject complexity
The next factor – situational differences, has very high implications for selection of the
learning strategies. By situational differences Knowles defines the socio-cultural context and
influences, like learning history, cultural, religious diversities, language proficiency level,
genders, etc. Most of these factors are represented at BALTDEFCOL and have to be
appreciated when selecting student engagement techniques. A particularly important factor
represented at the college is differing English Language proficiency levels among students
which has overarching implications on the teaching and learning. Learning at the college is
done mainly through the discussions and communication therefore language is the primary
vehicle through which learning accrues. Due to language and cultural differences some
students require more time to develop adequate conclusions. If such a chance is not offered it
creates a risk of losing learning opportunities and consequently – the motivation of the students
to participate. Therefore the role of the instructor is to create a learning environment where all
participants have equal learning opportunities. The instructor has to level of engagement for
every student. Properly selected teaching methods can create equal opportunities for every
class member and lessen the risks of ‘loosing’ students during the course.
The third element of the circle represents the factors related to individual learner differences.
There are numerous typologies of individual learning differences, and one of them (Kolb’s)
were discussed earlier in this chapter. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss and assess
how individual differences affecting the learning. But it has to be noted that the student body in
the college is composed from approximately 20 different nations, therefore based on previous
learning and work experiences, cultural and social values and even the differences in age of the
18
training audience the cognitive experience and prior knowledge of the training audience will
differ significantly. A group with these characteristics is unprepared for learning, if not
properly orientated. “Ensuring the progression of students from different educational
backgrounds is one of the biggest challenges”. [27, p. 11]. The main activities to mitigate the
risk of the failure have to include orientation of the learning audience; and careful composition
of the learning teams. The chart below shows author’s proposed classification of the training
audiences’ previous experience in relation with particular learning subject.
Level 1
Low
Most of the training audience
have limited or no experience
Level 2
Medium
The training audience
indirectly have been exposed
to the subject and are familiar
with some of the supporting
concepts
Level 3
High
The training audience have
been exposed to the subject
and are familiar with some of
the supporting concepts
Figure 6. Proposed classification of the training audiences’ previous experiences in relation with particular learning
subject
The inner circle of the module represents core adult learning principles. All six factors are
interrelated and set foundation and limits for the development of the teaching strategies. At the
same time motivation can be considered as the dominating factor of the learning environment.
“Adults become ready to learn something when they experience the need to know something”
[30, p. 14], which means – adults must be self-motivated to accept the offer to learn. In other
words: learning environment should create the “expectations that outcome will bring the
desired rewards and required performance is within the capability of the person” [31, p. 12]. In
military educational institutions in the most of the cases students are representing wide scope
of the interests and therefore differences in motivation. Therefore one of the challenges for the
teacher is to level the motivation of the diverse class. It only can be done through creating the
relevance of the subject the teacher is going to present with the future career of the student.
Therefore the teacher must be very well familiar with the learning audience in order to be able
to apply the most relevant teaching method. Effectiveness of the same student engagement
technique for teaching the same subject for different classes will vary. The second – to level
load and the scope of the responsibilities so that assigned tasks would not exceed capabilities
of the individual. As Wlodkowsky emphasises in his book Enhancing Adult Motivation to
Learn ‘if the learning tasks are well beyond their current skills or prior knowledge, people will
not be able to accomplish them, no matter how motivated they are’ [32, p. 28]. There are
different methods of teaching can be utilise to maintain positive learning environment, for
example, assignment of the individual projects, delegation the distribution of the
19
responsibilities to the learning audience or the selection of the appropriate content and format
of the feedback.
1.5. Conclusions of Chapter I
The teaching model which is based on constructivism learning theory must be designed so that
it appreciates and compensates different internal and external requirements and factors of the
training audience. Different learners require different learning situations therefore learning
situations created during the teaching of the operational planning process must cover all four
steps of the learning cycle – concrete experience, reflection, abstract conceptualisation and
active experimentation. At the same time, the teacher has to appreciate and compensate for
factors of the learning environment such as individual goals and presence of institutional
interests, learners’ previous experiences, socio-cultural context and influences.
One of the most effective tools to leverage situational differences is preparation of the training
audience. Besides that the preparation of the training audience can compensate for the presence
of the interests and goals of the sending organisations and differences in students’ experiences
related with the subject. There are different methods to prepare the training audience for the
learning. The most popular is provision of the preparatory material before classroom activities.
It can include reading material, individual computer assisted learning, individual projects.
Another method includes development of the student’s course guide with the purpose to
provide direction to the students and make the course expectations clear. This guide could
include description of learning objectives, teaching strategy, assessment principles, and
expectations from the students, etc.
The author has selected to use three complimentary tools for this purpose: development of the
students’ guide (Appendix A), assignment of the pre-readings and completion of the NATO
online course on the subject. Students guide will include following elements:
a. Overall purpose of the course, broad standards, teaching principles and focus areas.
b. Teaching concept, including description of the main teaching methods.
c. Assessment principles and timeline.
d. Pre-course activity checklist, including the purpose, estimated time required to
complete the activity and due date.
Factors of the learning environment discussed in the first chapter allow establishing framework
for identification of the most appropriate student engagement technique and incorporation of
institutional goals of the college in the teaching process. These factors include: complexity of
the subject and training audience’s previous experiences. Appreciation of these factors will
20
allow selection of the student engagement technique and to assess the estimated time
requirements.
Subject/concept
Complexity of
the subject
(1-3)
Recommended time
for
teaching/learning
(1-3)
Training
audiences’
prior
experiences
(1-3)
Level 1 – Low
Level 2 –
Medium
Level 3 - High
Level 1 – up to 8
academic hours
Level 2 – 8 to 16
academic hours
Level 3 – 16 and
more academic hours
Level 1 – Low
Level 2 –
Medium
Level 3 - High
Required
learning level
Learning
levels in
accordance
with Blooms
Taxonomy
Establishment of the
motivational conditions
Selected teaching activity
Figure 7. Factors for selection of the teaching activities
The table will be populated after identification of particular teaching subjects and concepts.
The selection of the teaching approaches has to follow dominating principles of constructivism
learning theory:
1. Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators; the
traditional teaching methods must be replaced with instructional activities supporting
different learning styles.
2. Although learning objectives are defined by the college, students must be involved in
the development of learning goals. One of the methods which can be utilised is
involvement of the training audience in the development of formative test questions.
This method allows staying within the framework defined by the institution, and at the
same time address topics the most relevant to the training audience.
3. The problem context for learning must be realistic and within the scope of tasks the
learner considers relevant for his future benefits. As discussed earlier, application of
different scenarios (artificial, historical or mix) could be one of the most effective
approaches to promote the interest of the training audience.
4. The tasks and problem context surrounding the task must be supported by intrinsic and
extrinsic motivators. Four conditions of the motivational framework will be used as a
criterion when developing instructional design for operational planning process.
21
CHAPTER II
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR
TEACHING NATO OPERATIONAL LEVEL PLANNING
PROCESS
NATO’s Operational Planning Process is part of the BALTDEFCOL curriculum for the Joint
Command and General Staff Course (JCGSC). In accordance with the JCGSC Course plan,
after completion of the Module M104 students should be able to:
1. Understand the procedures and responsibilities governing the preparation, approval,
assessment, implementation and review of NATO operations plans and;
2. Be able to apply NATO Operational Planning Process Phases 3 and 4a in accordance
with Comprehensive Operational Planning Directive.
In this chapter the NATO Operational Level Planning Process will be analysed to identify the
most appropriate teaching/learning methodology. By analysing NATO OPP teaching subjects
and standards will be identified, assessing the complexity of these subjects and learning
outcomes. Examples from NATO Operation Unified Protector are used thus emphasising the
meaning of different teaching subjects. This analysis will allow selection of appropriate
teaching methods. The first part of the chapter will address matters related with establishment
of the learning context by assessing concepts of the Comprehensive Approach (CA) and
NATO Crisis Management. Later in the chapter teaching methods for planning phases 3 will be
analysed and proposed. The findings of the chapter will allow establishing outline of the
instructional content, which will be covered in the conclusions of this chapter. Conclusions
from the Chapter II will form a core of the instructional design for teaching Operational
Planning Process at Baltic Defence College in JCGSC 2012/13. This study is limited to the
Phase 3 and covers only key concepts of the planning phase 3. Research findings will be
organised in accordance with conclusions of the previous chapter.
1.1. Student engagement techniques for introduction students with NATO
Operational Level Planning Process
According to Tracey in “Designing Training and Development Systems” the teaching process
must start with the provision of students with the context of the subject, main terms and
concepts. [32, p. 388]. Barbara Gross Davis describes this requirement as following: “To
understand the relationship among concepts rather than simply memorise dozens of desecrate
points, students need a framework – a basic theory, a theme, a typology or a controversial
issue”. [33, p. 6]. The COPD is based on NATO ambitions to enable the Comprehensive
Approach (CA) in planning of military operations at the strategic and operational level of
22
NATO command. Therefore before introducing COPD based Operational Level Planning the
training audience must be familiarised with the concept of the CA. Schnaubelt in his report
Operationalizing a Comprehensive Approach in Semi-Permissive Environments notes that
“Even in a high priority undertaking such as International Security Assistance Force in
Afghanistan, civilian political and economic development initiatives remain largely disjoint
from each other and disconnected from security efforts” [34, p. 36] thus advocating the
complexity of the subject. The second overarching concept Operational Planning falls into is
NATO Crisis Management Process. The training audience has not been introduced to these
concepts; familiarisation would take a lot of teaching time and effort away from the actual aim
of the module. There are three possible approaches to prepare the training audience: introduce
above mentioned concepts earlier in the course before the OPP module or assign individual
preparation before active class engagement or combination of both above mentioned.
Subject/concept
Complexity of
the subject
(1-3)
Recommended time
for teaching/learning
(1-3)
Training
audiences’
prior
experiences
(1-3)
Comprehensive
Approach Concept
3
2
1
2
NATO Crisis
Management
Process
3
2
1
2
Possible student engagement technique
1. During the introduction of the module students must be given rational
for learning about these concepts
Required
learning
level
Establishment
of the
motivational
conditions
Developing
attitude and
enhancing
meaning
2. Individual preparation before the active class engagement using selected
parts of NATO on-line course (https://jadl.act.nato.int/)
3. Students must be introduced to the task at least a month in advance thus
allowing them to plan their time based on their capabilities to acquire
new, complicated concepts
23
Establishment of
inclusion
4. Students will conduct online self-assessment in BALTDEFCOL ADL
site thus improving the learning by concentrating on essential elements
Engendering
and “provide learners with the opportunity to construct relevant insights
competence
and connections” [32, p. 385] (Engendering competence)
Figure 8. Teaching activities for subjects: Concepts of CA and NATO Crisis Management System
Analysis of the content of the subject allows identification of the learning standards which later
will be included in the compendium. On completion of this Enabling Objective any student
will be able to:
(a) Describe how NATO Operations Planning fits into the general NATO strategic concept and
guiding principles;
(b) Describe the purpose of the operations planning and the different planning categories and
products;
(c) Describe the division of operations planning responsibilities among the different NATO
levels;
(d) Recognise the six phases of the NATO Crisis management process;
(e) Explain the main components of NATO force generation process.
After familiarisation with the context of the NATO OPP; training audience can be introduced
with the “procedures and responsibilities governing the preparation, approval, assessment,
implementation and review of NATO operations’ plans” [35, p. 54] or the content of the
Learning Objective 1. As illustrated in the Figure 8, the NATO planning process is very
complex and contains significant amount of new terminology. The schematic below shows the
main products and processes of NATO strategic and operational level six-phase planning
process. The vertical lines depict six phases of the planning. The main products developed
during the phases are placed horizontally corresponding respective phase, where the product is
produced or received. The picture creates perception of linear and easy to perceive process,
which is not a true. The planning process is not linear and involves significant amount of
concurrent activities; the boundaries between planning phases are very broad. At this stage of
teaching it becomes critical to standardise understanding of the main planning activities and
key terminology as it establishes foundation for the learning “to apply NATO Operational
Planning Process Phase III and IVa" [35, p. 54]. It can be achieved only though active class
engagement activities. As the planning process products are the outcomes of collective effort it
would recommended starting to engage students into collaborative activities. The second
argument for this student engagement method is described in Barbara Davis’ Tools for
Teaching emphasises. She states that “students working in small groups tend to learn more of
24
what is taught and retain it longer that when the same concept is presented in other
instructional formats.” [33, p. 147].
Figure 9. NATO planning process and products [36, p. 54]
To process to the next teaching stage, students must be able to:
(a) Describe the purpose and desired outcome of each phase of the operational level planning
process as described in the COPD;
(b) Use Operational Level Planning key terminology;
(c) Understand Staff organisation for operational planning;
(d) Explain principles and procedures of the Operational Assessment.
25
Subject/concept
Complexity of
the subject
(1-3)
Recommended time
for teaching/learning
(1-3)
Training
audiences’
prior
experiences
(1-3)
Required
learning
level
NATO operational
planning process
3
3
1
2
Possible student engagement technique
1.
Individual preparation before the active class engagement using
selected parts of NATO on-line course (https://jadl.act.nato.int/)
2.
Establishment of the
motivational
conditions
Students must be introduced to the task at least a month in
Establishment of
inclusion
advance thus allowing them to plan their time based on their
capabilities to acquire new, complicated concepts
3.
Lecture with the purpose to recapture the main topics related with
CA, NATO CMS and NATO OPP with the reference to the
formative test results
4.
Engendering
competence
For the group task author has selected modified student
engagement technique “Directed Paraphrase”. The group task
would be the development of the simplified NATO operational
Establishment of
planning schematic. According to Elizabeth Barkley this activity
inclusion, developing
“helps students to take an idea or concept and make it their own
attitude and
by integrating it into their own words and understandings” [37, p.
engendering
285]. The product will be presented to peers for the assessment as
competence
“peer-assessment gives the student first-hand, active involvement
with the criteria for good learning” [38, p. 233].
Figure 10. Teaching activities for subject: NATO Operational Planning Process
26
1.2. Student engagement techniques for teaching Operational Planning
Process Phase 3 – Operational Orientation
The purpose of Phase 3 – Operational Orientation “
is to determine the operational problem that must be solved, the
specific operational conditions that must be created, the key
operational factors that will influence the achievement of those
conditions, and any limitations on the Commander’s freedom of
action for the development of the overall operational design.”
[36, pp. 4-30].
In other words, during planning phase 3 planners have to take an unstructured problem and
give it enough structure so that further planning can lead to useful action. [39, p. 13]. The main
concept to organise the planning process during phase 2 is the concept of operational design.
Therefore, the teaching approach and sequence, subjects and standards should correspond with
the operational design development process and its content. Following subchapter will analyse
the main concepts and processes of operational design with the purpose to identify the
complexity of the subject, possible learning standards and the most appropriate student
engagement techniques.
1.2.1. Development of the operational design
Operational design is a graphic and conceptual module, of how actions and effects will be
sequenced within JOA to achieve operational objectives. [40, pp. II-8/17]. Developed
operational design provides a powerful conceptual tool which is able to visualise the campaign.
It is critical for:
a. “Communicating the JFC’s vision of the campaigning and his initial intent;
b. Providing the common basis for the development of courses of actions;
c. Synchronization and coordination of the campaign over time;
d. Assessing progress of the campaign;
e. Adapting and adjusting plans to deal with foreseen and foreseen events;
f. Develop initial ideas for transition and termination of the campaign.” [41, pp. 3-18]
Operational design incorporates the essence of all earlier discussed planning products and gives
answers to the following questions:
1. What is the desired status of environment?
2. What are the operational problems we are going to address?
3. What problems must be resolved and in what order to achieve the desired changes?
27
To answer these questions planners have to be able to apply number of other concepts, the
most important including: Analysis of the operational and strategic environment, determination
and analysis of the operational objectives, Concepts of the Centre of Gravity, Decisive
conditions/points and Effects, Lines of operation, Sequencing, Phases and Contingency plans
(branches and sequels).
As mentioned earlier, operational design is a tool to visualise the commander’s operational
idea. There are two main approaches. The most common is a linear operational design.
Planners in NATO HQs employ a linear approach to visualise operational design by using lines
of operation as a tool establishing the relationships between decisive conditions, operational
objectives, Centres of Gravity and the NATO desired end-state.
Figure 11. Linear Operational Design schematic with lines of operation5
The British doctrine offers another approach called “groupings of operations”. Due the fact that
the purpose of the operational design is not to state when decisive condition should be
achieved, rather than emphasise interrelations with other components of the operational design,
it is considered that groupings of the operations are more suitable to visualise operational idea
for complex operations and campaigns. [42, pp. 2-18] Grouping of operation can be used in
combination with linear operational design. Planners have to be prepared to decide on the most
appropriate approach to the visualisation of operational design.
5
Schematic adapted from Canadian Forces College Guide to CF Operational Planning Process. [40, pp. II-14/17]
28
Figure 12. Operational design schematic with the Groupings of Operations6
As mentioned earlier, the contemporary operational environment is very dynamic. Operational
design is developed based on a provisional understanding of reality. As a campaign progresses,
the content of the operational design will have to be adapted to the new levels of
understanding. [43, p. 4]. It requires constant revision of the conclusions of the previous
conclusions and sharing of the new perceptions with the ones who are involved in the
execution and planning of the operation. There is a certain sequence of the activities when
developing operational design. The main steps and its relations with Course of Action
development are depicted in the schematic below.
Figure 13. Operational Design Development Sequence and Relations with COA development
6
7
Schematic is combination of two sources: Canadian Forces College Guide to CF Operational Planning Process
[40, pp. II-14/17] and UK Campaign Planning [42].
7
Operational design is not developed in a linear fashion. JFC planners will have to return to the previously
defined products to revise them in accordance with new interpretations of the systems.
29
According to Schmitt, operational design is developed through “intelligent dialogue about
different interpretations of the problem, and to exercise collective intelligence about how to
solve it”. [44, p. 19]. Therefore one of the critical elements for constructive and intelligent
dialog is a common understanding of the components of the operational design and
terminology. This advocates that in order to accomplish the requirements of phase 3 of the
planning process, planners as minimum should be able to:
1. Analyse the Strategic Framework;
2. Determine and analyse Operational Objectives;
3. Analyse Operational Environment and actors;
4. Apply Centre of Gravity theory;
5. Apply the concept of the Decisive conditions and effects;
6. Develop Operational Design.
Phase three is very demanding from the learning and teaching perspective. As discussed
earlier, the differences of students’ intellectual ability will become more noticeable with
dynamic and abstract subjects. [29, p. 135]. To allow students to construct the knowledge to
the level 3 – apply, they should be brought through Kolb’s learning cycle multiple times and in
various forms. In order to assess level of complexity every subject of the planning phase will
be analysed separately.
1.2.2. Analysis of the Strategic Framework, Operational Objectives and Operational
Environment
The contemporary operational environment is composed of a vast amount of interrelated
political, social, economic and psychological elements. Understanding existing elements and
their relations facilitates a realisation of the scope of the operational problem and predict
outcomes regarding military actions. In accordance with John Schmitt: “if we understand a
problem well enough, a solution to the problem becomes self-evident” [44, p. 3]. Therefore an
understanding of the operational environment becomes the first step in building a functional
operational design.
Schmitt in his article A Systemic Concept for Operational Design states that “the information
needed to solve the problem depends on the idea of solving it”. [44, p. 10]. Therefore the
process of understanding of the operational environment can be done in three steps. The first
step is acquirement of the general understanding of the systems and actors of the operational
environment. In NATO terms, the first step corresponds to the “Knowledge Development and
Management Process” – the process of providing commanders with “comprehensive
understanding of complex environments, including the relationships and interactions between
30
systems and actors within the engagement space” [36, pp. 2-2]. The outcome of the Knowledge
Development and Management Process is overarching and broad situational awareness of
particular region. It is important to mention that understanding the operational environment
drives the development of various political, strategic and operational objectives. Dave Sloggett
in his book The RAF’s Air War in Libya: New conflicts in the era of Austerity illustrates that
the factors dictating context within which political decision were defined. “To understand the
events that shaped the uprisings in Libya it is important to revisit the tensions and issues that
existed prior the outbreak of the civil unrest. This must be done from number of viewpoints.
These include Libya, its neighbouring countries, and from the political and defence
standpoints, those nation states that would commit resources to the military campaign that
NATO would mobilise”. [45, p. 22]. The second step is the analysis of the Strategic
Framework and Operational Objectives or establishment of the solution frame. And the third
step is an analysis of earlier identified systems from the perspective of the potential solution to
the identified problem or Comprehensive Preparation of the Operational Environment – a
coordinated analytical process of developing an integrated understanding of the main
characteristics of the operational environment that might influence joint operations [46, p. 12].
Knowledge development
The teaching approach should treat the Knowledge Development Concept as a framing concept
of the Comprehensive Preparation of the Operational Environment. Therefore the learning
level of this subject can be limited to Level 2 (understand) in accordance with Bloom’s
Taxonomy (appendix B). Further analysis of the COPD allows determining learning standards
for subject Knowledge Development. On completion of the module students should be able to:
1. Describe how Knowledge Development contributes to situational awareness and situational
understanding;
2. Describe how Knowledge Development supports the Operations Planning Process;
3. Describe the relations between Intelligence and Knowledge Development;
4. Describe NATO approach to operational environment analysis (System of Systems
Analysis);
5. Describe the relations between Knowledge Development and CPOE.
Strategic framework
After acquisition of the required general information about the actors and domains of the
operational environment, the next step is appreciation of the strategic framework. The strategic
framework for the operational level is established by three main components: NATO desired
end-state, strategic objectives and military strategic objectives. NATO desired end state is a
31
“description of conditions for a favourable, self-regulating situation within the engagement
space that satisfies overall NATO strategic objectives” [36, pp. 3-32]. The Strategic end-state is
defined in North Atlantic Council’s Initiating Directive (NAC ID) and developed by the
Strategic Operations Planning Group (SOPG) in close cooperation with core JOPG. Joint Force
Command (JFC) contribution in the definition of the desired end state is critical because it
heavily depends upon JFC military capabilities and defines the scope of the military
contribution to the operation. According to Milan Vego “The military aspect of the desired
strategic end state includes conditions that range from the threat of using one’s military force to
complete physical destruction of the enemy’s means to fight” [47, pp. IX-84]. For example, in
accordance with NATO Foreign Ministers Statement description of NATO-led Operation
Unified Protector NATO’s desired end state was : “NATO operation in Libya will continue;
until all attacks on civilians have stopped; until all of Gaddafi's forces, including his snipers,
mercenaries and paramilitary forces have returned to bases; and until there is full, safe and
unhindered humanitarian access to all people in need of assistance”. [48]. The scope of military
aspects supporting the achievement of the desired end state included full scale of operations,
from deterrence to physical destruction of adversary military capabilities. In addition JFC
would be involved in enabling delivery of humanitarian aid.
The analysis provides direction for the revision of the results of Comprehensive Preparation of
the Operational Environment in Planning Phase 3 and identification of the key factors of the
operational environment. For example, with the end state defined above, a JFC commander and
his staff would conduct detailed analysis on opposing forces and its’ elements related with the
attacks against civilians, particularly all aspects related to the mercenaries. Further, planners
would have to analyse potential role of JFC related with the safe delivery of humanitarian
assistance (HA), for example, involved actors or infrastructure related with HA.
After identification of the military aspects of the desired end-state the next step is to understand
NATO’s Strategic Objectives. Strategic Objectives contain both - political and military
elements, therefore these objectives are achieved through application of different instruments
of power. Political Strategic Objectives define strategic purpose of all actions. Military
Strategic Objectives define military contribution in achievement of the political solution to the
conflict. Strategic Objectives are products of political – military estimate. Strategic Objectives
are laid down with the North Atlantic Council (NAC) Initiating Directive and describe the
goals that must be achieved to establish the desired end state. [41, pp. 2-29] Military Strategic
Objectives are developed by Strategic Operations Planning Group (SOPG) and are depicted in
SACEUR’s Strategic Assessment along with Desired Strategic Effects.
32
Analysis of the Strategic Objectives allows a better understanding the role of Joint Force
Command in resolving the problem and possible implications to the accomplishment of the
operational objectives. For example, NATO Political Strategic Objectives for Libya could be
defined as:
1. Establishing a cease-fire and a complete end to violence and all attacks against, and
abuses of, civilians;
2. Implementing international law, including international humanitarian law, human
rights and refugee law;
3. Protecting civilians and meet their basic needs;
4. Ensuring the rapid and unimpeded passage of humanitarian assistance. [49]
Based on definitions of the Political Objectives above, activities related with humanitarian
assistance and implementation of international humanitarian law could be considered the most
significant factor influencing military operations. For example, establishment of cease-fire is
the first precondition for return of humanitarian agencies ensuring humanitarian and related
assistance. Taking into account United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1973
imposed limitations on exclusion of “a foreign occupation forces of any form on any part of
Libyan territory” [49], NATO military forces would have only limited role in establishment of
the cease-fire. These deductions would allow JFC planners to focus further planning towards
key elements of the upcoming operation and identify initial coordination requirements.
According to Allied Joint Doctrine for Operational Level Planning “Military Strategic
Objectives define the role of military forces in the wider context of the Alliance’s overall
strategic objectives” [41, pp. 2-30]. A Military Strategic Objective for Libya could have been:
Protect civilians and civilian populated areas under attack or threat of attack. The criteria for
success associated with such a Military Strategic Objective could be described as following:
the Qadhafi regime’s forces do not pose any threat to civilians or humanitarian agencies in
Libya.
The analysis of the Military Strategic Objective could lead to following conclusions. Military
system supporting Qadhafi regime was composed of wide variety of military forces. According
to Alexander Nicoll, “these ground forces consist of a mix of loyal regular army and couple of
better trained elite brigades, wide array of a paramilitary and security forces, as well as African
mercenaries” [50, p. 2]. Most of the engagement would be conducted in populated areas.
Therefore one of the key considerations for this example would be related with the Rules of
Engagement (ROE). Most likely a ROE factor would be included in commander’s planning
guidance as one of the critical elements for successful conduct of operations. Moreover, it
33
could be concluded that significant degradation of Qadhafi’s military capabilities directly
contributed to the change of the regime in Libya. This undesired effect would have direct
implication on the achievement of other Strategic Objectives.
Analysis above allows determining the main standards for teaching analysis of the strategic
environment. The standards are corresponding to the categories: analysing and applying of
Bloom’s Taxonomy. “After completion of the course students must be able to:
1. Analyse NATO Desired End State and determine military aspects of the operation;
2. Analyse NATO Strategic and Military Strategic objectives to determine JFC role in
resolving the problem and possible implications to the accomplishment of the
operational objectives;
3. Analyse the strategic framework to identify “interdependencies with the non-military
features and conditions of the desired outcome” [28, pp. 2-28];
4. Use analysis of the strategic framework in relation with the key factor’s analysis.
Before teaching these topics the training audience should be introduced with following terms
and concepts: instruments of power, Rules of Engagement, key factors analysis.
Operational objectives
When facing dynamic problems in the contemporary operational environment, planners at all
levels have to agree on the problem solution [51] or operational objectives. NATO defines the
operational objective as a set of conditions that should be established in joint Operational Area
(JOA) upon completion of the operation. [41, p. 100]. UK Doctrine for Campaign Planning
offers more precise definition of an objective “a campaign objective is a goal, expressed in
terms of one or more decisive conditions, that needs to be achieved” [42, pp. 2-6]. The British
definition emphasises relations of the operational objectives with another element of the
operational design – decisive condition. Furthermore, operational objectives are the most
critical element of the mission statement used as a measure of the effectiveness of the military
forces. [52, p. 59]
There are different approaches in the development of the operational objectives, but none of
the doctrines emphasises enough the importance and complexity of this process. As more
difficult problems need to be solved, there is higher probability of disagreement between
planners of problem definition and the solution [51]. According to US military doctrine the
modern battlefield is mainly composed of “ill structured problems”. Greenwood and Hammes
in their article War planning for wicked problems: Where joint doctrine fails state that
34
few ill structured problems are military centric in nature. They are driven by
political corruption, disease, resource deprivation, overpopulation, urbanisation,
illiteracy, refugees, globalization, extremist ideology or some combination
thereof that create conflict and instability [51].
When developing possible solutions the planners will “disagree on how the problem can be
solved, the most desirable end state and whether it can be attained”. [39, p. 9]. The US Army
Commander’s Appreciation of and Camping Design argues that there is no definitive way to
formulate an ill structured problem [39, p. 9] thus justifying earlier statement on the complexity
of the teaching this subject. For example, Jeremiah Garter’s report Operation Odyssey Dawn
(Libya): Background and issues for Congress presents an excellent example of how the
complicated process of defining of operational objectives could become. He states, that “some
observers have warned that the use of force - whether by external parties, Libyan rebels, or
some combination of the two - to affect regime change in Tripoli may have unpredictable
consequences for the long term stability of the country and the region” [53, p. 1]. Factors like
this must be carefully broken down into system elements and analysed with the purpose to find
the most appropriate solution. Current operations are convincing illustrations of Clausewitz’s
idea that “war is merely the continuation of policy by other means” [54, p. 28] or in other
words “all the military instrument of power can do is to shape the political, military and
economic space to create favourable conditions in which a political solution can emerge” [45,
p. 109]. In many cases the operational level objectives will be shaped heavily not only by
strategic and political levels of commands but by other stakeholders directly or indirectly
related with the JOA.
In accordance with COPD operational level objectives are assigned to JFC by SACEUR, in US
doctrine operational level commander will define the proposed problem solution. Both
doctrines emphasises that the process is an outcome of the interaction between strategic and
operational level planners. It is done with the purpose to “confirm that view from below
conforms to their (strategic level) expectations and common understanding of the problem”.
[51]
Operation Unified Protector offers an excellent case for emphasizing the complexity and
importance of the matter. Open sources do not offer precise definition of the operational
objectives for this operation. After analysis of the press conferences, reports and other
literature related with the OUP, it can be assumed that operational objectives could be defined
as: attacks against civilian population are prevented and humanitarian assistance activities to
Libyan population supported.
35
Based on previous analysis it can be concluded that teaching how to approach development and
analysis of the operational objectives can be assessed as the topic of the highest complexity. It
has to be taught in with the reference to the concept of the comprehensive approach, and in the
context with analysis of the strategic framework and operational environment or using COPD
terminology Comprehensive Preparation of the Operational Environment (CPOE). Details on
teaching aspects of the CPOE are below. Besides that before the teaching the training audience
must be familiar with the theory of the decisive conditions and mission statement.
The main standards for teaching development and analysis of the operational objectives can be
described as following. Upon completion of the course students are able to
1. Understand the purpose and strategic and environmental context within the operational
objectives are determined and analysed;
2. Explain how operational objectives are related with other elements of operational
planning, particularly decisive conditions and mission statement;
3. Develop operational objectives for friendly and opposing forces.
Comprehensive Preparation of the Operational Environment
The purpose of the CPOE is to develop an integrated understanding of the main characteristics
of the operational environment that might influence joint operations. [36, pp. 4-19]. CPOE is
an analysis of the goals, strength, weaknesses and interdependencies of the main actors and
assessment of the factors of the operational environment through the political, military,
economic, social, infrastructure, information, and geospatial domains. The analysis is done
through the prism of the upcoming mission and aspects of the strategic framework. This factor
indicates a requirement to provide teaching of the strategic framework before addressing
CPOE. The information for CPOE is gathered and pre-analysed through the Knowledge
Development (KD) process during the Operational Planning Phase I and II. The CPOE is
conducted by Joint Operational Planning Team during the planning Phase II and III. During
Phase II JOPG initiates CPOE, but during phase III – revises CPOE products. At Baltic
Defence College only planning Phases 3 and 4a are exercised, therefore whole CPOE process
is compressed and conducted within Phase 3. Additionally, there is no defined methodology in
NATO for conducting of CPOE. Consequently, the teaching of the subject should include a
method on how to organise the Joint Operational Planning Group and manage information as
well. It means that before addressing the CPOE students must be familiar with the structure,
roles and tasks of the Joint Operational Planning Group.
COPD recommends using a “factor-deduction-conclusion” format to organise the analysis
process. This method recommends analysing factors of the operational environment in two
36
steps – firstly, by identifying risks and opportunities particular factor represents to the
accomplishment of the mission, the second – interpretation of the deductions into conclusions
in form of:
1. The commander’s planning guidance to his staff;
2. The commander’s Critical Information Requirements (CCIR);
3. Other information requirements;
4. Constraints, restraints, limitations and freedoms;
5. Potential decisive conditions and perhaps even initial thoughts on supporting effects, or
activities.
6. Risk identified for analysis and, where necessary, risk management.
7. Any assumptions on which the plan is based. [42, pp. 2-27].
The requirement to manage outputs of the analysis process sets constraints of familiarisation
the TA with the key terminology and basic concepts of the Operational Design before teaching
CPOE. At this stage of the teaching students have to achieve Learning Level 1 according to
Blooms Taxonomy on subjects depicted above.
Figure 14. CPOE process and the main related concepts and elements of the planning process
The above mentioned recommends that the teaching of the OPP in some cases will require
leaving traditional linear approach of introducing subject after subject as they flow in the
Operational Planning Process. This indicates a clear need to do extended and continuous
explanation of the teaching approach to maintain training audience’s attitude, inclusion and
facilitate enhancement of the meaning of new learning topics.
37
The analysis above allows determining the main standards for teaching Comprehensive
Preparation of the Operational Environment. After completion of the course the training
audience must be able to:
1. Understand the roles and responsibilities of JOPG for conducting CPOE;
2. Be able to apply one of the methods for organising and conducting CPOE;
3. Apply factor-deduction-conclusion method of factors analysis;
4. Analyse of geospatial factors;
5. Analyse Political, Military, Economic, Social, Information and Infrastructure factors;
6. Analyse actors;
7. Identify and conduct key factors analysis;
8. Develop tentative opposing forces Courses of Actions.
Above mentioned standards are corresponding to the categories: analysing and applying of
Bloom’s Taxonomy. Before teaching CPOE the training audience should be introduced with
the following terms and concepts: Knowledge Development, and tasks of the Joint Operational
Planning Group. Understanding the terminology and concepts of the operational planning
process, structure, roles within JOPG is essential therefore these subjects should be part of
CPOE teaching. Particular attention should be paid to the theory of operational objectives.
Subject/concept
Complexity of
the subject
(1-3)
Recommended time
for teaching/learning
(1-3)
Training
audiences’
prior
experiences
(1-3)
Analysis of the
Operational
Environment,
Strategic
Framework and
Operational
Objectives
3
3
1
Possible student engagement technique
1. During the introduction of the module students must be given
rational for learning about NATO Knowledge Development,
strategic framework and CPOE
Required
learning
level
2
Establishment of
the motivational
conditions
Developing attitude
and enhancing
meaning
2. Individual preparation before the active class engagement using
selected parts of NATO on-line course (https://jadl.act.nato.int/)
38
Establishment of
inclusion
3. Students must be introduced to the task at least a month in advance
thus allowing them to plan their time based on their capabilities to
acquire new, complicated concepts
4. Small group/individual work activity to gain Level 1 knowledge
about main terminology and concepts of the operational planning
process. According to Elizabeth Barkley one of the methods which
could be applied for teaching this particular subject is “jigsaw”
Establishment of
student engagement technique. “Students work in small groups to
inclusion and
develop knowledge about a given topic and to formulate effective
developing attitude
ways to teach others. This method is helpful in motivating students to
accept responsibility for learning something well enough to teach
others” [37, p. 289].
5. Lecture with the purpose to recapture the main topics related with the
analysis of the strategic framework and operational environment and
Enhancing the
operational objectives and promote reflection of earlier acquired
meaning,
knowledge. The lecture should include cases from recent operations
engendering
thus enhancing the meaning of the subject and create preconditions
competence
for active experimentation.
6. Assignment of the group task to analyse strategic framework and
Establishment of
particular domain of the operational environment with the purpose to inclusion, enhancing
facilitate active experimentation
the meaning
Establishment of
7. Assignment of the group task to determine operational objectives
inclusion, enhancing
the meaning
8. Sharing group products during presentations, including assessment of
the group work products and the process. This activity would close
Enhancing the
meaning
the first learning loop with acquisition of concrete experience.
9. Raymond Wlodkowski in his book Enhancing adult motivation to
learn: a comprehensive guide for teaching all adults recommends
that in adult learning theories "the learning from their own mistakes
Enhancing the
is a way to improve future learning [32, p. 199]. Therefore use of
meaning,
group work products later in the teaching process can facilitate
engendering
continues reflection, allows identification of links with other
competence
concepts, enable self-assessment and enables learning from the
mistakes.
Figure 15. Teaching activities for subject: analysis of the operational environment
39
1.2.3. Analysis of the Centre of Gravity (COG)
In accordance with the NATO definition the COG is characteristics, capabilities or localities
from which a nation, an alliance, a military force or other grouping derives its freedom of
action, physical strength or will to fight. [55, pp. 2-C-3]. The COG concept is one of the key
concepts around which operational design is built. The analysis of COG analysis allows the
commander to determine adversary’s and own strengths, requirements, and vulnerabilities.
These requirements and vulnerabilities then provide insights into where and what actions to
take to accomplish operational objectives [56]. According to Milan Vego “determining the
enemy’s centre of gravity is a vital element for establishing clarity of purpose, focusing effort,
and ultimately, generating synergistic effects in the employment of one’s forces” [47, p. 438].
Determination of COG is based on analysis of the factors’ of the operational environment and
identification of the operational objectives; therefore COG concept must be included into the
introduction activity before teaching these subjects.
Carl von Clausewitz (1789-1831) was the first to apply the concept of Centre of Gravity to the
study of war [57, p. 30]. Since then numerous ways have evolved on how the concept can be
utilised. Current military doctrine does not provide sufficient guidance on the process of
determination of COG. The COPD elaborates on the theory very little, and therefore the
College has to agree upon and use its own method of determining and using COG concept in
the operational planning. As the concept is very complicated and has “many levels of
sophistication” [57, p. 30] it should be introduced earlier in the course; so when it comes to the
teaching of the operational planning instructors would only have to elaborate on how COG
concept contributes to the operational planning process. As the COG concept is one of the most
complicated subjects the best approach to teaching could be teaching in small groups. COG
analysis is closely linked with concept of the decisive points/conditions, the learning subjects
discussed above, particularly determination of the operational objectives. Operational
objectives serve as the starting point for determination of COG.
Based on the analysis of the COG concept it is possible to define following learning standards:
1. Explain the purpose and principles of the COG analysis;
2. Explain the relations of COG with other concepts supporting development of the
operational design, particularly operational objectives and decisive points/conditions.
3. Apply the COG concept, including determination of friendly, opposing and neutral
operational level actors’ COGs, critical capabilities, critical requirements, and critical
vulnerabilities;
4. Apply the products of COG analysis to the development of the operational design.
40
Subject/concept
Complexity of
the subject
(1-3)
Recommended time
for teaching/learning
(1-3)
Training
audiences’
prior
experiences
(1-3)
Required
learning
level
Centre of Gravity
3
2
1
2
Possible student engagement technique
1. Introduction of the training audience with the concept of COG
before the OPP course.
Establishment of the
motivational
conditions
Establishment of
inclusion
2. Lecturing in small groups thus ensuring inclusion and appreciating
differences in learning capabilities of the Training Audience. As
the concept has a long history, the COG concept can be taught
Enhancing the
using different cases. This method can be very affective as the
meaning
main outcomes of case based learning in group are: elaboration of
known content and applying the theory in practice. [38, p. 140]
3. Small group/individual work activity to gain Level 2 knowledge
4. Assignment of the group task to determine the COG in given
scenario in order to facilitate active experimentation and
continuous reflection.
Establishment of
inclusion
Enhancing the
meaning, engendering
competence
Figure 16. Teaching activities for subject: analysis of the COG
1.2.4. Determination of the decisive points/conditions and effects
The history of the theory of the Decisive Point/Condition is directly related with the concept of
the Centre of Gravity and goes back to the beginning of the 19th century. Since then, the
concept has evolved and changed. According to Milan Vego decisive points are enemy’s
vulnerabilities that are opened to attack by own forces and are considered as keys to unlocking
enemy’s centre of gravity [47, p. 478]. US militaries adapted the concept of Decisive
Conditions in late 1980s “as way of indirectly attacking the enemy’s COG” [58, p. 120]. Jan
Rueschoff and John Dunne describe the decisive points as “springboard by which planners
effect the CVs necessary to achieve ones objectives” [58, p. 122]. In conventional operations
decisive points mainly considered being tangible element, for example geographic location. As
the operational designs of the modern operations contain system elements intangible in
character, the term decisive point in NATO has been replaced with the term decisive condition.
According to contemporary NATO operational planning theory the Decisive conditions are
“specific combination of circumstances necessary to achieve campaign objective” [42, pp. 241
13]. The UK doctrine provides the most explicit explanation of the term decisive condition.
Decisive conditions are:
a. Vital conditions to achieve operational objectives;
b. Achieved through implementation of desired effects;
c. Expressed as a verb in past tense;
d. Very often are achieved with the support from other actors;
e. Measurable [42, pp. 2-14,15].
Determination of the decisive points/conditions is a holistic process which is based on
appreciation of the desired end state, objectives, perception of the factors of the operational
environment, COGs and actors, individual experiences and intuition. The decisive
conditions/points are achieved through implementation of the desired effects. For example,
analysis of the operational objectives if the OUP allows determining possible decisive
condition “Maritime embargo established”. When achieved, this condition allows degradation
of capabilities of Gadhafi regular forces and enabling delivery of the HA by sea. Further
analysis allows determining number of the desired changes or Supporting Effects, which
should be established to achieve this Decisive Point/Condition. To highlight the importance of
the CPOE process, it is important to mention that most of the desired changes of the
environment are defined during the CPOE process. Here are some examples of desired effects
related with the OUP:
1. Cooperation mechanisms with International Maritime Organization established;
2. Surveillance and intelligence architecture developed and functioning;
3. Maritime situation in embargo area is monitored;
4. Cargo control mechanisms in sea ports and air ports established;
5. Legal arrangements, including ROE in place;
6. Sea Lines of communication protected;
7. Humanitarian Assistance ships have safe passage to the ports in Libya;
8. Naval assets deployed;
9. Vessels carrying arms, related materials and mercenaries denied.
Further analysis would discover that particular Supporting Effects enables achievement of
multiple Decisive Points/Conditions. Every desired effect will be achieved by actions of Joint
Force, through civil-military cooperation or actions by other actors. The conclusions from the
analysis allow drafting operational capability requirements. In order to assess the progress
during the execution of the operation Measures of Effectiveness (MOE) will be developed for
every effect.
42
Analysis above allows determining preconditions and standards for teaching subject “Decisive
Points/Conditions and Effects”. Before learning about decisive points/conditions and effects
students must be familiar with following topics:
1. The concept of the COG;
2. Capabilities of the components;
3. Operational level Troops-to-Tasks Analysis and Operational Capability Requirements;
4. Concept of the Operational Assessment.
The learning standards would include following. Upon completion of the course students
would be able to:
1. Explain the concept of the Decisive Conditions/Points and its relations with other
concepts of the Operational Design;
2. Through analysis of the operational objectives, mission and factors of the operational
environment to determine Decisive Points/Conditions and respective Supporting
Effects;
3. Develop Operational Design.
Subject/concept
Complexity of
the subject
(1-3)
Recommended time
for teaching/learning
(1-3)
Training
audiences’
prior
experiences
(1-3)
Required
learning
level
Decisive
Points/Conditions
and Effects
3
2
1
2
Possible student engagement technique
1. Introduction of the training audience with the concept of Decisive
Establishment of the
motivational
conditions
Establishment of
Points/Conditions and Effects. During the lecture the theory has to
inclusion and
be put in overall context of the operational design theory,
enhancing the
including explaining relations with the concept of COG.
2. Lecturing combined with small group work thus ensuring inclusion
and appreciating differences in learning capabilities of the Training
Audience.
3. Small group/individual work activity to gain Level 2 knowledge
and to facilitate active experimentation and continuous reflection.
meaning
Enhancing the
meaning
Establishment of
inclusion, engendering
competence
Figure 17. Teaching activities for subject: determination of Decisive Points/Conditions and Effects
43
1.3. Conclusions of Chapter II
The analysis presented in the chapter illustrates complexity of the teaching subject Operational
Planning Process. Three main contributing elements are:
1. Complexity of the planning process, requiring training audience to be familiar with the
overarching concepts and key terminology before active class engagement activities.
2. Multilayer characteristic of the concepts supporting operational planning process. For
example, concept of the decisive points/conditions is built upon and roots into
numerous other concepts, like Centre of Gravity, analysis of operational and strategic
environment, operational objectives, lines of operation etc.
3. Multi-nationality and subsequent characteristics of the training audience, particularly
level of motivation. It requires creating various learning situations addressing the same
subjects from different perspectives.
Teaching of the subject requires combination of the multiple student engagement techniques.
The
recommended
dominating
methods
include:
individual
preparations,
small
group/individual work activity. Individual preparations allow individual students to acquire
overarching concepts and the key terminology in their own pace, which is based on his or her
cognitive and English language skills. Team work enables active experimentation, which is one
the key engines in adult education and precondition for further reflection and conceptualisation
of the subject. There are very few topics which can be effectively taught using lecture as a
primary students’ engagement technique. However, the lecture can be used at certain occasions
to recapture the key points of the subject and enhance the meaning of the concept. The analysis
of the teaching subject advocates importance of the sequencing of the teaching topics and
recommended time allocation for each subject. The chart below summarises chapter’s
conclusions regarding the sequence, methods and learning/teaching time requirements of each
subject or subject set. The more detailed results of the analysis are depicted in the Figure 18.
Subject
Comprehensive
Approach Concept
and NATO Crisis
Management Process
NATO Operational
Level Planning
Process (OLPP) in
general, including
familiarisation with
the key concepts
Teaching
Methods
Individual
preparations and
self-assessment
Individual
preparations, lecture,
group work, peer
assessment
Duration
in %
15%
15%
Analysis of the
operational and
strategic
environment and
operational
objectives
Individual
preparations, small
group/individual
work activity,
lecture, group work
Key elements of
the Operational
design, including
COG, Decisive
Conditions, Lines
of Operation
Lecturing in small
groups,
individual/group
activity, group
work
20%
50%
Figure 18. Generalised course outline
44
The subject
Standards
Learning Objective 1. Procedures and responsibilities governing the preparation, approval, assessment, implementation and review of NATO operations plans
Performance statement: Understand the procedures and responsibilities governing the preparation, approval, assessment, implementation and review of NATO
operations plans
(a) Describe how NATO Operations Planning fits into the general NATO strategic concept and guiding
principles;
1. Comprehensive Approach Concept and (b) Describe the purpose of the operations planning and the different planning categories and products;
NATO Crisis Management Process
(c) Describe the division of operations planning responsibilities among the different NATO levels;
(d) Recognise the six phases of the NATO Crisis management process;
(e) Explain the main components of NATO force generation process.
(a) Describe the purpose and desired outcome of each phase of the operational level planning process as
described in the COPD;
2. NATO Operational Level Planning
Process (OLPP) in general, including
(b) Use Operational Level Planning Process key terminology;
key concepts
(c) Understand Staff organisation for operational planning;
(d) Explain principles and procedures of the Operational Assessment.
Learning Objective 2. NATO operational planning process Phase 3 in accordance with Comprehensive Operational Planning Directive
Performance statement: Be able to apply NATO Operational Planning Process Phases 3 and 4a in accordance with Comprehensive Operational Planning Directive
1. Analysis of the operational and
strategic environment and operational
objectives
1.2. Knowledge Development
1.3. Strategic framework
1.4. Operational Objectives
(a) Describe how Knowledge Development contributes to situational awareness and situational
understanding;
(b) Describe how Knowledge Development supports the Operations Planning Process;
(c) Describe the relations between Intelligence and Knowledge Development;
(d) Describe NATO approach to operational environment analysis (System of Systems Analysis);
(e) Describe the relations between Knowledge Development and CPOE.
(f) Analyse NATO Desired End State and determine military aspects of the operation;
(g) Analyse NATO Strategic and Military Strategic objectives to determine JFC role in resolving the
problem and possible implications to the accomplishment of the operational objectives;
(h) Analyse the strategic framework to identify “interdependencies with the non-military features and
conditions of the desired outcome” [28, pp. 2-28];
(i) Use analysis of the strategic framework in relation with the key factor’s analysis.
(a) Understand the purpose and strategic and environmental context within the operational objectives are
determined and analysed;
1.5. Comprehensive Preparation of the
Operational Environment
(b) Explain how operational objectives are related with other elements of operational planning, particularly
decisive conditions and mission statement;
(c) Develop operational objectives for friendly and opposing forces.
(a) Understand the roles and responsibilities of JOPG for conducting CPOE;
(b) Be able to apply one of the methods for organising and conducting CPOE;
(c) Apply factor-deduction-conclusion method of factors analysis;
(d) Analyse of geospatial factors;
(e) Analyse Political, Military, Economic, Social, Information and Infrastructure factors;
(f) Analyse actors;
(g) Identify and conduct key factors analysis;
(h) Develop tentative opposing forces Courses of Actions.
2. Key elements of the Operational
design, including COG, Decisive
Conditions, Lines of Operation
2.1. Centre of Gravity
2.2. Decisive Conditions/Points
(a) Explain the purpose and principles of the COG analysis;
(b) Explain the relations of COG with other concepts supporting development of the operational design,
particularly operational objectives and decisive points/conditions.
(c) Apply COG concept, including determination of friendly, opposing and neutral operational level actors’
COGs, critical capabilities, critical requirements, and critical vulnerabilities;
(d) Apply products of COG analysis to the development of the operational design.
(a) Explain the concept of the Decisive Conditions/Points and its relations with other concepts of the
Operational Design;
(b) Through analysis of the operational objectives, mission and factors of the operational environment to
determine Decisive Points/Conditions and respective Supporting Effects;
(c) Develop Operational Design.
Figure 19. Summary of Learning Objectives Analysis
46
Besides learning Operational Planning process, if design properly learning of the subject
allows developing staff abilities and skills, which are considered as critical for senior staff
appointments. Key areas which would be developed include: critical thinking, creativity,
problem-solving and interpersonal communications. While learning operational planning
process students practice:
1) The identification of essential political, military, economic, and other factors
associated with the operational environment;
2) Analyse the planning factors with limited and incomplete information;
3) Recommend solutions to operational problems within short time periods;
4) Communicate ideas;
5) Work collectively in operational and staff groupings.
As already noted in the introduction of the chapter, the conclusions from the Chapter II will
form a core of the instructional design and teaching aids for teaching Operational Planning
Process at BALTDEFCOL JCGSC 2012/13.
CHATPER III
ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVENETS OF THE
SELECTED TEACHING METHODS
This chapter presents the details related with the action researches conducted during and after
the course and summarises if selected student engaging techniques were effective. The first
part of the chapter elaborates on the approach used to assess the effectiveness of the teaching.
Later in the chapter the findings regarding effectiveness of the selected teaching methodology
are presented. There were minor amendments in actual survey from the initial outline of
Action Research as it is depicted below. The actual course content and subsequently the
surveys included more details from Phase 3 and planning activities of the Phase 4. The study
reflects outcomes only on subjects discussed earlier in the paper. As survey results exceed
more than 50 pages, only summary of conclusions is included into this paper. Detailed survey
results, including results related with planning Phase 4 can be accessed at Operations
Department of Baltic Defence College.
1.1. Action research
Action research is a “systematic enquiry designed to yield practical results capable of
improving a specific aspect of practice and made public to enable scrutiny and testing” [59].
Sheri Klein, author of the book Action Research Methods: Plain and Simple summarising
action research models concludes that “they all share similar characteristics that begin with
the review of current practices, identification of topic, issue or concern; and the development
of the questions that can guide the inquiry, planning, action, making adjustments, evaluation”.
[60, p. 4]. In adult learning environment action research must be integral part of the learning
process. The action research should be planned and executed in a way that learning audience
can observe and preferably experience the outcomes of their contributions. In most cases
Operational Level Planning Process is taught within two, maximum three weeks, therefore
outcomes of adjusted teaching methods will be seen only during the next course. But to
maintain students’ motivation to contribute, the research should include questions with
possible immediate outcomes. For example, what are the topics you would recommend for a
Question and Answer period? By answering this question students will:
1. Provide data for analysis of the teaching method for particular elements of the OLPP.
2. Confirm if the teaching content has emphasis on correct elements of the operational
planning process.
3. Indirectly contribute to the development (refinement) of the test questions.
48
There are two main steps in planning of action research project: Definition of the research
question on the selected research topic; and selection of the data collection method. John
Henning, Jody Stone, and James Kelly in their book Using Action Research to Improve
Instruction define the most common methods for data collection: observation of students and
teachers, surveys, interviews, analysis of the test results. The action research questions are
depicted in following subchapter. Selected data collection methods included observation of
students, surveys and test results. The surveys during and after the course were conducted
using a web based learning management system (ILIAS).
1.2. Action research outline
Research question statement
The purpose of surveys conducted during the course was to assess the effectiveness of the
selected teaching strategy in achievement of learning objectives. The question statement for
this research was: Did the selected teaching methods support students' understanding of the
operational planning process? The survey assessed two factors: teaching methods and
achievement of the learning objectives.
Research questions and results
The surveys provided qualitative information regarding effectiveness of teaching methods.
The questions and summary of results are depicted below.
Question 1
Answer
Question type: Multiple Choice Question
(Single Response)
1 - Not satisfactory: 0.00%
2 - Just satisfactory: 0.00%
3 - Good: 19.15%
4 - Very good: 51.06%
5 - Excellent: 29.79%
Users answered: 47
On scale 1 to 5, the last being the highest
score, how helpful was this week in
deepening your understanding of Operational
Planning Process?
91,3 % of respondents considered the guide
as very useful tool to orientate and prepare
for the course. Students proposed to sustain
and not change the content and outline of the
guide
Answer
Was M104 Students’’ guide a helpful tool?
What would be your recommendations for
improvement of the guide?
Question 2
91,3 % of respondents considered the guide
as very useful tool to orientate and prepare
for the course. Students proposed to sustain
and not change the content and outline of the
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 46
Was “Students’ Guide” a helpful tool? What
49
would be your recommendations for
improvement of the guide?
Question 3
guide
Answer
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 46
95,6 % of respondents considered individual
preparations as very beneficial use of time
Did you find individual preparations before
and during the first week of the module as an
effective use of the time?
Question 4
Answer
Question type: Essay
89,1 % of respondents considered NATO
ADL course as very beneficial use of time
Users answered: 46
Was NATO ADL helpful tool to prepare for
the Module?
Question 5
Answer
Question type: Essay
93,5 % of respondents considered self-test as
beneficial use of time. Only one respondent
had negative response. Two respondents did
not have opinion.
Users answered: 46
Was the test “Operational Planning Process”
useful tool for the reflection? What would be
your recommendations for improvement?
Question 6
Answer
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 45
100% of respondents considered the teaching
methodology effective use of time
Did the syndicate work “Simplified OPP
schematics” helped to understand NATO
Operational level planning process better?
Question 7
Answer
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 45
How well the teaching role performed during
the syndicate work “Key Concepts”? Did you
find the teaching method effective use of
time?
Question 8
100 % of respondents described the method
as excellent and very good.
Question type: Essay
Reappearing key phrases: deepening
understanding of the of key elements of the
operational planning process, discussions
during were very beneficial; learning by
doing; very good individual involvement; no
disadvantages
Answer
Answer
Users answered: 45
What were the major advantages,
disadvantages of syndicate work “Key
Concepts” to you?
Question 9
Reappearing key phrases: provide more real
life examples, involve more external
specialists with the experience on particular
subjects
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 45
How the content of the Module M104
50
Orientation Week could be improved?
Question 10.1
Answer
Question type: Multiple Choice Question
Strongly agree: 42.86%
Agree: 54.76%
Disagree: 2.38%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 42
Small group lecturing/practical tasks was
helpful in deepening my understanding of
Operational Planning Process
Question 10.2
Answer (Selected responses highlighting the
students’ opinion the best)
1. The methodology applied to teaching was
the right approach; less lecturing and more
small group discussion and practical
application tasks;
2. It would be better to allocate more time
for the important topics like Operational
Design;
3. The organisation of course is unique by
its nature. It was quite interesting &
challenging time not only listening but also
taking part in teaching. I am really exited of
interference of theoretical and practical parts
of learning area;
4. I appreciated the attempts to use new
teaching methodologies to convey the large
volume of information;
5. It was fun.
6. Unequal knowledge of the subject by DS
was lowering the quality of teaching
Answer (Synthesised response)
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 42
Question 2. Please, post here any other
comments you have related with the course
Question 11
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 39
Think back over the course and identify
learning topics that caused the most
confusion for you?
Question 12
The most often reappearing topics:
Analysis of the operational environment
Operational design
COG analysis
Answer
Question type: Multiple choice question
Strongly agree: 20.51%
Agree: 76.92%
Disagree: (1 student) 2.56%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 39
I understand how to identify and analyse
assigned, implied and essential actions
Answer
Question 13
Question type: Multiple choice question
Strongly agree: 17.95%
Agree: 74.36%
Users answered: 39
51
Disagree: (3 students) 7.69%
Strongly disagree: n=0 (0.00%)
I am able to develop restated mission
statement
Question 14
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 35.90%
Agree: 64.10%
Disagree: 0.00%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 39
I understand the purpose of the identification
of the COG
Question 15
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 28.21%
Agree: 58.97%
Disagree: (5 students) 12.82%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 39
I understand the purpose of the operational
design and I am able to contribute in building
operational design
Question 16
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 7.69%
Agree: 79.49%
Disagree: (5 students) 12.82%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 39
The lecture “Analysis of Actions and
Assigned Mission” provided suitable
framework for following syndicate work
Question 17
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 23.08%
Agree: 71.79%
Disagree: (2 students) 5.13%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 39
The content and teaching method of lecture
and syndicate work “COG Analysis” was
supporting understanding of subject
Question 17
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 15.38%
Agree: 71.79%
Disagree: (5 students) 12.82%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 39
The content and teaching method of lecture
and syndicate work “Operational Design”
was supporting understanding of subject
Question 18
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 58.97%
Agree: 41.03%
Disagree: 0.00%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 39
The method 'teaching in syndicates' was
effective and must be maintained for the next
course
Question 18
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 7.69%
Agree: 71.79%
Users answered: 39
52
Disagree: (8 students) 20.51%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
My expectations of the learning period were
realised
Question 19
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: (0.00%
Agree: (5 students) 12.82%
Disagree: 76.92%
Strongly disagree: 10.26%
Users answered: 39
I found it very difficult to follow the lectures
Question 20
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 0.00%
Agree: (3 students) 7.69%
Disagree: 74.36%
Strongly disagree: 17.95%
Users answered: 39
I found it very difficult to contribute to the
syndicate work
Question 21
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 0.00%
Agree: (13 students) 33.33%
Disagree: 64.10%
Strongly disagree: 2.56%
Users answered: 39
Coordination and cooperation among
syndicate members were difficult
Question 22
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 5.13%
Agree: 71.79%
Disagree: (8 students) 20.51%
Strongly disagree: (1 student) 2.56%
Users answered: 39
Students were motivated and contributing
during the syndicate work
Question 23
Question type: Multiple choice question
Answer
Strongly agree: 17.95%
Agree: 71.79%
Disagree: (4 students) 10.26%
Strongly disagree: 0.00%
Users answered: 39
We received all required support from
directing staff members
Question 23
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 39
How useful was MINIEX in strengthening
your understanding of Phase 3? What are
your recommendations for improvement?
Answer (Selected responses highlighting the
students’ opinion the best)
1. During this practical study has become
more strengthened and more understandable
theoretical material that was presented during
the lectures;
2. Extremely useful;
3. It was useful, but time constraints limited
deep analysis made during this exercise;
4. Practice is always more useful than
learning in classroom;
53
5. It was useful, but we needed more
guidance and examples;
6. It was much better than to have only
theory;
7. The MINIEX was very good opportunity
to improve our theoretical knowledge to
practice.
8. More balanced directing staff
involvement would improve the quality of
the teaching
Figure 20. Surveys’ questions and result summary
Following teaching activities were observed by Syndicate Guiding Officers (SGOs):
a. Simplified Operational Level planning Schematic;
b. Key Concepts;
c. Operational Assessment.
Question 1
Answer
Question type: Multiple Choice Question
3 - Good: n=1 (16.67%)
4 - Very good: n=1 (16.67%)
5 - Excellent: n=4 (66.67%)
Users answered: 6
On scale 1 to 5, how helpful was this week in
deepening students' understanding of
Operational Planning Process?
Question 2
Answer (rephrased)
Question type: Essay
The small group discussions on the basic
definitions and concepts of “key concepts” is
the best approach to lay the foundational
understanding. Peers teaching was good idea
Users answered: 6
Did you find the Syndicate work “Key
concepts” effective use of time?
Question 3
Answer (rephrased)
Question type: Essay
The main issue was time limitations to
enhance the results.
Users answered: 6
What were main issues in achieving the aim
of the syndicate work?
Question 4
Answer (rephrased)
Question type: Essay
Users answered: 6
Yes, but include more complex questions
Do you recommend sustaining the Syndicate
work “Key Concepts” for the next course?
Question 5
Answer (rephrased)
Question type: Essay
Expand the use of teaching method involving
peers teaching.
Users answered: 6
What should be improved?
Figure 21. SGO Survey questions and result summary
54
Formative test results
The data related to the achievement of the learning objective were collected using formative
tests. During the course students were required to develop questions related with the key
elements of the subject. The pool of questions were synthesised and selected questions were
included in formative tests. This approach was supposed to create a learning environment
where students become responsible for their own education and enable continuous reflection.
The test result statistics are depicted below. Three formative tests were taken during the
course by the students. This method offered every participant of the course equal
opportunities to participate in the knowledge development process. The test itself had no time
restrictions and allowed the course participants to confirm that they have acquired key
knowledge on the subject. In accordance with survey results this teaching method was very
positively appreciated by students: ‘test deepened knowledge on the topic’, ‘I think the test's
main purpose should be to highlight the main issues that student needs to get from (sic) the
preparation’, ‘Test is good to reinforce knowledge’.
Result
Test 1. Introduction to Operational Planning
Total number of persons who started the test
Average Test Processing Time
Total Passed Tests
Average Points of Passed Tests
Test 2. Key concepts and terminology
Total number of persons who started the test
Average Test Processing Time
Total Passed Tests
Average Points of Passed Tests
Test 3. NATO Operational Planning Process
Total number of persons who started the test
Average Test Processing Time
Total Passed Tests
Average Points of Passed Tests
Figure 22. Formative Test statistics
55
Value
58
00:46:41
56
17.36 of 18.00
56
00:39:43
50
19.49 of 20.00
49
01:05:28
43
23.09 of 24.74
1.3. Research findings and areas of further research
This subchapter summarises the findings from the student and Syndicate Guiding Officers
data. The answers collected in surveys allows concluding if selected teaching strategy allowed
overcoming the main challenges when teaching operational planning process at
BALTDEFCOL . Main factors influencing teaching / learning environment includes: different
cognitive experience of the training audience, language skills and cultural diversities, the level
of motivation.
As discussed in the previous chapter students of BALTDEFCOL represent a very demanding
and diverse audience. The diversity is from previous learning and work experiences, cultural
and social values and even the differences in age. The group with these characteristics are
considered as unprepared for learning and requires proper orientation. The main activities to
mitigate the risk represented by the cognitive differences included orientation of the training
audience by issuing Students’ Guide and completion of NATO Advance Distributed Learning
Operational Planning Course.
The Students’ Guide (Appendix A) included description of the course outline, learning
objectives, broad description of the learning strategy, directing staff expectations and
student’s checklist. The checklist included the list of activities students have to complete to
prepare themselves for in-class activities. The guide were issued a month prior the course.
100% of respondents considered the guide to be very helpful tool to orientate and plan their
preparations for the module. Some extracts from the survey: ‘It was really useful to prepare
myself and get better understanding about the course, ‘It is clear and gives all answers about
the course’, ‘Excellent method to orient student in the module’. It can be concluded that
selected method to orientate the students for learning has created required preconditions for
active class engagement.
Completion of NATO Advance Distributed Learning Operational Planning Course was
another approach used to prepare audience for the course and introduce them with
overarching concepts of the NATO planning process. The online course allowed students to
do preparations in their own learning pace. 89,1 % of respondents considered the NATO ADL
to be very helpful tool to orientate for course. Some extracts from the survey: ‘Yes, and I will
use it later on to refresh overall understanding of OLPP and COPD’, ‘Yes, It helped to
understand and to focus on important parts of OPP‘, ‘It was helpful, but quite difficult (to
follow)’, ‘very boring material. Very hard to stay focused’. Similar to the previous method,
individual online preparations appeared to be effective teaching method. One of the main
56
factors eliminated by this method is differences in cognition speed represented in the student
body. The amount of time different students spent in completing formative tests reinforces
this statement. If the average test processing time for final formative test was 1 hour and 5
minutes, five students spent between 2 and 3 hours to complete the task. This is
approximately 10% of the learning audience and corresponds to the average percentage of the
negative responses in surveys. This topic is relevant for further research. At this point it can
be assumed that cognition speed is one of the dominating factors which influences the
effectiveness of teaching and learning at BALTDEFCOL. Comments like ‘Very boring
material’ and ‘Very hard to stay focused’ indicate low level of motivation of several students.
Although only 10% of respondents did not considered ADL course as effective teaching
method, this factor should be addressed and eliminated.
Survey results of class activity ‘Simplified Operational Planning Process Schematic’ confirms
effectiveness of earlier discussed class orientation activities. This class activity required
students to work in small teams and build simplified NATO operational level schematic. By
building schematic students were forced to discuss about different phases of the planning
process and consequently use OPP terminology. In this way they indirectly acquired
knowledge about NATO Operational Planning Process and key terminology. As it was
emphasised earlier in the paper, that one of the motivational factors keeping adults motivated
to learn is establishment and maintenance of balance between complexity of the tasks and
capabilities of students. The subject NATO OPP and Key Concepts is considered to be very
complicated and theoretical topic, as well in most cases students have not been exposed to the
topics earlier in their careers. To the question: ‘Did the syndicate work “Simplified OPP
schematics” helped to understand NATO Operational level planning process better?’ 100% of
respondents answer positively. Some extracts from survey: ‘It did, it provided good
opportunity to expand knowledge through discussion with other members of syndicate’, ‘Yes,
it was easy and interesting to digest one phase and be able to explain to others’, ‘Yes. It was
great approach - first syndicate work and then excellent summary. It was clear evidence how
team work brings about the best results’. The fact that students assessed the learning activity
positively advocates that learning audience’s orientation before active class engagement has
been effective and they felt comfortable discussing and working with the subject. 96.5% of
students passed the formative test ‘NATO Operational Planning Process’. Therefore it can be
concluded that selected teaching method is effective.
Another teaching method utilised during the course was ‘Key Concepts’. Students within their
syndicates had to develop knowledge on selected NATO planning process related key
57
concepts. After acquisition of required understanding of the subject students had to form new
groups and present their findings to others (peers teaching). The selected teaching method set
preconditions for implementation of the learning standards related with the key terminology
and main concepts of the operational planning process. Selected teaching method was
perceived very positively by the students. Few extracts from the survey: ‘Everybody loved it.
We should have this kind of tasks earlier in the course’, ‘As stated before, yes. It was very
positive for the topic area. Additionally, it was a good opportunity for students to improve on
teaching and presenting in front of others’, ‘It was extremely interesting to share info with
members outside of syndicate’; ‘Really good idea and an effective method. First, it allowed us
to interact with other students outside of our syndicate...always a good idea. Second, it forced
each member to learn and prepare to teach’. The observations during the course prove that
selected method created positive learning environment. The method was driven by one of the
key components of adult education: the task to teach peers created the need to know thus
increasing majority’s learning effort. However there are caveats to this method, particularly,
in regards to complicated key topics. As most of the students were exposed to the subject and
specific terminology for the first time there was a risk that some of the concepts are
misinterpreted. Therefore independently acquired understanding had to be enhanced by
teacher led active class engagement as discussed below. Employment of the theories of
motivation in military staff college education can be assessed as a relevant subject for further
research.
If learning is done through discussions and communication the language is a primary vehicle
through which learning accrues. For 90% of the learning audience and directing staff English
is the second language. Unfortunately, sending nations do not always adhere to
BALTDEFCOL’s English Language comprehension requirements (STANAG 3333).
Therefore a significant number of students in the course have sub-standard language skills.
The main methods applied during the OPP course to mitigate language factor included above
discussed activities related with orientation of the course and small group teaching. Small
group teaching method enabled learning situation where engagement of the syndicate
members could be organised according to their individual capabilities and requirements. The
method was used to teach most complicated subjects of the Operational Planning Process –
Centre of Gravity analysis and concepts of the Operational Design. According to the survey
data above mentioned topics were the most difficult from the student perspective. At the same
time only 12 % (5 students out of 39) of the students disagreed with the statement “I
understand the purpose of the operational design and I am able to contribute in building
operational design”. Similar results are presented in statistics of the second formative test
58
11% of the students failed it. At the same time the teaching method was positively perceived
by the learning audience. 97% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement
‘The method 'teaching in syndicates' was effective and must be maintained for the next
course’. It can be assumed the high percentage of students failing the test was created not
because of the selected teaching method, but by the quality of teaching. Students’ comments
confirm assumption that the quality of the teaching significantly was influenced expertise,
teaching skills and attitude of the Directing Staff who was teaching the subjects. Perspectives
of quality of adult teaching are out of the research scope of this paper. However this subject
can be considered as a topic for further research.
From the survey data and learning environment during the teaching it can be concluded that
teaching adults in small groups is very effective student engagement technique, particularly
when addressing the subjects of highest complexity. The teaching method allowed
distribution of the tasks among the group members within the limits of their capabilities thus
maintaining the level of motivation. Due the size of the group teacher was able to address
learning requirements of individual students and provide constructive and focused feedback to
the group products. As observed during the teaching every group differed from another
significantly by questions asked, discussion topics and speed and quality required team work
was executed thus confirming the factor of cognitive diversities of the training audience.
Small group teaching of the concepts of the Operational Planning Process was closing the first
cycle of teaching.
After completing the first cycle of the teaching students were involved in the Mini Exercise
with the purpose to enable active experimentation and strengthen their knowledge on earlier
learned subjects. The students worked in planning teams under the supervision of Head
Teachers and Syndicate Guiding Officers. DS Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) was available
on request. In accordance with students’ and Directing Staff member answers to the survey
questions the method was good tool to reinforce earlier acquired knowledge, but requires
improvements. The main recommendation was to increase the Directing Staff involvement
and support during the exercise. The author’s observations of a similar exercise at the
Canadian Forces College (CFC) prove that involvement of the directing staff is very limited
comparing to BALTDEFCOL. Although average student in CFC has lower knowledge of the
Operational Planning Process, these students are more self-directed and independent in their
decisions. This observation suggests that effectiveness of the selected teaching method will
rely heavily on factor how prepared teams are to learn. The survey data reinforces earlier
59
identified factor – importance of level of preparation, experience and professionalism of the
directing staff.
60
THESIS
In the military and particularly in multinational military educational institutions instructors
often approach teaching by relying on intuition and their own life experiences, rather than on
professionally justified teaching and assessment methods. It might lead to the situations where
teaching outcomes are not meeting desired learning standards. The complexity of the topic
and diversities in adult learning audience are increasing this risk. Analysis of above
mentioned factors and balanced integration of findings into the teaching design significantly
increases effectiveness of the teaching outcomes.
It is important to reemphasize that effectiveness of the teaching methods will vary depending
on the content and complexity of the subject. Operational Planning Process is considered as
one of the most demanding and complicated subjects to teach. It is composed of several layers
that are difficult to identify/construct, connections among different elements and other
concepts are implicit and subtle. The subject includes extensive amount of new terms and
specific vocabulary (jargon) and teaching and learning the subject requires extensive personal
experience. Most of the staff colleges consider teaching operational planning process as the
highest priority of the course as through the learning the planning process students are
enabled to synthesise and actively experiment with the theoretical knowledge of other
subjects acquired through the course. The intent of this paper was to identify the main
characteristics of teaching methods and instructional activities which are effective in teaching
of NATO Operational Level Planning Procedures.
The preliminary research allowed identifying main key factors which should be appreciated
when building instructional design for international staff college learning audience. These
factors include cultural and cognitive diversities, differences in learning styles, role of the
student in the construction of the knowledge and aspect of motivation to learn. All of these
factors were incorporated into the instructional design of Operational Planning Process
Course of the Joint Command and General Staff 2012/13 Course at Baltic Defence College.
Observations, analysis of survey data and test results presented material which confirmed
earlier conclusions and allowed identification of other aspects influencing teaching and
learning Operational Planning Process. The key findings are outlined below.
The learning audience at BALTDEFCOL represents a very broad scope of cultural and
cognitive diversities. These diversities represent broad variety of the learning styles and
differences of individual learning pace. Two main methods recommended by adult learning
theories to compensate these features of the learning environment are orientation/preparation
61
of the audience for active class engagements and variation with teaching methods. These
recommendations derived from the constructivism learning paradigms that new skills,
knowledge and attitudes for adults are acquired through concrete experience, reflective
observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. The learning environment
has to create opportunities for the training audience to adapt smoothly through elements of the
cycle and concurrently support individual learning requirements. The methods adapted in the
course included combination of individual preparations, online studies, lectures, small group
teaching, group tasks, and reflection activities including discussions and formative tests. The
relevance of these recommendations was clearly supported by the survey and test results.
The key finding during the study was that the combination of the teaching methods must be
carefully crafted based on complexity of the topic and learning audience’s previous exposure
to the subject. More complicated learning subject or sets of related subjects requires inclusion
of the broader spectrum of teaching methods. Consequently this approach generates broad
variety of learning situations supporting individual requirements of different learning styles.
For example, students were introduced to the subject NATO Operational Planning through
using combination of individual reading assignments supported by the online course
(development
of
concrete
experience),
lecture
(reflection),
practical
assignment
(conceptualisation and active experimentation), discussion and formative test (reflection).
Although the subject can be considered as very theoretical and with limited practical
application, survey data advocates that students appreciated variety of methods employed and
consequent positive learning environment. The test results proved that selected methods was
effective in acquiring learning objectives.
The other key factor applied in selection of student engagement techniques was promotion of
active students’ involvement in the development of the learning goals and knowledge
construction process. Learning situations created by teachers have to enable students
discovering or constructing knowledge for themselves. This conclusion was exercised and
assessed through two teaching activities. The first activity required students’ contribution in
the development of formative test questions. Proposed test questions were synthesised and
merged by the teacher. Besides active learning audiences’ involvement in knowledge
construction process the method promoted number of secondary effects. Firstly, by
developing test questions students were exposed to the learning situation promoting reflection
phase of the learning cycle. Secondly, the content of the questions developed by the students
allowed teachers to shape further teaching by putting greater emphasis on the subjects
considered by the students more important than others. It is important to note, that the
62
students’ engagement in development of learning goals must be kept within the framework of
the learning objectives defined by the college. Therefore instructors’ involvement in these
self-directed activities is critical. The second activity required students to perform in the role
of teachers. They had to acquire understanding of new subject and after that teach their peers.
The survey results advocated that this was one of the most positively perceived learning
activities through the OPP course. One of the conclusions of the study suggests that
independently acquired understanding had to be enhanced by teacher led active class
engagement. This reemphasizes earlier discussed conclusion in regards to requirement of
combination of student engagement techniques. It appears that positive acceptance of the
activity was catalysed with the unintentionally integrated factors of motivation, which is one
of the dominating factors of adult learning environment. The observations during the course
proves that selected method created positive learning environment: the task to teach peers
created the need to know thus increasing intrinsic factors of motivation and consequently
everybody’s learning effort. As it was emphasised earlier in the paper, integration of
motivational factors into the teaching design are considered to be critical in achievement of
the learning outcomes. It was concluded that when selecting student engagement technique it
should be assessed how the method will promote the relevance of the subject in short term
and with the future career of the student. At the same time the teachers will face motivational
factors of institutions of the sending organizations. As motivational factors of an institution
change based on their priorities, the composition of learning audience will vary with every
course. The current research was not specifically designed to evaluate factors related to
institutional interests and can be considered as the subject for further studies.
Furthermore, the study has shown that understanding the complexity of the teaching topic and
training audience’s previous exposure to the subject are critical preconditions for proper
selection of the student engagement techniques and assessment of teaching/learning time
requirements. As mentioned earlier, selection of the teaching methods in military educational
institutions is based on previous teaching/learning experience of the instructors. There is a
high risk that these experiences are outdated or not relevant or suitable for learning audience.
As presented in this study number of concepts have evolved and developed in very short time
period. For example, recent introduction of the comprehensive approach has major
implications to the key terminology and some of the concepts used in NATO Operations
Planning Process. Detailed analysis of educational subjects enables teacher to integrate
practical examples and cases as well as stay relevant to the learning audience.
63
Analysis of the factors influencing learning environment indicated that one of the aspects
influencing teaching quality is presence of the institutional interests. As discussed earlier,
instructors sent to the military educational institutions in the most cases are not prepared to
conduct educators’ duties. Therefore the Baltic Defence College is interested to involve the
maximum number of instructors in teaching the subject thus using opportunity to improve
potential educators` teaching skills and professional knowledge. There is a risk that this
activity if not balanced adequately will overwhelm the learning value and it will be done at
the expense of the quality of delivery. Influence of the institutional interests to the educational
quality of the graduates of military educational institutions is recommended subject for further
research.
Most of the factors assessed in this study are common for multinational adult learning
environments therefore conclusions of this paper can be generalised and used by other
military national and international educational institutions in teaching OLPP.
64
TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Action – the process of doing something to achieve an aim [36, pp. L-1]
Action research – “systematic enquiry designed to yield practical results capable of improving
a specific aspect of practice and made public to enable scrutiny and testing” [59]
Andragogy – “the method and practice of teaching adult learners; adult education” [61]
Case study – a type of simulation aimed at giving learners experience in the sort of decision
making required later [3, p. 22]
Centre of Gravity - Characteristics, capabilities or localities from which a nation, an alliance,
a military force or other grouping derives its freedom of action, physical strength or will to
fight [36, pp. L-1]
Cognitive skills – qualities required for decision making, problem solving logical thinking etc.
Constructivism theory of learning – learning theory assuming that “knowledge is individually
constructed and socially constructed by learners based on their interpretations of experiences
in the world” [3, p. 217]
Decisive Condition – a combination of circumstances, effects, or a specific key event, critical
factor, or function that when achieved allows commanders to gain a marked advantage over
an opponent or contribute materially to achieving an operational objective [36, pp. L-2]
Effect - A change in the state of a system (or system element), that results from one or more
actions, or other causes [36, pp. L-2]
End state – the NAC statement of conditions that defines an acceptable concluding situation
for NATO’s involvement [36, pp. L-2]
Experiential learning theory - the theory lies in the constructivism learning paradigm and is
based on the thesis that new skills, knowledge and attitudes for adults are acquired through
concrete experience,
reflective observation,
abstract conceptualization, and active
experimentation [24, p. 7]
Extrinsic motivation – extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an
individual. The motivating factors are external, or outside, rewards such as money or grades.
These rewards provide satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide [61]
Interactive skills – social habits and skills
Intrinsic motivation – “intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from inside an
individual rather than from any external or outside rewards, such as money or grades” [61]
Knowledge Development – a proactive, collaborative and iterative process carried out at all
levels of Allied Command Operations, drawing on NATO and non-NATO entities, to develop
65
and then maintain a holistic understanding of complex environments in support of NATO
political and military authorities’ decision-making [36, pp. L-3]
Formative assessment – “any form of assessment used by an educator to evaluate students'
knowledge and understanding of particular content and then to adjust instructional practices
accordingly toward improving student achievement in that area” [62]
Lecture – “a carefully prepared oral presentation of the subject by a qualified person” [3, p.
22]
Objective - a clearly defined and attainable goal to be achieved [36, pp. L-3]
Operational level - the level at which campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted
and sustained to accomplish strategic objectives within theatres or areas of operations [36, pp.
L-4]
66
ABBREVIATIONS
BALTDEFCOL – Baltic Defence College
CCIR – Commander’s Critical Information Requirements
CC – Critical Capability
JCGSC –Joint Command and General Staff Course
COG – Centre of Gravity
COPD – Comprehensive Operational Planning Directive
COA – Course of Action
CPOE – Comprehensive Preparation of the Operational Environment
CR – Critical Requirement
CV – Critical Vulnerability
DC – Decisive Condition
HA – Humanitarian Assistance
JFC – Joint Force Command
KD – Knowledge Development
MOE – Measurement of Effectiveness
MSO – Military Strategic Objective
NAC ID – North Atlantic Council Initiating Directive
NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OLPP – operational level planning process
OO – Operational Objective
OUP – Operation Unified Protector
OPP – operational planning process
ROE – Rules of Engagement
UN – United Nations
UNSCR – United Nations Security Council Resolution
67
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73
APPENDIXES
74
APPENDIX A. STUDENT’S GUIDE (EXTRACTS)
Introduction
a. Background. Module 104 introduces students to NATO Operational Planning
Process. The Operational Planning Process taught at Baltic Defence College is based
on Allied Command Operations Comprehensive Planning Directive Interim Version
1.0. For M104 and subsequent modules BALTDEFCOL uses the NATO Zoran Sea
Scenario.
b. LA1 Learning Objectives. Module supports most of the LA1 Learning Objectives.
The Module is designed to create learning environment where students of JCGSC and
Civil Servants Course (CSC) are able to utilise their knowledge acquired earlier in the
course.
The learning environment during M104 is enhancing CSC students’ abilities to:
(1) Work together with their military counterparts in the planning of military
capabilities and their subsequent commitment to operations.
(2) Contribute to the planning of military and non-military operations.
c. The aim of the module is to provide knowledge on NATO Operational level Planning
Process and to develop training audience’s skills of independent and critical thinking
in complex situations.
d. When students complete the Module they will be able to:
1) Understand the procedures and responsibilities governing the preparation,
approval, assessment of NATO operations plans.
2) Apply NATO Operational Planning Process’ Phase 3 and 4a in accordance
with Comprehensive Operational Planning Directive (COPD).
3) Understand how the TOPFAS Operational Planning Tool (OPT) is used to
support the Operational Planning Process by NATO
75
e. How the module is configured
5 days
Introduction
with NATO
Operational
Level Planning
Process (OLPP)
in general
(Overall
process, key
terminology,
operational
assessment)
2 days
4 days
Familiarization
with key
Analysis of the elements of the
operational
Operational
environment of designing and
planning
Zoran Sea
(Analysis of
(Objectives,
Operational
DC/DP,
and geospatial Effects,
factors, actors’ Actions,
objectives)
Mission,
Commanders
role)
3 days
4 days
MINI
EXERCISE
(The
development
of operational
design of
NATO and
Opposing
Forces)
Familiarization
with COA
development
and
War-Gaming
Module 104 and the Learning Area 1 Exercise, which follow, creates the conditions for the
training audience to develop staff abilities and skills, which are considered as critical for
senior staff appointments. Key areas which will be developed include: critical thinking,
creativity, problem solving and interpersonal communications. Within the module students
will have a chance to practice:
1) The identification of essential political, military, economic, and other factors
associated with the operational environment;
2) Analyse the planning factors with limited and incomplete information;
3) Recommend solutions to operational problems within short time periods;
4) Communicate ideas;
5) Work collectively in operational and staff groupings.
It is important to remember, that Comprehensive Operational Planning Directive provides
only a planning framework for problem solving. Its core purpose is to standardize
terminology and procedures.
Training Concept
a. Detailed Outline. Detailed Lecture Plans are attached to this guide.
b. Syndicate Work. Collective problem solving is a fundamental element in the military
profession, particularly at the operational level. Starting from Miniex phase of the
teaching three syndicates will join to form Joint Operational Planning Group (JOPG).
The JOPG will be the framework for problem solving and achieving of the learning
objectives. The JOPG will be run by Head Teachers; SGOs will facilitate syndicate
discussions and support HTs as required.
76
c. Lectures. Lecture time will be limited during the module leaving more space for
syndicate work and self-studies. Students are to be on time for planned module
activity.
d. Readings. Required readings will be published and available at least 24 hours before
they are to be discussed in the class.
e. Mini Exercise. From Feb 4 – 6 students will be involved in the Mini Exercise with the
purpose to strengthen their knowledge on the development of the operational design.
The students will work in JOPGs under the supervision of HTs and SGOs. DS Subject
Matter Experts (SMEs) will be available on request.
f. Information management:
1) ILIAS will be used to provide reading materials and conduct tests and surveys.
2) Exercise Portal will contain administrative information, Materials for
Comprehensive Preparation of Operational Environment (CPOE), Country
Study Books, and Strategic Documents and Syndicate products.
g. TOPFAS Operational Planning Tool (OPT) course. The module will include two
days of TOPFAS Operational Planning Tool training. This period will consist of
lectures and individual work using OPT software. The required software is preinstalled on your laptops, and the user account details will be notified during the
Module.
h. Integration of CSC course. Students of the CSC are required to attend only selected
parts of the Module 104. With the exception of syndicate work “Political, Military,
Economic, Infrastructure and Information (PMESII) factors of Zoran Sea”. CSC
syndicate will be guided by assigned DPS directing staff member.
Assessment
The module includes only formative assessment activities.
a. Feedback. SGOs and HTs will provide the feedback on the individual and collective
work. Feedback is an integral part of learning. While you will receive positive
feedback there will also be constructive criticism. Students should view the criticism
as a mean to identify and address weaknesses.
b. Self-evaluation. Self-evaluation tests have been included in the Module. Students
should regard these tests as constructive opportunity to examine their strengths and
weaknesses, and determine where more work is needed. Self-evaluation tests include:
1) “Introduction to Operational Planning”;
2) “Familiarization with Strategic Planning Documents”.
c. M104 Final Test. Students will be involved in the development of the “M104 Final
Test questions”. After every learning step, officers and students of CSC course will be
required to identify critical elements of the NATO Operational Planning Process and
77
develop them into test questions. It will create OPP question pool consisting of the
elements, which are the most relevant to the training audience. Selected questions of
the same pool will be used for LA1 Exam.
M104 Student’s Checklist
Action
Purpose
Required time
Compete
by
prepare for self-study
Minimum time
to acquire the
access is 48
hours
14.01.13.
Gain basic understanding of
NATO OPP. It is required to
participate in M104
Approximately
6h
20.01.13.
Confirm that you are
prepared to join the class on
21st of Jan
Approximately
30 minutes
20.01.13.
Ease to orientate in the book
Approximately
30 minutes
20.01.13.
Before M104 you have to accomplish following:
Request access NATO School Advanced
Distributed Learning Courses at
https://jadl.act.nato.int/
Complete required parts of ADL 131
Course Introduction to Comprehensive
Operations Planning Directive:
• NATO Crisis Management Process,
particularly Crisis Response Measures;
• NATO Operations Planning System,
particularly Force Generation Process;
• Introduction to Knowledge
Development;
• Introduction to Operational Level
Planning.
Complete self-test Introduction to
Operational Planning (18 questions) at
http://adl.bdcol.ee/repository.php?cmd=fra
meset&ref_id=7926
Prepare your copy of COPD
Ease to follow the lectures
and participate in the
60 minutes
syndicate work
To prepare for lecture “Operations Assessment” you have to accomplish following:
Complete required part of ADL 131
Gain overview on
Course Introduction to Comprehensive
Operational Assessment
120 minutes
Operations Planning Directive
Process. Prepare for
“Operational Assessment”
participation in syndicate
work
Read COPD Chapter 5 (20 pages)
60 minutes
Prepare up to two questions to guest
lecturer about Operational Assessment.
Poste you questions on ILIAS at
http://adl.bdcol.ee/ilias.php?baseClass=ilO Facilitate class discussions
15 minutes
bjSurveyGUI&ref_id=8282&cmd=infoScr
een
Scan Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 (112 pages)
of COPD
20.01.13.
23.01.13.
23.01.13.
18:00
23.01.13.
To prepare for Week 2 of M104 Comprehensive Preparation of Operational Environment you have to
Read and understand Section B.
Describing the impact of the operational
Environment from US JP 2-01.3 Joint
Set preconditions for
Intelligence Preparation of the Operational understanding of Geospatial 90 minutes
28.01.13.
Environment from p.64 to 79 (15 pages) at Factor Analysis
http://adl.bdcol.ee/repository.php?cmd=fra
meset&ref_id=8347
To prepare for lecture block Mission Analysis (Jan 29 to Feb1)
Read and understand COPD Chapter 4
Prepare for and lectures
pages 4-30 to 4-45 (20 pages) and Annex
120 minutes
28.01.13.
syndicate work
A to COPD (24 pages)
78
To prepare for lecture COA development you have to:
Read and understand COPD pages 4-51 to
Prepare for and lectures
4-69 (18 pages)
syndicate work
To prepare for lecture War-Gaming you have to:
Prepare for wargaming
Read and understand COPD pages (4
lecture and JOPG
pages)
wargaming sessions
Read and understand Wargaming - Guide
Prepare for wargaming
to Preparation and Execution,
lecture and JOPG
Führungsakademie (2006) pages pages 1wargaming sessions
23 (23 pages) and Scan Annex D (2 pages)
79
120 minutes
11.02.13
10 minutes
11.02.13
60 minutes
11.02.13
APPENDIX B. BLOOM’ S TAXONOMY
Level
1
Remembering
2
Understanding
3
Applying
4
Analysing
5
Evaluating
6
Creating
Desired Learning Level
Recalling appropriate,
previously learnt information
Grasp the meaning of
informational materials;
constructing meaning
Related Verbs
Define, duplicate, list,
memorise, recall, repeat,
reproduce, state
Classify, describe,
discuss, explain,
identify, locate,
recognise, report, select,
translate, paraphrase
Brief Explanation
Can the Officer
recall or remember
the information?
Can the Officer
explain ideas or
concepts?
Being able to re-produce
the information in any
situation it may be
needed, and use it
naturally without further
instruction
Choose, demonstrate,
dramatize, employ,
illustrate, interpret,
operate, schedule,
sketch, solve, use, write
Being able to split a
piece of information in
its parts, and explain the
relation between the
parts
Appraise, compare,
contrast, criticise,
Can the Officer
differentiate,
distinguish between
discriminate, distinguish,
the different parts?
examine, experiment,
question, test
Can the Officer use
the information in a
new way?
Making judgments based
Praise, argue, defend,
Can the Officer
on criteria and standards
judge, select, support,
justify a position or
through checking and
value, evaluate
decision?
critiquing
Putting the elements
together to form a
coherent or functional
Can the Officer
Assemble, construct, create,
create a new
whole; reorganising
design, develop, formulate,
elements into a new
product or point of
write
pattern or structure
view?
through generating,
planning or producing
80