The Negro Soldier (1944): Film Propanganda in Black and White
Author(s): Thomas Cripps and David Culbert
Source: American Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 5, Special Issue: Film and American Studies (Winter,
1979), pp. 616-640
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2712429
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THE NEGRO SOLDIER (1944):
FILM PROPANGANDA IN BLACK
AND WHITE
THOMAS CRIPPS
MorganState University
AND
DAVID CULBERT
LouisianaState University
AFTER YEARS DURING WHICH BLACKS AND POLICE ENGAGED IN PITCHED
cities,NicholasKatbattlesin smallSoutherntownsand largeNorthern
termedtelevision
GeneralunderLyndonB. Johnson,
zenbach,Attorney
public,ofimpel"thecentralmeansofmakinga privatemoralconviction
wouldturn
ideas theyotherwise
lingpeopleall overto see and confront
inthewordsofa netawayfrom."Black activistsconsideredtelevision,
1 But
black
revolution."
of the
workproducer,"the choseninstrument
to
social
further
televisionwas not the firstelectronicmediumused
film,The NegroSoldier,
change.The UnitedStatesArmy'sorientation
releasedinJanuary1944,is one ofthoserareinstanceswhichallowsthe
aboutconception,execuhistorianof mass mediato speak confidently
intended
and unintended,of a
tion, and-to a degree-results both
uses
made
oftheArmy'smofilm.
The
eventually
specificcontroversial
of gaugingin advancetheimpactof
thedifficulty
tionpictureillustrate
on socialchange.
masscommunication
to maintaining
committed
DuringWorldWarII theArmywas officially
But the liberalrhetoricof officialwar
existingpatternsof segregation.
the status quo at home.
aims provedfatalto thoughtsof maintaining
forceof sometwelvemillion,
875,000Negroesintoa fighting
By inducting
a socialrelations
laboratory.2
theArmydiscoveredthatit was operating
I Quoted in Thomas Cripps, "The Noble Black Savage: A Problem in the Politics of
Television Art," Journalof Popular Culture,8 (Spring 1975), 687-95.
2 See Ulysses Lee, The Employment
ofNegro Troops:Special Studies (Washington,D. C.:
Office of Chief of MilitaryHistory, U.S. Army,G.P.O., 1966), a volume in the official
series, The UnitedStates Armyin WorldWarII; see also RichardM. Dalfiume,Desegregation of the United States Armed Forces: Fightingon Two Fronts, 1939-1953 (Columbia,
Mo.: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1969); and Alan M. Osur, Blacks in the ArmyAir Forces
During World War II: The Problem of Race Relations (Washington,D. C.: Officeof Air
Force History,G.P.O., 1977).
The Negro Soldier
617
In spiteof the wishes of manywhites,the Armybecame a half-wayhouse
for those who believed that wartime should bring substantial racial
progress.
The relationshipbetweenracial tensionsand filmcan best be explained
by a metaphor.The biologistdefinessymbiosisas an association of two
different
organismswhich live attached to each other and contributeto
each other's support.This articlewill describe the makingand distribution of The Negro Soldier as an example of social symbiosis,forthe idea
did not come fromone person, but emergedfroma coalitionof fourwary
interestgroupswhichcame togetherin antagonisticcooperation.The film
offeredimportantlessons to those who made post-warHollywood "message" films,whileblack pressuregroupsdiscovered a new way to further
social change throughthe distributionof motionpictures.
In retrospect,thefourgroupsand theiraims are easy to identify.Firstis
the Armyitself.By the time of Pearl Harbor both civilian and military
propaganda
leaders in Americarecognizedmotionpicturesas a significant
medium;theybelieved filmcould instillin citizens a spiritof patriotism
and a will to fight.3Chief of StaffGeorge C. Marshall believed thatfilm
should play a major militaryrole in wartime.4Convinced that lectures
about patriotismand recenthistorygenerallymade no impacton draftees,
he concluded thatfilmcould presentserious materialin a lively and interestingfashion. Thanks to Marshall, the Army chose Hollywood's
Frank Capra to head an elite filmunit assigned to make feature-length
morale filmsintendedto build enthusiasmforofficialwar aims. To Marshall the key to morale forthe educated soldier was to give a reason for
fighting.5
Capra's Why We Fight series, mandatoryviewing for every
I Roger Manvell, Films and the Second World War (South Brunswick, N. J.: A. S.
Barnes, 1974); David Ctilbert,"Walt Disney's Private Snafu: The Use of Humor in World
War II Army Film," in Jack Salzman, ed., Prospects: An Annual Journal of American
CulturalStudies, 1 (Dec. 1975), 80-96, and RichardDyer MacCann, The People's Films: A
Political Historyof U.S. GovernmentMotion Pictures (New York: Hastings House, 1973).
4 For an introductionsee Richard Griffith,
"The Use of Films by the U.S. Armed
Forces," in Paul Rotha, DocumentaryFilm (3d ed.; London: Faber and Faber, 1952),
344-58; on Marshallsee ForrestC. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Organizerof Victory19431945 (New York: Viking, 1975), 91-92; Frank Capra, The Name Above the Title: An Autobiography(New York: Macmillan, 1971), 325-70; and three officialhistoriesfromThe
United States in World War II: Dulany Terrett,The Signal Corps: The Emergency(To
December 1941) (Washington,D. C.: Officeof the Chief of MilitaryHistory,U.S. Army,
G.P.O., 1956),78-82, 223-30; George RaynorThompsonet al., The Signal Corps: The Test
(December 1941 to July 1943) (Washington,D. C., 1957), 387-426; and George Raynor
Thompson and Dixie R. Harris, The Signal Corps: The Outcome (Mid-1943 Through1945)
(Washington,D. C., 1966), 540-79.
5 There is a vast literature
about moraleand its importance.See Wesley FrankCraven and
JamesLea Cate, eds., Services Aroundthe World,vol. VII of The ArmyAirForces in World
War II (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1958), 431-76, for a good introductionto the
618
American Quarterly
soldier,definedofficialwar aims in a way no othermediumcould match.
Marshall hoped thata Capra-unitfilmabout the Negro would provide a
reason why racial tolerance was necessary to a unifiedmilitaryeffort.
Capra's credentialsfor his assignmentwere considerable. A Sicilian
immigrant,he began his Hollywood career by workingon comic short
subjects. Every filmhe made in the 1930s showed the "little guy" as
eventuallytriumphant,
a message bound to finda sympatheticreception
in hardtimes.Above all, Capra's name became synonymouswiththebox
office:no otherHollywood directorcould match his unbrokenstringof
hits:It Happened One Night(1934), Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936),Lost
Horizon (1937), You Can't Take It WithYou (1938), Mr. Smith Goes to
Washington(1939), and Meet John Doe (1941). Capra was livingproof
that the American Dream did come true; to him patriotismwas a high
calling,thoughhe masked his ardorwitha deftcomic touch. Capra's War
Departmentfilmunit quickly attractedmany of Hollywood's most talented cutters,scriptwriters,
and directors.When the unit's firstWhyWe
Fight film,Prelude to War, appeared in November 1942,Capra's preeminentpositionin militaryfilmmaking
was assured.6
The second groupis the blacks themselves,who saw WorldWar II as a
time to bringan end to longstandingdiscrimination.To black America,
FranklinD. Roosevelt's Four Freedoms-freedom of speech, freedomof
religion,freedomfromfear,and freedomfromwant-were totallyincompatiblewithsegregation.The desires of black America mustnot be measured by the standardof today's activistrhetoric.In World War II most
Negroes sought"racial tolerance" as a firststep. Though therewas violence, particularlyrace riotsin Detroitand Harlem, the National Association forthe Advancementof Colored People (NAACP), headed by Walter White, looked to the courts, and to white liberals, to bring about
gradual change.
Earlier governmentfilmsrelatingto blacks suggestedprogress more
glacial than gradual. In World War I officialSignal Corps footage used
problem.The scientificstudyof moralewas an outgrowthof World War I. See Edward L.
Munson, The Managementof Men: A Handbook on theSystematicDevelopmentof Morale
and the Control of Human Behavior (New York: H. Holtand Co. 1921); Munson's son
became Capra's superiorin I&E; he too wrote a widely used guide to morale: Colonel
Edward Lyman Munson, Jr., Leadership for American ArmyLeaders, in The Fighting
Forces Series (rev. ed.; Washington,D. C.: The InfantryJournal,1944).
6 Productionfilesfor"Prelude to War" are located in 062.2 ocsigo, Box 1, Records of the
Chief Signal Officer,RG 111, Film Section, National Archives,where a viewingprintmay
also be found [hereafterFS-NA]. See also 062.2 ocsigo, Box 12, A52-248, Washington
National Records Center,Suitland,Maryland,foradditionalproductionmaterial[hereafter
WNRC-Suitland].Concerningthe optimismof Capra's filmssee RobertSklar,Movie-Made
America:A CulturalHistoryof AmericanMovies (New York: VintageBooks, 1976),205-14.
The Negro Soldier
619
Negroes for comic relief. During the 1930s, Pare Lorentz's conservationistfilms,The Plow That Broke thePlains and The River, contained
only a few black faces. The firsttwo years of the war saw littlechange.
Blacks were patronizedin the few filmswith specificNegro themes released by federal agencies, either by overpraisingJim Crow schools
(Negro Colleges in Wartime),or by celebrating"safe" heroes such as
George WashingtonCarver.
Henry Browne, Farmer, a Departmentof Agriculturefilm,failed to
convince anyone that racial tolerance was desirable. Browne was the
perfectobedientNegro: possessor of fortyacres, some chickens,a son in
the black 99th PursuitSquadron, and a willingnessto grow peanuts because his countryneeded theiroil. To make mattersworse, a low budget
made the entireenterpriselook second-rate.The Negro journalist who
originallysuggestedthe idea termedthe finishedproduct"an insipidlittle
storyfarfromour originalpurpose.' 7
Somethingmore substantialwas needed because the 1940 Selective
Service Act prohibitedracial discrimination.The Armylooked to Negro
manpower.At the same time,militarycompliancewithsegregationsomehow did not, as the approved Army manual phrased it, "endorse any
8 The resultingsituationwas
theoryof racial superiorityor inferiority."
made worse by a pervasivehostilitytowardNegro soldiers,who tendedto
score lowest on the ArmyGeneral ClassificationTests. Deputy Chiefof
StaffJosephT. McNarney voiced a prevalentArmyattitude:"there is no
use havingcolored troops standingby and eating theirheads offif their
lack of aptitudeis such thattheycan never be used overseas." 9
7Claude A. Barnett,head of the Associated Negro Press, to VictorRoudin,copy, March
26, 1953, in Barnett MSS, Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, Ill. As one black critic
suggested,"Is thereonly one Negro familyin the war and is the only thingtheyare doing
[Ill.] Urban League, to Elmer Davis, Box 1431, entry
farming?"WilliamAshby,Springfield
264, RG 208. Printsof bothfilmsare located in FS-NA. An officialOWI analysis of Negro
Colleges in Wartimeis located in Box 1490, entry271, RG 208; the scriptis in Box 1569,
entry302, RG 208; Box 1571, entry302, RG 208, has nearlyfiftyphotographs"taken for
Negro Colleges but scenes not included in film"; stillsfromHenryBrowne,Farmer are in
Box 1569,entry302, RG 208; thelack of appeal ofNegro Colleges in Wartimeis discussed in
"Distributionof and Use of OWI Non-theatricalFilms in April 1943," Box 1483,entry268,
had fewerbookingsper print.All in
RG 208, whereonly one filmof all in OWI distribution
WNRC-Suitland.
8 [Donald Young], Leadership and the Negro Soldier, Manual M5 (Oct. 1944), 4. In
keepingwithwartimepracticethe author'sname is not given. CulbertinterviewwithDonald
Young, Macungie, Pa., February 13, 1977. A copy of Manual M5 is located in Box 1011,
Records of the Assistant Secretaryof Defense, Manpower Personnel & Reserve, Record
Group 330, Modern MilitaryRecords, National Archives, Washington,D. C. [hereafter
MMR-NA].
9 Secret Minutes,Meetingof General Council, May 31, 1943, 3-4, 334 cos, Box 30, Records of the Officeof Chief of Staff,RG 165, MMR-NA.
620
American Quarterly
amongaptitudescores.LackBitterracialprejudicedidnotdistinguish
meansof mass persuasion,theArmycould onlyplace
ingan effective
of hortatives"as a meansof en"excessive faithin the effectiveness
fordemocracy.This
blackand whitesoldiersto fighttogether
couraging
ofWarHenryL. Stimson'sCivilian
approachwas notenough.Secretary
WilliamHastie, collecteda fileof outrageous
Aide forNegroAffairs,
racialincidentsin whichblacksoldiers,trainedforthemostpartin the
inthe
reported
South,hadbeenbeatenbylocalrednecks.Suchincidents,
reasonforNegroesto rejectofficial
black press,offereda compelling
unity.10
pleas forwartime
employedby theArmy'sInformaA groupofleadingsocial scientists
researchcouldidentionandEducationDivision(I&E) feltthatscientific
tifypreciselywhatkindof filmmightbringwhiteand black America
theseciviliansmadeup thethirdgroup,andtheywanted
closertogether;
The ideaforusingmotionpictures
filmabouttheNegro.1"
a documentary
forpersuasionwas greatlyaided by the factthatCapra's unitand the
in I&E.
ResearchBranchworkedside-by-side
H. OsbornheadedtheDivision.A wealthy
GeneralFrederick
Brigadier
service,Osbornhad familyconnecNew Yorkerwithoutpriormilitary
was one ofStimson'sclose
His father
tionsanda flairforadministration.
Osborn,hadbeenlargelyresponsiandan uncle,HenryFairfield
friends,
New York'sMuseumofNaturalHistoryto international
ble forbringing
prominence.Osborn,a board memberof the Social Science Research
studyofeugenicsto hiscredit.He came
Council(SSRC), had a scholarly
by scientific
to the Armypersuadedthatmoralecould be determined
moraleboosters-sports,camp songfests,
means,and thattraditional
"decks of cards and dice and tonettes"-belongedto a bygoneera.12
withthesupportofbothMarshalland StimOsborn'sadvocacy,together
son, provedcrucialto the military'sadoptionof bothfilmand social
scienceresearch.
in statistiinterested
position.Personally
Osbornwas inan ambivalent
cal research,he headeda divisionconcernedmorewithpracticaleducation and moraleserviceswithinthe Armythan mattersof sampling
an unstablealliancebetweenCapra'sfaithin
technique.I&E represented
and faithin filmas pedagogicaltool,thelatterthe
filmas entertainment,
10 Lee, Employmentof Negro Troops, 330.
11For a fine discussion of I&E see Neil Minihan, "A History of the Informationand
Education Division," manuscriptloaned to Culbert. Also helpfulis "Study of I&E Accopy in Box 1, Francis SpauldingMSS, Archivesof
tivitiesin WorldWar II," typewritten,
Harvard University,Cambridge,Mass.
12 InterviewwithDonald Young, February 13, 1977; telephoneinterviewwithFrederick
Osborn, November 5, 1976; telephone interviewwith Paul Horgan, November 10, 1976;
Osborn, Preface to Eugenics (New York: Harper, 1940).
The Negro Soldier
621
theUniversity
of Chicagosociologistwho
attitudeof Samuel Stouffer,
headedtheprofessional
staffoftheResearchBranch.'3
Atthesametime,everyoneinI&E sharedan ardentbeliefinsalesmanship.Wartimewas no timeforreconditespeculation.Ideas weremeasin sales
ured by theirpracticalvalue. Capra needed no instruction
techniques: since the days of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington(1939) he
however,is
films.Less familiar,
hadbeensellingdemocracy
inhisfeature
The ResearchBranchpublished
thehucksterism
ofthesocial scientists.
wherenumerous
graphsandcharts
itsfindings
inWhattheSoldierThinks,
alongwithpracticalrepromoted
thetechniqueof "scientific"sampling
sultsassuredby askingquestionsincapableofcomplexanswers.'4
was
The socialscientists
realizedthata moralefilmaboutracerelations
This
of
social
outgrowth
a perfect
test
about
engineering.'5
place to
ideas
behaviorial
psychology
arguedthathumanbehaviorcouldbe manipulated
societieshad long
towardssociallydesirablegoals. Criticsof industrial
it also erodedtradispreadits benefits,
complainedthatas technology
official
tionalvalues.Stouffer
and DonaldYoung,theWarDepartment's
experton race relations,believedthata "humane"or "liberal" use of
filmcould reaffirm
the values of a democraticsociety.'6Theyalso acin World
cepteda doctrineemployedby mostAmericanpropagandists
9i 17 One was
War II-the "strategyof truth"or "propagandaof fact."
one's sidewhilepassingoverthe
scrupulousaboutthatwhichsupported
13
CulbertinterviewwithDonald Young, February 13, 1977; letterof Young to Culbert,
December 27, 1976.
14
Stoufferpublicized his attitudesurveysin Whatthe Soldier Thinks,completecopies of
whichare foundin RG 330, MMR-NA, along withsupportingunpublisheddata. In summary
formtheyappear in Samuel A. Stouffer,et al., Studies in Social Psychologyin WorldWar
II: Vol. I, The American Soldier: AdjustmentDuring ArmyLife; Vol. II, Combat and Its
Aftermath;Vol. III, Experimentson Mass Communication; Vol. IV, Measurement and
Prediction (Princeton,N. J.: PrincetonUniv. Press, 1949-50). The methodologyof these
surveysis brilliantlyattacked in Jacques Ellul, Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes(New York: Vintage, 1973), in particular259-302.
15 A good discussion of social engineeringis foundin Robert K. Merton,Social Theory
and Social Structure(rev. ed; Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1957), in particularchapter 16,
"Science and Democratic Social Structure." See also Alvin M. Weinberg,"Can Technology Replace Social Engineering,"in AlbertH. Teich, ed., Technologyand Man's Future
(New York: St. Martins, 1972), 27-35. For the originof the termsee H. S. Person, "Engineering,"in Edwin R. A. Seligman, et al., eds., Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences,
volume V-VI (New York, 1931), 542.
16 For Young's pre-war work see his Motion Pictures: A Study in Social Legislation
(Philadelphia: Westbrook, 1922); he also edited two special issues of the Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science: The American Negro, 90 (1928) and
MinorityPeoples in a Nation at War, 223 (1942).
17 For a good discussion of the problemsee Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Robert K. Merton,
"The PsychologicalAnalysisof Propaganda," in Writers'Congress. The Proceedingsof the
ConferenceHeld in October 1943 underthe Sponsorshipof the Hollywood Writers'Mobilization and the Universityof California(Berkeley, Cal., 1944), 362-80.
622
American Quarterly
restinsilence.Theresultoftensoundedlikea lawyer'sbriefpretending
to
objectivity.
The fourthgroupwas the Hollywoodfilmcommunity.
The factthat
Capra'sunitwas staffed
withregulars
fromthemajorstudios,andthatthe
filmswereactuallymadein Hollywood,meantthatmilitary
filmmaking
was followedon a dailybasis.TheNegroSoldierplayeda significant
part
in furthering
a dramaticshiftin the kindsof roles blacks receivedin
featurefilms;after1945theera ofthe"message" filmwas at hand.Only
TheNegroSoldier,ofall wartime
filmsdepicting
blacks,actuallytriedto
weavetheNegrointothefabricofAmericanlife;thischaracteristic
made
the Army'sfilma modelforfilmmakers
wishingto breakthroughingrainedindustry
stereotypes.
Before1939,virtually
everyblackrolewas intendedas comicrelief.18
The War Department'sofficer'strainingmanual,Leadershipand the
NegroSoldier,describedthisstockfigurevividly:"WhentheNegrois
inthemovies,orelsewhere,as a lazy,shiftless,
portrayed
no-good,slewfooted,happy-go-lucky,
razor-toting,
tap-dancing
vagrant,a step has
beentakeninthedirection
offixing
thismentalpictureoftheNegrointhe
mindsof whites.'19 The NAACP's WalterWhitewentto Hollywood
twicein 1942to urgea betterfuture
forblacksin featurefilms.20
White,
accordingto producerDarrylF. Zanuck of TwentiethCentury-Fox,
wantedNegroes"used as oftenas possiblein themoreheroicroles-in
thepositionswhichtheyoccupyin reallife."21 In Sahara (1943),a black
evenactedas spokesmanfordemocratic
values.Butsuchroles,however
well-intentioned,
werebutmoresophisticated
versionsofearlierattempts
whichoverpraised
Negrocolleges.
To understand
TheNegroSoldieras a productofHollywoodtechnique
and socialscienceprescriptions,
itis necessaryto followtheevolutionof
thescript.In March1942FrankCapraaskedtheResearchBranchtodraw
up a listof"do's anddon'ts"regarding
thecinematic
depiction
ofblacks.
SociologistDonald Young,who had devotedhis pre-warcareerto the
studyof racialminorities
and theimpactof motionpictures,prepareda
memorandum
filledwithwell-meaning
cautions,theideasofa liberalwho
above all soughtracialtolerance:avoidstereotypes
suchas theNegroes'
allegedaffinity
forwatermelon
orpork;also avoidstrongimagesofracial
identity
("play downcoloredsoldiersmostNegroidin appearance"and
18
Thomas Cripps, Slow Fade to Black: The Negro in American Film, 1900-1942 (New
York: OxfordUniv. Press, 1977).
19Leadership and the Negro Soldier, 4.
20 Cripps,Slow Fade to Black, 375-76.
21 Zanuck to screenwriterEric Knight,July22, 1942, Eric Knight MSS, Quakertown,
Penna.
The Negro Soldier
623
omit "Lincoln, emancipation,or any race leaders or friendsof the
Negro"). Youngalso favoredintraracial
politesse:"Show coloredofficersin commandoftroops,butdon'tplaythemup too much.The Negro
masseshavelearnedthatcoloredmenwhogetcommissions
tendto look
downon themasses."22
The firstscriptforTheNegroSoldierwas preparedbyMarcConnelly.
As writerforGreenPastures(1930)he had a reputation
forsympathetic
treatment
of Negrothemes.23
Connellybeganworking
in Washington
in
May 1942andfollowedCaprato Hollywoodwhentheunitmovedtherein
June.The script,whichhas disappeared,
was deemed"too dramatic"for
theArmy'stastes.A seconddraft,
preparedby Ben Hechtand JoSwerling,was also rejectedbecauseI&E continued
toinsistthattheNegrofilm
be "documentary"-i.e.,an exampleofthe"propagandaoffact."24
Duringscriptrevisions,Capra gave littleattention
to the project;in
fact,he plannedto assignthefilmto his friendWilliamWyler,butthe
latter"got a betterofferfromtheAirForce." In thefallof 1942Capra
chose StuartHeisler,a comparatively
youngdirector(see Figure1).25
Heisler alreadyhad extensiveexperienceas a studiotechnicianand
seemedknowledgeable
aboutracialmatters
afterhavingmadeTheBiscuit
Eater, a 1940filmshoton locationin Georgiawithan interracial
cast.
Heislerimmediately
acceptedtheoffer,askingonlythatCapra provide
himwith"somebodythatreallyknowsthebackground
oftheNegro."26
As a result,CarltonMoss, a black writer,was pressedintoservice.
Moss had attendedColumbiaUniversity
and had workedfortheFederal
TheaterProjectunderJohnHouseman,whointurnrecommended
himto
Capra. Accordingto both Heisler and Moss the two "hit it offlike
magic." Moss remembersworkingon his version of the scriptin
at theLibraryof Congress,butnotbecause it puthimnear
Washington
thebooks he needed.It was hardto writeaboutracialharmony
while
eatingin JimCrowrestaurants;
theLibrary'scafeteriawas an unsegregated"oasis." 27
22
"Suggested Motion Pictureof the Negro in the U.S. Army," n.d. [Mar. 1942],copy in
Young to Culbert,December 27, 1976; the finalmemorandumis discussed in Lee, Employmentof Negro Troops, 387; CulbertinterviewwithDonald Young, February 13, 1977.
23
Capra, Name Above the Title, 337.
24 CarltonMoss to Donald Young, August26, 1942; Box 224, Records of the CivilianAide
to the Secretaryof War (Hastie File), RG 107, MMR-NA.
25
CrippsinterviewwithFrankCapra, La Quinta,Cal., December 31, 1976; Axel Madsen,
WilliamWyler:The AuthorizedBiography(New York: Crowell. 1973), 224-25.
26
Cripps telephoneinterviewwithStuartHeisler, February 17, 1977.
27
Cripps interviewswith Carlton Moss, Hollywood, Cal., June 1970; Boston, Mass.,
April 1973; Iowa City, Iowa, July,1974. Moss attended Morgan State College and wrote
radio scriptsforDr. ChanningTobias, head of the black YMCA.
624
American Quarterly
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The Negro Soldier
625
1943.Heisler,Moss, ResearchBranchrepShootingbeganin January
resentativeCharlesDollard,and a cameracrew travelledthe United
everylocationwhereblack
Armyposts,virtually
nineteen
States,visiting
DonaldYoungarranged
troopstrainedinlargenumbers.In Philadelphia,
Negroes.Heisler
foradded scenesto be shotat thehomesofprominent
prepareda numberof sequencesin whichblack officersdirectedthe
ofsoldiers.Mostofthisfootageneverappearedbecausethefinal
training
style.
versionreliedmoreon a docudramathana documentary
approvalinJanuary
long,receivedofficial
film,43 minutes
Thefinished
inclassicstudiostyle,witha
1944.28 The Negro Soldier (OF 51) unfolded
and techniout a flashbackdevice,flawlesslighting,
narrative
spinning
the sequences.To black audicallyperfectopticaleffectspunctuating
ences, in particular,this technicalqualitywas especiallysignificant.
Never before had a filmpurportingto documentblack American
competence.Atthesame
beenmadewithsuchprofessional
achievement
time,themovieservedtheArmyas propagandaforbothblackandwhite
troopsand as a teacherof comradelyregardacrossraciallineswithout
Armypolicytowardracialsegregation.
violating
explicitly
A summaryof the film'svisual contentshows how this was accomplished.Neat, clean, orderly,responsible,patriotic:these are the
middle-class
valueswhichthefilmpresentsinimageafterimage.Followshotplaces us in a splendid
ingtheopeningcredits,a wideestablishing
we see a
stoneGothicchurch.Fromthepointofviewofthecongregation
extraordia
a
of
hear
chorus
singing solo; we
blacksoldier,in uniform,
naryability.As the last notesfade away a handsomeyoungpreacher
repre(playedbyCarltonMoss) turnsfromhispreparedtextto introduce
a
a
soldier,
cuts
to
sailor,
the
The
camera
pews.29
sentativesoldiersin
WAC, "PrivateParks,FirstClass." "First
evena beautiful
light-skinned
pride.
class, indeed,"saysthepreacherwithundisguised
inuniform,
fullofservicemen
congregation,
attentive
Thewell-dressed,
ofblackAmericans:newsinspiresMoss to reflecton theachievements
reel clips show Joe Louis withhis "Americanfist" recoveringthe
fromMax Schmeling;black athletesdefeat
championship
heavyweight
Nazi Germany'sbest at the 1936BerlinOlympicgames.It seems that
can do,
competition
blackAmericais showingtheworldwhatdemocratic
and whathappenswhena Negrogetsa fairchanceto competeon equal
thatthe war is beingfoughtto
terms.Moss remindshis congregation
versionofOF 51 is foundin FS-NA.
A copyoftheoriginal
scenario,May 31, 1943,plus an earlier
A completecopy of the finalphotographic
versiondated September17, 1942,maybe foundin proj. 6022,062.2 ocsigo,Box 12,
a
onlyafterrejecting
himself
thepreacher
Mossendedupplaying
WNRC-Suitland.
A52-248,
blackactingstyles.
successionofHollywoodNegroeswhoseemedtiedto traditional
28
29
626
American Quarterly
defendtheAmericanway oflife.A Nazi training
filmshowsSchmeling
learning
to be a parachutist;
morenewsreelfootageshowsJoeLouis, in
uniform,
goingthrough
Armybasic training.
Moss producesa copy of
MeinKampfand readsa passagein whichHitlerdescribesthefutility
of
teachinga "half-ape"to be a doctoror lawyer.The congregation
looks
appropriately
shockedto learnwhattheNazis reallythinkaboutNegroes
(see Figure2).
Moss thenreflects
upontheheroism
ofblacksinearlierAmerican
wars.
To recreatehistoricbattles,Heislerused neithercompletereenactment
nor merereproduction
of old paintingsand engravings.
The shooting
scriptcalledfortransparencies
or "glass shots"madefromcontemporary
illustrative
materials,whileblack and whiteactorsdressedas soldiers
passedintheforeground
carrying
powderandshottotheircannons.30
The
"glass shots,"intercut
withinterracial
closeupsforemphasis,illuminated
theblackrolein earlierwars,alongwiththesettlement
oftheWest.To
Negroestheveryidea of anyblackpast otherthanslaverywas forthe
mostparta completesurprise.Herewas visualproofthatAmericaowed
its freedomto its entirepopulation.This lesson in race pridemade an
indelibleimpressionon those whose educationincludedvirtuallyno
mention
ofblackhistory.
For eventsafter1898,itwas possibleto use newsreelfootage.Flickeringimagesdrawnfromarchivalfilmallowedaudiencesto see documentaryevidenceofNegroesinCuba andlaborersdigging
thePanamaCanal.
A wonderful
character("Hi, I'm Jim"-who looks old enoughto have
in 1898)is superimposed
fought
overthedocumentary
footage.He tellsus
about "cleaning up" in Cuba and diggingthe canal. He sounds so
matter-of-fact
thatwe are sweptalongintoacceptingtheunspokenmessage: patriotic,
dependableblackshave been working
to keep America
safe all along.For WorldWar I thereis footageof the 369thNational
Guardin theuniform
of theFrenchArmy.The historical
accountends
witha stagedsequencefeaturing
a blacksailor,sureto be takenforDorie
Miller,a stewardin thesegregated
Navywhohad takenup a fallengunner'sweaponat PearlHarborandbecamethefirstblackinWorldWarII
30
The script'sshootinginstructions
forachievingthisresultare instructive:
"(NOTE:
Thisscenewillbe usedas a transparency
to workintwoorthreeNegrosoldierswithwhite
soldierspassingin the foreground
shotand powderforcannons.)"; "(NOTE:
carrying
Beginning
withtheRevolutionary
period,downthrough
allthewars,including
WorldWarI
IMPRESSIONISTIC
CLOSEUPS-white
andNegro-mostlyrecognizable
Negrofaces-will be
shotfordressing
up andemphasizing
thattherewereNegrosoldiersinall ofthesewars.)"
Script,May31, 1943,p. 12,A52-248,
WNRC-Suitland.
Theofficial
production
budgetunder
theheading"BitsandExtras"calledfor"BattleofNew Orleans.5 Negroes1 dayat$10.50
a day." Copyin 333.9,ig,Box 1160,RecordsoftheInspectorGeneral,RG 159,WNRCSuitland.
The Negro Soldier
2. Calton Moss. holdinga copy ofMein
KampAf
Figure
butalso starredas the minister.
627
Moss not only wrotethe script
to fireat theenemy.The Japaneseattackprovides Moss withan opportunityto make anotherpoint: "'And thereare those who will stilltell you
thatJapan is the saviour of the colored races," therebysuggestingthe
opposite-neither Hitler nor Hirohito have anythingbut contemptfor
Negroes.
The filmnow makes an abrupt transitionfrompast performanceto
presentopportunities.Mrs. Bronson, a handsome middle-agedwoman
wearinga suit and small fur stole (a scrupulous middle-class image in
keepingwithDonald Young's prescription),stands up in churchto read a
letterfromherson who has just become an Armyofficer.As she reads the
letter,thefilmcuts to scenes of basic training.Young Bronsonis the very
pictureof lightskinned,muscularleadership.He drillsin the snow, goes to
a segregateddance, meets a nice younggirl,and back at camp, is introduced to the poetryof Langston Hughes. Aftersoldieringall week Bronson heads for church on Sunday. The camp chaplain offersa pep talk
describingimprobablybroad opportunitiesforblacks to get into Officer
CandidatesSchool and even West Point:Armyunitsare shownas eager to
628
American Quarterly
(see Figure3). ThefilmendsbackinMrs.Bronson's
acceptblackrecruits
risesto sing"OnwardChristianSoldiers"
churchas the congregation
whichseguesinto"JoshuaFit'de Battleob Jericho,"overwhichwe see a
menandwomen.The songsandimagescombinein
montageofmarching
a finalemotionalappealforwartimeunity.
At first,The Negro Soldier was intendedsolely forblack troops.
Donald Young wrotean officialmanual,Leadership of Negro Troops, to
blackunitsin WorldWar
whocommanded
be used bythewhiteofficers
11.31 But even beforethefilmwas released,twoof thefourgroups,the
and
and theblacks,beganto agitateforwidermilitary
social scientists
civiliandistribution.
amountof officialdebate.The
Such talkresultedin an extraordinary
of morethan
representatives
film'sdirector,StuartHeisler,remembers
theroughcut and readingrevisionsof the
fifty
federalofficesscreening
Nobodyseemedsurewhattheimpactof thefilmmightbe on
script.32
black soldiers.To learnif the filmwould encourageriotingby Negro
troops,Heisler,Moss, and CharlesDollard,theResearchBranchrepretooktheirproductto a "Negro campoutsideof San Diego."
sentative,
who "knew" hismen,insistedthatthefilmwouldproThe commander,
military
ina specialunitofnearlyone hundred
vokeviolence.He brought
police to preventtrouble.The resultwas hardlywhatthe commander
threatened
to riotunlessall Negro
blackrecruits
expected.Enthusiastic
troopson thepost saw thefilm.33
problem.Here anothergroup,the
Whitesoldiersoffereda different
tooka directhandtoensurethatthefinalproductwould
Armyleadership,
be safeenoughto appealtothewidestpossibleaudience.AnatoleLitvak,
thecompleted"answer
Heisler'ssuperiorintheCapraunit,hand-carried
print"ofTheNegroSoldierto thePentagonin October1943.Marshall,
Stimson,Osborn,the head of the Army'sBureauof PublicRelations,
GeneralA. D. Surles,and AssistantSecretaryof War JohnJ. McCloy
31
Osur,Blacks in the ArmyAir Forces, 80-81, notesoppositionwithinthe Armyto
issuingManual M5. The forewordto Leadership and the Negro Soldier, p. iv, specifically
suggests
thatTheNegroSoldierbe shownas partofthecourseofinstruction,
"preferably
thesecondmeeting,"
andalso suggests,
p. 64, thatone oftheCapraWhyWeFightfilms,
Divideand Conquer,be shownto combatracial"hate" rumorswithintheUnitedStates.
Gunnar Myrdal's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy
(New York:Harper,1944),is givenparticular
emphasisin themanual'slistof suggested
readings,
p. 101.
32
withHeisler,February
interview
Crippstelephone
17, 1977;TheNationalFilmBoard
thereare aboutsixty
News Letter,February4, 1944,2, reportedthat"in Washington
different
bureausorsub-bureaus
oftheU.S. Government
concerned
witheithertheproduction,distribution,
or utilization
of films."Copyin Box 1486,entry269,RG 208, WNRCSuitland.
33 Crippsinterview
withHeisler,February17, 1977.
The Negro Soldier
'N.
~
~
629
.
Figure 3. Location footage of black troops revealed a wide range of militaryspecialtiesand roles of blacks along withcontinuingsegregation.(Courtesyof Film Stills Archive,
Museumof Modern Art.)
personallyviewed the film.On November 1, aftermuch discussion, Litvak receiveda detailed memorandumoutliningspecificchanges intended
to makethefilmmorefactuallyaccurate and to mollifyracial sensibilities
ofaudiences.34Heisler had alreadybeen orderedto cut thefootageshowing men "under the command of Negro officers."'35War Department
officialsinsistedthat a section of the filmdealing with World War I include "'a small amount of footage which would show that Negroes did
somethingotherthan engage in combat in the frontline." Emphasis on
blackcombatexperiencein the currentwar also had to be "toned down"
since it "would give an erroneous conception of the overall job of the
Army." Finally, every nicety of customaryracial etiquette was to be
preserved. For example: "The sequence showing a [white] nurse or
physiotherapyattendant massaging the [black] soldier's back will be
eliminated."36 This momentaryvisual breach of racial and sexual taboos
34 Munsonto Litvak, November 1, 1943,062.2 cos, Box 304, Records of the Chiefof Staff,
Troop Information
& Education, RG 319, MMR-NA.
"' Crippstelephoneinterview
withHeisler,Feb. 17, 1977.
:36Munsonto Litvak,Nov. 1, 1943,Box 304, RG 319, MMR-NA.
630
American Quarterly
couldnotbe shownthoughtheArmydiduse whitestaffto treatinjured
blacksoldiers.
for
1944theArmyagreedto use thefilminbasicorientation
In January
The Reto debatefurther
distribution.37
Negrotroops,whilecontinuing
searchBranchconducteda "scientific"surveyto see what statistics
whatindiThiswas thewartime
pattern:
might
say aboutwiderreception.
measprejudicecouldcompetewiththescientifically
vidualcommander's
thatalmostninety
uredopinionoftheentireArmy?The surveyreported
percentofblacksoldiersquestionedwantedthefilmshownto whitesolciviliansshouldsee
diersas wellas black.Almosteightypercentthought
it. The surprisecamein thewhiteresponse,foralmosteightypercentof
thefilmtobothblackandwhitetroops;
thosequestionedfavoredshowing
Still,
nearlyeightypercentwantedthefilmshownto whitecivilians.38
leadersinsistedthatthefilmbe accompaniedby printed
some military
materialdesignedto bluntthemessageofracialtolerance.The Research
of Donald Young,successfully
theefforts
through
Branch,particularly
insistedthatthefilmstandalone.39In spiteofitself,and in oppositionto
leaders,theUnitedStatesArmyhad a film
thewishesof somemilitary
preceptsto teachracialbrotherhood.
based on social engineering
In theend, OF 51 became"mandatory"viewingforall troopsat reBetweenFebruary1944and
theUnitedStates.40
centerswithin
placement
August1945,whentheorderwas rescinded,almosteveryblack in the
ofwhitesoldiersalso viewedit
ArmyandAirCorpssawthisfilm;millions
Thoughoverseascombat
as partofI&E's standard
orientation
program.41
viewingforall soldiers,theArmystill
zonescouldnotenforcemandatory
order
used the filmlate in 1946. HarryTruman's1948 desegregation
usefulness.42
markedtheend of OF 5I's official
audiences.Whatwouldhappenifit
Thefilmhadbeenmadeformilitary
films(including
Prelude
joinedtheranksofa fewotherArmyorientation
to War and The Battle ofRussia fromthe WhyWe Fight series) and found
37 Karl Marks to JohnHubbell, Jan. 12, 1944,copy in OF 51 productionfiles,062.2 ocsigo,
Box 14, RG 111, FS-NA.
38 Report B-102, "Reactions of Negro and WhiteSoldiers to the filmThe Negro Soldier,
April 17, 1944. 439 blacks and 510 whitesat Camp Pickett,Virginia,previewedthe film.In
additionalmost91 percentof the whitesdescribedit as "very good." Copy in Box 992, RG
330, MMR-NA.
39 Memorandum,
Maj. Gen. Ray Porter,AssistantChiefof StaffG-3, to Osborn, May 4,
1944,413.53 ag, Box 3241, Records of the AdjutantGeneral,RG 407, MMR-NA; Karl Marks
to ocsigo, Apr. 15, 1944,062.2 ocsigo, Box 44, A45-196,WNRC-Suitland.
40
War DepartmentCircular208, May 25, 1944,413.56 ag, Box 3241, RG 407, MMR-NA.
41
War DepartmentCircular 283, September 19, 1945, 413.53 ag, Box 3237, RG 407,
MMR-NA.
42
Brig. Gen. C. T. Lanham, Director,I&E Div., to Karl Korter,June6, 1946,062.2 cos,
Box 374, RG 319, MMR-NA.
The Negro Soldier
631
to movietheatersall over the UnitedStates?
commercialdistribution
Wouldwhitepatronspay regularadmissionto see a filmabout racial
feltsure the answerwas no. Blacks thought
tolerance?Distributors
natureofthefilmwouldmake
thattheofficial
theyrecognized
otherwise;
forcivilrights
ifitwerewidelyseen
weaponinthestruggle
itan effective
by civilians.
The firststep was officialapprovalfromElmerDavis, head of the
ofhis staff
(OWI).43 He and severalmembers
Officeof WarInformation
changes.
screenedThe Negro Soldierand demandedyeta fewfurther
passablein
Davis concludedthatthefilm"probablywouldbe perfectly
in theNorth;andthattheonlyrisks. .. wouldbe
anytheatreswhatever
attendantupon showingit in, say, Atlanta,or some such Southern
center." One memberof his staffintroduceda new area of possible
or not "the Negropress" mightconsiderthefilm
opposition-whether
"just icing."44
1944to a privateshowingat thePentagonfor
OWI fearsled inJanuary
FrankCapra,thoughhe hadlittleto
blackjournalists.
nearlytwohundred
Most
to show"his" production.
do withthefilm,arrivedin Washington
of theaudiencewrotefavorable-evenglowing-reviews,passingover
groups
Activist
theomissionofslaveryandtherealitiesofdiscrimination.
suchas theNAACP and theNationalNegroCongresspraisedthefilm
In
as "the bestever done" and calledforits widespreaddistribution.45
releasedthefilmto civilianaudiences.
April1944theArmyofficially
It was one thingto makethefilmavailableto civilians,anotherto have
it seen. From April 1944,the fateof The Negro Soldier increasingly
ofblacks,inparticular
CarltonMoss andTruman
turnedon theactivities
Bothproved
K. Gibson,now Stimson'sCivilianAideforNegroAffairs.
a
Hollywoodopinioninthefilm'sfavor,andovercoming
adeptat rallying
oftheNew YorkTimesthought
mixedcriticalresponse.BosleyCrowther
avoids
thefilm"questionable"becauseit "sugarcoats" and "discreetly
whocovthemorerealisticraceproblems."JamesAgee,theSoutherner
painfully
eredcinemafortheliberalNation,termedthefilm"pitifully,
he recognizedthatblandnessmadeitmoresaleable.Few
mild"although
whitecriticssharedAgee's insightintoblackattitudestowardthefilm.
anddecentas faras itgoes," he wrote,it"meansa gooddeal,I
"Straight
43A good introduction
to the OW1 is Allan M. Winkler,The Politics of Propaganda: The
Officeof War Information,1942-1945 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1978); for Davis'
pre-warradio experience see David Holbrook Culbert,News for Everyman: Radio and
Foreign Affairsin ThirtiesAmerica (Westport,Ct.: Greenwood, 1976), 125-52.
44 Paul Horganto Lyman Munson, Nov. 6, 1943,062.2 cos, Box 304, RG 319, MMR-NA.
45 Capra, Name Above the Title,358-62. Mabel R. Staupers, NAACP, to Maj. Gen. A. D.
Surles, February25, 1944; and telegram,National Negro Congress to Surles, February19,
1944, RG 107, MMR-NA.
632
American Quarterly
gatherto mostof the Negrosoldierswho have seen it." Moss agreed,
telling
a Timereporter
thatthemoviewould"meanmoretoNegroesthan
mostwhitemencouldimagine."46
Civiliandistribution
debatebedependedon resolvinga longstanding
tweenthe Armyand the War ActivitiesCommittee
(WAC), the group
representing
in negotiations
commercialdistributors
forcirculationof
films.47The Negro Soldier, at 43 minutes,
halfof
or roughly
government
normalfeaturelength,wouldremainunpopularwithbookersbecauseno
whatitsmerits,
thefilmrequireda changeinthestandard
matter
of
length
programs.48
To combinean educationalfilmof "excessive" lengthwith
OF 51's subjectseeminglyrestricted
But
viewingto black theaters.49
Armyenthusiasm
prevailedover WAC opposition.The Negro Soldier
was releasedto thosetheaters
whichrequesteditfroma nationaltotalof
16,203"pledged"commercial
houses.Accurateattendance
records,kept
in partto staveoffpossiblegovernment
revealedthatin calenregulation,
dar year 1944the filmwas a commercial
bust. It playedin only 1,819
incontrast
to mostOWI shortswhichplayedinmorethan13,000
theaters
theaters,or theAirCorpscombatfilmMemphisBelle (in Technicolor),
seen in over 12,000theatersthe same year.50Because of its awkward
length,fearsofresentment
of itsspecialpleading,and thenormally
low
grossesgeneratedby slack summerattendance,OF 51 in its firstrun
seems to have done morepoorlythanany otherfilmreleasedby the
government
forcommercial
distribution.
LeadingHollywoodproducers,urgedon by Moss and Gibson,tried
anotherwayofbeefingup attendance.Litvakand Heislerre-cutthefilm
to a 20-minute
two-reeler,
enablingthe Armyto offertwo lengthsof
46
The New York Times, Apr. 22, 1944; Nation, March 11, 1944, 316; Time, March 27,
1944,94, 96.
47 Foran excellent
discussionofhowtheWACfunctioned
see mimeographed
analysisof
theaterbookingpracticespreparedforWar ManpowerCommission,
n.d. [July1944]in
TaylorMillsto FrancisHarmon,July22, 1944,Box 1488,entry
269,RG 208; see also Mills
to TrumanGibson,May 1, 1944,Box 1484,entry268,RG 208,bothin WNRC-Suitland.
48 WarActivities
Moviesat War1945(New York:WarActivity
Committee,
Committee,
1945),42,copyenclosedinFrancisHarmonto Culbert,
January
26, 1977;information
about
exactbookings
ofOF 51ineachofthirty-one
exchanges
is foundinBox 1485,entry
269,RG
208,WNRC-Suitland.
49 Peter
Noble.TheNegroinFilms(NewYork:ArnoPress,1970),99-100listsnumbers
of
blacktheaters
by state.
50 Telegram,
LehmanKatz to LymanMunson,n.d. [June19, 1944];unsigned
memorandum,n.d. [June28, 1944],bothin proj. 6024,062.2 ocsigo,Box 12, A52-248,WNRCSuitland.The shortandlongversionswerebothmadeavailableto commercial
distributors
in July1944.Publicity
releaseWAC, July21, 1944,copyin Box 1, AlbertDeane MSS,
MuseumofModernArtFilmLibrary,
NewYork,N. Y. A printofOf24is availablefrom
the
ArmyTraining
SupportCenter,Tobyhanna,
Pa.
The Negro Soldier
633
inJuly1944.51As OF 24,butwiththe
beginning
thesamefilmto civilians,
enidenticalto OF 51, thoughomitting
same title,thefilmis virtually
atOfficer
CandidatesSchool.
Mrs.Bronsonandherson'sexperience
tirely
At the end a few added shotsof black pilotsand black construction
in
inIndiahelpedgivea widervisualsenseofNegroinvolvement
workers
thewar. OnlyThe NegroSoldier,of all filmsproducedby themilitary
duringthe war,was availablein two versionsat the same time.Moss
estimatedthatpossibly5,000 theaterseventuallyshowedthe shorter
version.
stillfacedone last hurdle,a lawsuitfroma white
Civiliandistribution
who had also made a movieabout race pride.Jack
Jewishfilmmaker
ofThe NegroMarchesOn, Inc., foryearshad proGoldberg,president
fordisduced "race movies,"a genreof cheaplymountedproductions
houses.He sued in federalcourtto retribution
in Negroneighborhood
strainthe WAC frombookingThe NegroSoldier,claimingthatit competed unfairlywithhis own film,We've Come a Long, Long Way, which
thesame subject(see Figure4). Goldberg'sfilmposdealtwithroughly
by
in blackcirclesowingto its sponsorship
sessed a certaincredibility
to
Elder Solomon LightfootMichaux,a radio evangelistwell-known
Negrolisteners.52
RoyWilkinshelped
AtthispointtheNAACP enteredthecontroversy.
listofwhiteliberalsto "assist
TrumanGibsonassemblea "confidential"
FiorelloLa Guardia,Cardinal
NelsonRockfeller,
including
distribution,"
Spellman,and theNew Yorker'sHaroldRoss. NAACP specialcounsel
anamicuscuriaebrief,insisting
MarshalljoinedGibsoninfiling
Thurgood
a film
thattheWACprovided"theonlyavailablemedium"forcirculating
that"proceededon thepremisethatracialprejudiceswhichdivideour
offacts."
willhavetheireffect
minimized
bythedissemination
population
Marshalland WalterWhitethenproddedtheliberalHollywoodWriters'
to national
thefilmas a "real contribution
intoendorsing
Mobilization
for
of"racistlies."53GibsonandMoss arranged
unity"anda repudiation
51 "Weekly Reporton Film ProductionActivities,"Lehman Katz to Paul Horgan, May 3,
1944, 319.1 cos, Box 370, RG 319, MMR-NA. Specific suggestionsfromthe producersare
quoted in Gibson to Anatole Litvak, Apr. 14, 1944, proj. 6024, 062.2 ocsigo, Box 12, A52248, WNRC-Suitland.
52 The Goldberg film was based on the OWI pamphlet Negroes and the War. Jack
Goldbergto Francis Harmon, February28, 1944, Box 1488, entry269, RG 208.
53 Wilkinsto Gibson, January3, 14, 15; February 1, 3, 1944; Wilkinsto Maj. Homer B.
Roberts, February9, 1944; United States DistrictCourt, SouthernDistrictof New York,
Negro Marches On, Plaintiff,v. War ActivitiesCommittee,Defendants,copy, n.d.; Gibson, amicus curiae brief,2 pages, n.d.; Thurgood Marshall to Pauline Lauber, executive
secretary,Hollywood Writers'Mobilization,May 2, 1944; RobertRossen to Frank Capra,
March 30, 1944,all in Box 277, Records of theNational AssociationfortheAdvancementof
Colored People, ManuscriptDivision, Libraryof Congress, Washington,D. C. [hereafter
NAACP Records].
American Quarterly
634
33~~?
yif-;L
NEGRO
CAN
BEPROUDOF.'
EPIC OF 7hE
THEDRAMATIC'
-1
r
).Soi~~
2
X FisonsS
t0
W
SHOWING
NEGRO
PEOPLE,
PROGRESS
ET14FIR-AMAZING
INTHELAST75 YEARS
- IN SCIENCE,
ART,
NE.ETC.
\MEVI
IN~
ome
aL
OF
LI
, THE
SLAVERY.
0jlj~ffUWORLD,49aikS.6.5435~wq
Figure 4. The Negro Soldier divertedattentionaway fromJack Goldberg and Elder
one of the last "race
Soloman Michaux's
Come a Long, Long Way,
Lightfoot
reeton We've
8un 944Tto rmupsporfo
gala~ Holyoo
~seriously
~~~
a bnMy an
movies"
that
challenged Hollywood's version of the Negro. (Advertisementin
NAACP Records, Libraryof Congress.)
gala Hollywood receptionsin May and June 1944 to drumup supportfor
both versionsof "their" film.Black actress Lena Horne praised the film
and major Hollywood producersprovidedblurbs,most more convincing
than thatofferedby Columbia's HarryCohn: "the greatestWar DepartmentPictureever made." 54
The NAACP, whichhad nothingto do withthe makingof OF 51, now
promotedthe filmas ifit were its own. "NAACP Deplores Legal Action
Against Film The Negro Soldier," declared a press release which
claimed thatGoldberg's filmwas "insultingto Negroes," in contrastto
the
The Negro Soldier's "enormous potentialitiesforgood in stimulating
morale of AmericanNegroes and in educatingwhiteAmericans." White
also persuadedliberalJewishgroupsto repudiateGoldberg,therebyavoid54 Quoted in Gibson to Anatole Litvak, April 14, 1944,proj. 6024, 062.2 ocsigo, Box 12,
A52-248,WNRC-Suitland.
The Negro Soldier
635
ing the appearance of a "Jewish vs. Negro situation." Goldberg was
termeda longtimeexploiterof black audiences. In the end Goldberglost in
courtand settledfora few days' "clearance" to allow his filma briefrun
and give him a chance to get back part of his investment.55
The Negro press continuedits campaign to gain wider distribution.It
urged the National Council of Negro Women "to rally the public and
force the special film,The Negro Soldier, to be released in fullto audiences of bothraces." In Los Angelespress supportled to a previewunder
the auspices of the mayor's Civic UnityCommitteeat a leading hotel.56
Educators invokedthe argumentsof the scientificsample to promotethe
film.They tested OF 51 as a tool forteaching"inter-cultural
education"
and "living together,"and rankedit thirdin effectivenessout of seventeen filmsstudied.57
The campaign soon included plans for distributing
the filmto civilian
audiences outside the commercialcircuit.The coming of age of 16 millimeterfilm(at the time stillcalled "substandard" film)proved a major
means forspreadinggovernmentinformation
throughoutthe country.Indeed World War II markedthe apogee of non-commercialdistribution
of
filmsin the United States.58The OWI and the Army's Public Relations
Bureau waged a tedious administrativebattle over distribution.In April
1944 the OWI won the rightto distributethe long version (OF 51) nontheatricallyto a networkof filmdepartmentsin public libraries,schools,
and colleges in every state.59The Film Libraryof the Museum of Modem
Artin New York, which developed educational distributionof "classic"
filmsin the late 1930s,helped promoteThe Negro Soldier by includingit
55 Goldbergto CongressmanAndrewJ., May, April 1, 1944; Goldbergto White,May 25,
1944; Ralph Cooper to White,June8, 1944; JuliaE. Baxter to Wilkins,November 4, 1943;
press release dated April27, 1944; Whiteto Marshall,May 4, 1944; all in Box 277, NAACP
Records.
56 Clippingsfromblack press; and invitations
to Moss fromthe Civic Unity Committee
and Charles U. Shellenberg,Los Angeles YMCA, April24, 1944, in personalfilesof Moss,
copies sent to Cripps; trade paper clippingsin StuartHeisler MSS, Theater Arts Library,
UCLA.
57 Discussed in Leonard Bloom, CaliforniaEagle, March 16, 1944; and Esther L. Berg,
"Films to Better Human Relations," reprintedfromHigh Points (New York: Brooklyn
JewishCommunityCouncil, n.d. [1945]), copies frompersonalfilesof Moss sentto Cripps.
58 RG 208 has the extensive records of OWI's Non-theatricalDivision of the Motion
PictureBranch. See also Film Council of America,SixtyYears of 16mmFilm 1923-1983: A
Symposium(Evanston, Ill., 1954), 148-59.
59 CurtissMitchellto StantonGriffis,
April 12, 1944,Box 1484,entry268; Taylor Mills to
Edgar Baker, June8, 1944,Box 1486,entry269; methodsof distribution
are discussed in C.
R. Reagan to CongressmanLouis Ludlow, June10, 1944,Box 1581,entry305; all inRG 208,
WNRC-Suitland.
636
American Quarterly
in a special seriesof Capra-unit
filmsshownin New York to capacity
audiences in July1944.60
Black groupsthroughout
the countrywere soon enthusiasticover
The
"their"filmand eagerlybookedit forchurchand civicfunctions.61
Educational Film Guide for 1945, a standard guidebook for users of
documentary
film,praisedOF 51's technicalquality:"good photographs,
a nice varietyof scene, some flashesof humorand excellentmusical
62 The film'ssuperbtechnical
background."
qualitymadeitthehitofthe
season in nontheatrical
distribution.
The filmbureauof the Cleveland
PublicLibrary,
forexample,indicated
frequent
requestsforthefilminits
monthly
reportsto the OWI, listingsuch groupsas the "Woodbridge
Church."63Not everyreport
School & PTA" and the"Zion Methodist
indicates attendance figures-nor are such figures capable of
verification-but
yearlyestimatedattendanceat OWI filmsdistributed
nontheatrically
numberedover 7.5 million,and thatrepresentsonly
domesticdistribution.The filmwas also used extensivelyin Latin
America,particularly
inHaiti,withitspredominantly
blackpopulation.65
WiththereleaseofOF 51, Moss lobbiedfora secondfilm,eventually
calledTeamwork
advocateforracialinte(OF 14),a moreself-conscious
gration.The motionpictureshowsblacksin combatagainsttheNazis. A
sequenceshoton a Hollywoodbacklothas Nazi cannoneersshellblack
ofleafletsreminding
themofthe"lousiest"jobs and
troopswitha flurry
housingawaitingthemat thewar'send. The blackstossasidetheflyers,
as theyadvanceunderfire.The narrator
grantsthat"nobodythinksthe
United States is perfect."66 Joe Louis is quoted as saying"there's
60
Iris Barry, Curator, Museum of Modern Art Film Library, to Rudolph Montgelas,
Bureau of Public Relations, n.d. [Aug. 1944], War Dept. folder,CentralFiles, Museum of
Modern Art Film Library,New York, N. Y. 3,250 persons saw OF 51 (fromJuly24-30,
1944).
61 Not every group had a choice: "Mr. E. J. Welch, D. C. Reformatory,
Lorton, Va., is
anxious to obtain the film, THE NEGRO SOLDIER, for a showing at the reformatory."
CatherinePreston,to JosephBrechsteen,September13, 1944,Box 1483,entry268, RG 208,
WNRC-Suitland.
62 Dorothy E. Cook and Eva Rahbek-Smith,compilers,Educational Film Guide (New
York, W. W. Wilson, Co., 1945), 152. This annual compilationfirstappeared in 1936.
63 "OWI
MonthlyReport of GovernmentFilm Showings for October 1944," Cleveland
Public Library, Box 1640, entry362, RG 208, WNRC-Suitland. Boxes 1624-1647 cover
every state withvaryingdegrees of completenesson a monthlybasis.
64 C. R. Reagan statedthathe distributed
138 of his 150 16mmprintsfor 15,600showings
withan estimatedtotal audience of 3,220,000between June 15, 1944 and January1, 1945.
Reagan to Gibson, January4, 1945, Box 224, RG 107 (Hastie File), MMR-NA.
65 In June 1945 OF51 had been shown 69 times to 43,025 persons in Haiti. See monthly
"16mm Films-LatinAmericanProgram-Summary
by Title," Copy in Box 218, centralfiles
3, Records of the CoordinatorforInter-AmericanAffairs,RG 229, WNRC-Suitland.
66 There is a printin FS-NA. The Scriptand productionrecordsare foundin proj. 11, 015,
062.2 ocsigo, Box 19, A52-248, WNRC-Suitland.
The Negro Soldier
637
wrongwithAmericathatHitlercouldfix!" A timid,muchless
nothing
thanOF 51, Teamwork'smodest"message" about
elaborateproduction
alarmedsome in the Army.The filmreceived
nevertheless
integration
of
1946,thanksinpartto theefforts
releaseonlyinJanuary
belatedmilitary
the
at
film
of
the
a
sneak
preview
attended
the NAACP. Roy Wilkins
Centeron Long Island. Wilkinslobbiedfor
SignalCorps Photographic
thefilmcould "do muchto promoteracial
felt
releaseand theNAACP
unitynow and for thefuture." By the summerof 1946, Teamworkalso
wentintociviliandistribution.67
imcan be concludedaboutthedirectand indirect
Whatin retrospect
beWe
race
relations?
American
postwar
on
Soldier
pact of The Negro
racial
to
of
film
promote
use
the
in
watershed
a
represented
lievethisfilm
tolerance.The Negro Soldier's influencecan be seen in threeareas:
and thedemiseof "race films."
production,
promotion,
pressuregroupslearnedthatfilmwas a toolfor
Black
1) Promotion.
quality
howmuchthetechnical
socialchange.The Armydidnotrecognize
opporof
equality
to
commitment
military
a
viewers
to
ofthefilmsuggested
The existenceof sucha filmindicatedchangewithintheArmytunity.
whynotalso inthecivilianworld?CarltonMoss,handsomeandeloquent,
withfactsandforceof
was theeducatedpreacherwhomovedhislisteners
logic. Mrs. Bronson,in her suitand fur,seemedto provethata black
women,save fora slightly
motherwas the same as othermiddle-class
darkerskincolor.Moreover,theArmyconsideredMrs.Bronson'sson a
His hardworkpaid offin an
valuableasset and trainedhimthoroughly.
Was notthisvisualevidenceofequalityofopportucommission.
officer's
and
nity?How aboutPrivateParks,FirstClass-wasn't she attractive
And thatfinechurch
no matterwhatherracialbackground?
competent
people who took theircivic responsibilities
and all thosewell-dressed
seriously-allAmericacouldsee thesewerevaluablecitizens.Such imbut
agesprovidedvisualproofofwhyracialequalitywas notjustmorally
As Moss put it, he set out to
logicallyjustified.Whynoteverywhere?
"ignore what's wrongwiththe armyand tell what's rightwithmy
67 Wilkinsto Surles, August 22, 1945; Whiteto Marshall, Harrington
and Wilkins,April
17, 1946; Whiteto ArthurMayer, May 21, 1946; Whiteto Robert Patterson,May 9, 1946;
JeannetteE. Samuelson, public relations director, ArthurMayer and Juseph Burstyn
Fox to Fred
Theatres,to "Friend," mimeographed,July11, 1946; Ida Long, 20th-Century
S. Hall, December 27, 1944; Hall to White,December 29, 1944; Wilkinsto Maj. Homer B.
Roberts,January2, 1945, all in Box 277; Whiteto Wilkins,Marshall and Harrington,April
24, 1946; Wilkinsto JuliaE. Baxter and Harrington,October 21, 1946; Whiteto Patterson,
April24, May 9, 1946,all in Box 274; all in NAACP Records. Samuelson to W. W. Lindsay,
Army Pictorial Service, June 12, 1946, proj. 11, 015, ocsigo, Box 19, A52-248, WNRCSuitland.
638
American Quarterly
.
...
.
s
...
1
-
_L
............
f~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...
.......
hi.
j
insupportofwartime
callsfor"unity,""tolerFigure5. GoadedbyNAACPpressur~e
includedblacksintheranksof
ance," and "brotherhood,"
Hollywoodmoviessometimes
thepeoplesfighting
againstfascism,as herein thecase of AlfredHitchcock'sLifeboat
Canada Lee. (Copyright,
Twentieth
FilmCorporation.)
(1944),featuring
Century-Fox
people," which,he hoped,wouldcause whitesto ask "whatrighthave
we to hold back a people of thatcalibre?
The NAACP now understoodhow potentindirectmessagesin films
could be. It produceda brochurepromoting"audio-visualaids" for
-o deal with
"teachingdemocracy."'It formeda newnationalcomumittee
mattersoffilmpropagandaand encouragedfilmdistributors
to circulate
inventoriesof filmsurging"tolerance"'and "brotherhood"'such as
Teamwork and Americans All, producedby The March of Time. The
NationalConference
ofChristians
andJewsjoinedwhatpromisedtobe a
newmovement,
discussedinjournalswithtitleslikethe16mmReporter.69
s and beforecommercial'
and mmno-conmmerial
Gettingfilmsoffof shelve
audienceswas a specificgoal capable of fulfillment
of
by,any iAumber
blackpressuregroups.TheNAACPcouldechothesetntiment
of'anearlier
enthusiastfor social experimentation:
"I have seen teftr
and it
works."
I
89
Moss clipping
file,March1944,in personalfilesof Moss,copiessentto Cripps.
Pressclippings
in Box 274,NAACP Records.
639
The Negro Soldier
'Sr
*..4
irk..w.XSt.
.8S~~~~~~~~~i~~.
. ......
........
........
.. E... ....
....
Ni..
. ....,.S,.. ... . .. . .'. .. ,.R..
. .w.
.........
. ....
. ...
...*
~ ~ ~~~~
.:.,.i...;~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..........
.. .....
*p~;
...
'
't.
..
..
.
.
.
. .....
. . ... .
. ... ...............
...
.........
...
by TheNegroSoldierpersisted
exemplified
liberalism
Figure6. The trendof wartime
intotheeraoftheso-called"messagemovie"suchas Elia Kazan's Pinky(1949),a storyof
TwenEthelWatersandJeanneCrain.(Copyright,
"passing"fromblackto white,starring
FilmCorporation.)
tiethCentury-Fox
atthetime
of"messagefilms." A blackjournal'sheadline
2) Production
theWay."70
ofOF 51's releasemakesthepoint:"ArmyShowsHollywood
can
with"messages"aboutracialliberalism
films
eraoffeature
Thepostwar
Soldier,
Negro
to thehumane,naturalrealismof The
be traceddirectly
to insistthata singlefilmwas thesole cause
thoughitwouldbe simplistic
of every"message" motionpictureproducedafter1945.A numberof
the connection.7 JesterHairstonarrangedthe
examplesdemonstrate
choralpartsforThe Negro Soldier. After1945, DimitriTiomkin,who
change
wroteOF 51's score,used Hairstonforentirefilms,a startling
had
when
they
us
called
only
from"beforethewar [when]the studios
SolNegro
of
The
director
"72
'Negromusic'to be sung." StuartHeisler,
oftheKu
(1950), a harshindictment
dier,wentonto makeStormWarning
documenwartime
in
background
Klux Klan. Ben Maddowcamefroma
70Negro,II (Sept., 1944),94, Johnson
MSS.
71
in Social
is describedin SamuelGoldwyn,"How I BecameInterested
The tendency
100-01.
26 (Summer_1948),
Justice,"Opportunity,
72 "Movie Choir,"Ebony,4 (Oct. 1949),25-27.
640
American Quarterly
taryfilmto writethe screenplayforFaulkner'sIntruderin the Dust
(1949),an urgentplea formutualrespectacrossraciallinesintheSouth.
theDead End Kids' Spooks
CarlForeman,whobeganthewarbywriting
he wrote
Run Wild,workedforFrankCapra's filmunit.Afterwards
Home oftheBrave(1949),in whichtheblackherowas named"Mossy"
withCarletonMoss. StanleyKramer,
friendship
to a wartime
as a tribute
the producerof Home of the Brave, had workedat the SignalCorps
Uniton Long Island duringthe war. His entirepostwar
Photographic
careerwas devotedto "message" films,includingThe DefiantOnes
(1958) and Guess Who's Coming to Dinner? (1967), both vehicles for
(see Figure6).
SidneyPoitierand racialliberalism
3) The demiseof"race movies." The failureofJackGoldberg'ssuit
filmsbegantodepict
signalledan endforthe"race movie."Whenfeature
films
blacksas humanbeings,therewas no longera need forthird-rate
designedespeciallyforNegroaudiences.After1945it was soonhardfor
anyone, black or white,to rememberwhen as a matterof course
scene.
"race movies"werea stapleoftheAmerican
separate-but-unequal
ofTheNegroSoldierhad doneitsworkwell.
The humanity
in cause and effect,but perhapsa
The historianis alwaysinterested
the impactof The Negro
sense of ironyis essentialin understanding
to
committed
thattheArmy,officially
Soldier.Whowouldhave thought
the
promoted
wouldend up witha filmwhichsymbolically
segregation,
thata documentary-style
Whowouldhavepredicted
logicofintegration?
for militaryadvancement
filmabout black historyand opportunities
of featurefilmscallingforracialtolerance?
would spawna generation
filmwould make
orientation
Who would have thoughtthata military
pressuregroupscannothelp
black civiliansglow withpride?Minority
a
suchironies.Merelyto show filmis no guaranteeof anyappreciating
a "message" filmfora varietyof audiencesclearly
thing,butscreening
thesymconceivedof.Thisis arguably
can achieveresultsnotoriginally
realizedinthemidstoftotal
ofall massmedia,a potential
bioticpotential
war, when the Armyused filmto show not just Hollywoodbut all
was notonlya moralbutalso a logicalnecessity.
Americathatcivilrights
Such conclusionsled WalterFisher,one of a handfulof black officers
filma thirdof a century
thispioneering
assignedto I&E, to remember
later. Although"we knew . . . the day of jubilee had not arrived," he
considersTheNegroSoldier"one ofthefinestthingsthateverhappened
to America."74*
73 Crippstelephoneinterview
withCarltonMoss, July8, 1977; Crippstelephoneinterview
withStanleyKramer,July11, 1977; CrippstelephoneinterviewwithCarl Foreman,July12,
1977.
74 Culbertand Cripps interviewwithWalter Fisher, Washington,D. C., July12, 1977.
* We would like to thankthe Woodrow Wilson InternationalCenterforScholars, Smithsonian Institution,Washington,D. C., forsupportin preparingthis essay.