Reflections
on Water
TALKING ABOUT ISSUES OF
ACCESS TO FRESH WATER
This guide was prepared by the Canadian Council for International Co-operation (CCIC) with the
financial support of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The guide is designed
as a tool to facilitate public deliberation; viewpoints expressed in it do not necessarily reflect the views
of either CCIC or CIDA.
Many people contributed to the production of this guide and we thank them all. A special thanks goes
to all who reviewed various drafts of the manuscript with the aim of developing a guide that presents
each approach fairly and impartially. (Any faults in this regard are the writer’s alone).
Researcher/Writer: Ann Simpson
Moderator/Recorder Training: Anne Buchanan, Sue Cass and Gisèle Bélanger
Administrative Assistant: Cynthia Wagner
Photo credits: Cover: CIDA photo: Roger Lemoyne; CIDA photo: David Barbour (Thailand);
Anne Buchanan (Zimbabwe); Tony Gonda (Yukon Territory); Page 5: CIDA Photo: Roger Lemoyne;
Page 8: Mark Riley (Québec); Page 13: Corel Custom Photo; Page 14: Keith Lay (Yukon Territory);
Page 19: CIDA photo: Roger Lemoyne (Cameroon)
September 2003
This guide may be photocopied freely for use in forums. Additional copies may be ordered from
CCIC at:
1 Nicholas Street, Suite 300
Ottawa, Ontario K1N 7B7
Tel: (613) 241-7007 ext. 300 (Publications Unit)
Fax: (613) 241-5302
www.ccic.ca
“Citizenship means working together with all other Canadians to build a stronger Canada, and making sure
our values, dreams and goals are reflected in our institutions, laws and relations with one another.”1
Participating in dialogue with fellow Canadians about important issues is part of being an involved and
active citizen.We hope that you enjoy meeting and talking with fellow citizens in your community
through this deliberation about access to fresh water.
Table of Contents
Preface
2
What is public deliberation?
2
The purpose of this guide
4
Some background information on fresh water distribution
and use
5
9
Approaches
Approach 1:
Respect the Environment as the Source of All Water
10
Approach 2:
Ensure Access to Clean Water for All, for Health and
Basic Needs
15
Recognize the Economic Value of Water
20
Approach 3:
Seeking Common Ground
25
Summary of Approaches
26
Glossary
28
References
30
Preface
For many years, most Canadians took for granted the availability of clean fresh water.
Recently, however, Canadians have become more concerned about their water. Drought
in the Prairies, pollution of lakes and rivers, and groundwater depletion in some areas have
raised concerns. Major outbreaks of water-borne illness in Walkerton, Ontario in 2000, and in
North Battleford, Saskatchewan in 2001, brought home to many Canadians that clean water
cannot be taken for granted.
In many countries around the world, the availability of fresh water has long been a preoccupation. Even where water supplies are ample, safety and quality are often concerns. Around
the world, about 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water and 2.4 billion do not
have access to proper sanitation. 2
In an increasingly globalized world, water issues elsewhere af fect Canadians.
Outbreaks of illness from imported produce irrigated with contaminated water, 3 and debates
about whether fresh water should be exported from Canada are examples that have brought
home to Canadians how global and local water issues are interrelated. There are also interrelations that are less obvious, but no less important: for example, water is a vital ingredient of
many goods that are produced in Canada and exported. Approximately 13,000 litres of water
are used to produce 1 kg of beef; 4 900-2,000 litres of water are used to produce 1 kg of
wheat; 5 325 litres to produce 1 kg of paper; and 95 litres to produce 1 kg of steel. 6
There is a saying that “water is life”. Sufficient supplies of fresh water are vital for life, for
health, for food production, for economic activity and for environmental cycles. How much
is “sufficient”? How can we ensure that Canadians and others have access to the water they
need for health and prosperity, now and in the future? What principles should guide
Canada’s domestic and international policies that af fect water?
This guide is designed to help you become involved in a public dialogue on issues of
access to fresh water. The approach we will use for the dialogue is called public deliberation.
What is public deliberation?
Deliberation is a way of discussing impor tant issues and wrestling with tough
choices. A deliberation is not a debate, with opposing sides trying to win, but neither is it a
casual discussion. It is a way for citizens to reason and talk together, and to work through
choices about basic directions for our communities and our country.
Deliberation is not just an opportunity to express your views or try to change other people’s minds. It is a way to determine what action is in the best interest of the public as a
whole. It involves thinking not just about what is best for you personally, but what is best for
everyone. The objective isn’t for someone to win: the objective is to improve our understanding of alternatives and their consequences so that ultimately we can make sound decisions.
2
The hydrologic cycle, shown in simplified form
here, is the series of changes that occur as water
circulates from the atmosphere onto the surface
and into the subsurface regions of the earth, and
then back from the surface to the atmosphere.
Water is continually cycled between its various
reservoirs. For example, precipitation can become
surface water, soil moisture, and seep down to
become groundwater. Groundwater can slowly
circulate back to the surface, and from the surface
water return to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration.The amount of time that
water spends in various reservoirs varies. On
average, water is renewed in rivers every 16
days.Water in the atmosphere is replaced about
once every 8 days.Water can stay in reservoirs
like large lakes, glaciers and deep groundwater
for hundreds to thousands of years.7
In a deliberation, everyone has a say and everyone listens. People explore what others
think as well as their own beliefs. They don’t have to come to conclusions. But they do
weigh the consequences of various options based on what is truly valuable to them, and to
others.
There are no easy answers to the challenges posed by complex issues like those associated
with access to fresh water. Whatever approaches we decide to take, locally and globally, there
will be trade-offs. To get one thing, we will have to give up another. Funds that are spent for
one use cannot be allocated to another, be it at a household or at a national level. Water that
is withdrawn for certain uses may not then be available for other uses, particularly if it is
consumed or contaminated through use.
Increasingly, hard choices must be made about who gets fresh water, how much, and for
what purposes, and about how contaminated water is handled and treated. We have to
decide what is most impor tant to us, and try to find areas of common ground between
us so that we can move forward together.
Obviously, it is not possible to resolve such complex issues in one or two deliberations.
But getting together with others in your community to learn about and talk about the issues
is an important first step. People who participate in deliberations say that talking together in
a non-confrontational way helps them learn about and better understand complex issues, and
gives them a new respect and understanding for others’ points of view.
3
The purpose of this guide
Often people are concerned that they don’t know enough about an issue to be able to
contribute to a deliberation. That is where this guide comes in. It looks at some of the issues
related to access to fresh water and explores several possible approaches or courses of action.
The glossary explains some of the terms commonly used in discussions about water.
You can participate without having read the guide, though, because the starting point for
any deliberation is people’s own experiences and values. The moderator of the deliberation
will help you share your opinions and concerns. Nobody needs to be an expert.
The approaches outlined in this guide are not mutually exclusive, nor are they
the only ways to look at the issues related to access to fresh water. They are
intended as a jumping-off point for your deliberation, not as the final word on the subject.
Through deliberation, you and the other participants will likely find some values or ideas that
you have in common, even though you may disagree about other things.
0-0.2: Low water stress
0.2-0.4: Moderate water stress
More than 0.4: Severe water stress
“Water stress” around the world.8 Water stress for a river basin is defined in terms of the water withdrawn for human use
versus the total renewable water resources available in the basin.When more than 20 percent of the available (renewable) water
is withdrawn annually, the region is considered to have a medium level of water stress.When more than 40 percent of the available water is withdrawn annually, the region is highly water stressed: patterns of water use may not be sustainable and water
scarcity is likely to become a limiting factor in economic growth.9
4
Some background information on fresh water
distribution and use
Fresh water distribution
• About 2.5 percent of the water on Earth, or about 35 million cubic km, is fresh water. Most
of this fresh water is locked in permanent ice or snow or in deep groundwater aquifers.The main
sources of water for human use are lakes, rivers, soil moisture and relatively shallow groundwater
basins.The usable (annual renewable) portion of these sources is about 200,000 cubic km of water –
less than 1 percent of all fresh water.10
• Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed. Of 191 nations in the world, 10 have 65 percent of the world’s annual renewable fresh water resources.11 Canada, with a population of about 31
million, holds 20 percent of the world's fresh water, but only 7 percent of the world's renewable fresh
water. (The rest is non-renewable “fossil” water from the melting of glaciers that is retained in deep
lakes and underground aquifers, or still frozen in glaciers.)12 China also has about 7 percent of the
world’s renewable fresh water, but has a much larger population – about 1.3 billion.13
• Within countries as well, fresh water is unevenly distributed. In Canada, the Atlantic and
Pacific coastal areas receive considerable precipitation: between 1,100 and 1,400 mm per year.14 On
the other hand, some areas in the interior of British Columbia, the southern Prairies, and the high
Arctic experience arid or semi-arid climates (less than 35 centimetres of annual precipitation). In
these areas, the water supply is further limited because the
groundwater tends to be salty and unsuitable for many
uses. Even in the Great Lakes basin, the world's largest
freshwater lake system, some regions in southern Ontario
experience periodic and even chronic water shortages.15
• Water consumption – for agriculture, for industry
and for domestic/municipal use – is increasing
around the world. As countries develop economically,
water use increases – often faster than the rate of population growth.16 While the world's population has tripled
over the past 70 years, water use has risen six-fold during
that time.17
• By the mid-1990s, some 80 countries, accounting for
40 percent of the world’s population, were suffering
from serious water shortages.18 It is estimated that in
less than 25 years, two-thirds of the world’s people will be
living in water-stressed countries. Many nations facing
water scarcity are low-income countries with rapidly
growing populations.19
5
World Water Consumption by Sector
8% Domestic / Municipal
Water Consumption in Canada by Sector
12% Domestic / Municipal
15% Industry
23% Industry (including
thermal power generation)
69% Agriculture
9% Agriculture
64% Thermal Power
Generation
Water Withdrawals by Sector 20, 21 Notes: 1) Domestic/Municipal water use includes some use by businesses and industries.
2) Global figures shown are averages. In low-income countries, where agriculture is the main economic activity, agriculture
accounts for a greater portion of fresh water withdrawals – about 90 percent.22
Human Uses of Fresh Water
• “Instream” use refers to water used in its natural setting. Human instream uses include hydroelectric
power generation, shipping and recreation (e.g., swimming and boating).
Most human uses of water involve “withdrawals”.These are the types of uses you will be con-
sidering in your deliberations.Withdrawals involve taking water from its source (e.g., a river, lake or
groundwater supply), and often piping or channelling it to different locations and users. After use, the
water may be wholly or partially treated before being returned to nature. Household and industrial
uses, thermal power generation, irrigation and livestock watering all fall into this category.
• Depending on the use, a varying amount of the water withdrawn may be actually
“consumed” – not returned to the environment in a form that could be used by humans. * Some
categories of water use, such as irrigation, consume a high percentage of the water withdrawn. Other
categories of use like thermal power generation** consume only a small fraction of the water they
withdraw, returning most to the source (e.g., a river or lake) for other uses. However, uses that do not
consume much water may lower its quality by adding contaminants or changing the temperature.
• The quality of water needed for different uses varies. For example, potable water (drinking
water suitable for human consumption) must have lower concentrations of many substances (minerals,
organic matter, chemicals) than water for irrigation, thermal power generation or many industrial
uses.Water for domestic uses such as bathing, clothes washing etc. needs to be of high quality, but not
necessarily potable. However, in Canada, municipal water treatment plants are designed to supply
homes with water that meets drinking water quality guidelines.
*In
the global hydrologic cycle, water is never actually “lost”. For example, the water evaporated from industrial cooling towers or an irrigated field is not available for further human use, but it is in the atmosphere, and will later fall again as precipitation somewhere else on Earth.
**
Water is used in thermal power generation primarily as a cooling agent.
6
Domestic/Municipal use of water
• More than 24 million Canadians receive their water for drinking and household uses from municipal
treatment and distribution systems that treat drinking water taken from lakes, rivers or groundwater
sources. Most of the remainder get their water from individual wells that tap groundwater.23
• Overall, about a quarter of Canadians rely on groundwater for their household needs.24 Globally, it is
estimated that as many as 2 billion people rely on groundwater for their drinking water.25
As the graph below shows, households in industrialized countries use more water than those in developing countries.
Average Domestic Water Use By
Country or Region
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Canada
(343)
France
(150)
Germany
(132)
Asia (85)
Africa (47)
Average domestic water use (shown in litres
per person per day)26,27,28
Water for agriculture
• Irrigation is a major use of fresh water, accounting for most of the water used in agriculture. Globally,
less than 20 percent of land planted with crops is irrigated, but this irrigated land provides about 40
percent of the world’s food production.29 Most of the water used for irrigation is groundwater.30
About 60 percent of irrigation water does not end up being used by the plants for which it is
intended, but instead evaporates or flows into rivers or groundwater aquifers.31
• Global water withdrawals for irrigation have increased by about 60 percent since 1960.The area of
irrigated land is projected to increase 20 percent by 2030.32
• About 2.5 percent of the arable land in Canada is irrigated. Alberta has the most land under irrigation: about 4 percent of the arable land in the province.This 4 percent produces 40 percent of
Alberta’s agricultural output.33,34
7
Industrial water use
• Like other human uses of water, global annual water use by industry is expected to increase – by
more than 60 percent by 2025. At that point, industrial water use is expected to account for 24 percent of human water use.35
Government responsibilities for water in Canada are complex. Provinces have the authority to legislate all aspects
of water supply, use, pollution control, hydroelectric and non-nuclear power development, irrigation and recreation.
The federal government has responsibility for fisheries, the protection of navigable waters, shipping, some aspects of
environmental protection, drinking water in areas of federal jurisdiction (including First Nations reserves south of
60º), and international water management.36 Federal and provincial governments share responsibility for interprovincial water issues, agriculture, significant national water issues and health.
All levels of government have some responsibility to ensure the safety of drinking water. In most areas,
provinces/territories are responsible for setting and enforcing standards to ensure adequate drinking water treatment.
Municipal governments are responsible for supplying safe drinking water to their residents, in conformity with standards or objectives established by the province in which they are located. Health Canada cooperates with provincial
and territorial authorities to develop Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality.The Guidelines are used
by the provinces and territories as the basis for regulatory and other means of maintaining the quality of drinking
water.
In response to the growing demands for limited water supplies, most provinces have developed water rights legislation to regulate the withdrawal of surface water and groundwater. Domestic uses are generally exempted from licensing. Use of water for other purposes without a licence carries penalties.37
8
Approaches
Following are three possible approaches to dealing with issues of access to fresh water. As noted
earlier, these are certainly not the only approaches, nor are they mutually exclusive. It is not intended
that you choose one as being “the answer” – there will probably be elements of each approach that
you like, and elements that you do not like. What the three approaches do is to provide a framework
– a way to look at water issues according to different values, and to consider some of the decisions
and trade-offs associated with different perspectives on the issues.
For there are difficult choices and trade-offs to be made in decisions about access to fresh
water. In many regions, the absolute quantities of available fresh water are limited. There are
costs associated with water treatment, delivery and use; with treatment and disposal of wastewaters; with implementing new technologies to supply more water or to reduce water use, and
with dealing with the consequences of not doing so. Individuals, communities, businesses and
governments must make choices about priorities.
Each of the following approaches puts priority on a different aspect of fresh water management.
In the deliberation, your group will consider the pros and cons of these different approaches.
1
Some people say that because the environment is the source of all water, all our decisions about water use must be based on this reality. They say that current human activities are not sustainable: we are taking too much water out of many ecosystems, polluting
rivers, lakes and groundwater, draining wetlands and disrupting natural cycles. They say
ignoring the environment threatens human health and future economic prosperity. They
believe we must take a more comprehensive approach that balances all water needs
within ecosystems – environmental needs as well as human needs – and gives priority to
ensuring the sustainability of water resources.
2
Some people say that our most important priority must be to ensure that all people
have access to sufficient fresh water for health and basic needs. They say it is unacceptable that there are still people in Canada and elsewhere who do not have access to
clean water for basic needs like drinking, cooking, sanitation and food security. They say
that access to sufficient, clean water for basic needs is a human right, and that governments must ensure this right is respected. They believe that the provision of water supplies for human needs should be under public control in order to ensure accountability
and fair access.
3
Some people say that water – as an increasingly scarce resource for which there is
growing competition – has an economic value. They say that vast quantities of water are
wasted and bad decisions are made about water use because users don’t have to pay
the real cost of supplying and treating water. They believe that if users had to pay the full
costs, scarce water resources would be more responsibly used, and more efficiently allocated to their best use. They believe that in many cases the private sector can do a better job of supplying water efficiently to those who need it, and that public-private partnerships for water supply should be encouraged.
9
Approach
Respect the
1
environment as the
source of all water
I S S U E : Our environment and health are
B R O A D R E M E D Y : Acknowledge the im-
increasingly threatened by unsustainable water
use: humans are withdrawing too much water
from the environment and polluting it. Around
the world, water tables are falling, surface and
groundwater are contaminated and wetlands
have been dramatically reduced. Climate change
may worsen droughts and water shortages.
portance of the environment as the source of
all water and put priority on ensuring that
water use is environmentally sustainable.
Overuse of water is threatening the environment in
many parts of the world. Major rivers – including the
Colorado and Rio Grande in North America, the
Ganges and Indus in South Asia and the Yellow River
in China – now dry up completely for portions of the
year.38 In many parts of the world, over-irrigation and
poor drainage of fields is causing salts from the water
to accumulate in soils. About a tenth of the world’s
irrigated land has been damaged by salt.39
In British Columbia, 80 percent of aquifers are at risk
of depletion or contamination because of heavy use.43
In Ontario, a study of 13 counties showed withdrawals
of groundwater exceeding natural rates of recharge in
some places. Droughts, which may become more frequent
with climate change, reduce recharge while increasing the
demand for water for irrigation and other uses.44
The depletion of groundwater is often ignored because
people can’t see the damage as it is happening. In parts
of the US, Mexico, China, India, Iran, the Middle
East and North Africa, groundwater is being consumed
faster than it is being replenished, and water tables are
falling. Since 1965, the water table under the city of
Beijing in China has fallen nearly 61 metres.40 In the
US, the enormous Ogallala aquifer under eight states
is being depleted at a rate eight times faster than it is
being replenished; at this rate, it could run out before
the end of this century.41 In some cases, the damage is
becoming visible: the aquifers under Bangkok,Thailand
and Mexico City, Mexico are being overused to the
point that those cities are actually sinking.42
10
In Alberta, summer river flows have only 50 to 60 percent of the volume they had at the beginning of the
20th century. Muriel Lake, in the Cold Lake area, has
lost half its water in the last 25 years; possible factors in
the loss include drought, land use changes and water use
by the oil industry.The shortage of water in parts of
Central Alberta is so severe that there is a plan to construct a 66 km pipeline to transfer water from the Red
Deer River to communities in the Ponoka/Lacombe
area.45
Scientists have predicted that if current global warming
trends continue, water levels in the Great Lakes will
drop by as much as three metres in the coming
decades.46
Examples of potential actions:
IN CANADA
I N T E R N A T I O N A L LY
Put in place integrated approaches to water
resources management, involving local communities as well as business and government, to
take into account all water uses and discharges
and their impacts on the environment when
determining acceptable water use (e.g., when
granting water use permits).*
Provide assistance to developing countries to
develop better information on their water
resources and implement integrated approaches
to water resources management that take into
account the needs of ecosystems.
Reduce demands on water resources through
conservation (industrial, agricultural, commercial and domestic): Promote water conservation
through public education; grants/incentives to
industry; research into water-efficient technologies, rainwater harvesting, reuse of water (e.g.,
use of “grey water”) etc.
Implement stricter controls on agricultural and
industrial activities that threaten water quality
(e.g., application of excessive manure to fields,
pesticide use; pollution); upgrade municipal
sewage treatment and septic tanks.
Wetlands store water during periods of high rainfall
and release it during dry periods. As well, wetlands
filter out pollutants: they have been called “the kidneys of the planet”.47 Wetlands also play a role in
groundwater recharge as water moves from them into
underground aquifers. Close to one quarter (24 percent) of the world’s wetlands are found in Canada.48
Half the wetlands in the world have been destroyed,
mainly during the last 50 years. Many wetlands
have been drained so the land could be used for
agriculture, industry and housing; others have been
destroyed by pollution. In Germany and France, 80
percent of all wetlands have been destroyed;49 in
California, 95 percent are gone.50
*
Prohibit transfers of large quantities of water
from one ecosystem to another (bulk water
withdrawal/exports); instead, encourage prudent
water use so that households, farms and industries live within the constraints of their region’s
ecosystem.
In international development aid, put priority
on projects to encourage environmental education and capacity-building, and to encourage
water conservation as part of integrated natural
resource management; ensure that projects
affecting water supplies (e.g., dams) are subject
to environmental assessments.
Currently, humans use 54 percent of all available fresh
water from rivers, lakes, streams and shallow aquifers.
In the next 25 years, at projected levels of population
growth, human use of available fresh water is expected
to increase to 70 percent.51
Several international organizations recently mapped
the environment’s need for water around the world.
The mapping showed that, already, in a number of
water basins in the US, South Asia, North Africa and
the Middle East, there is not enough water left for
environmental needs because of the demands of
humans.52
See the Glossary for a definition of integrated water resources management.
11
IN SUPPORT
IN OPPOSITION
1) All ecosystems need a certain amount of
water to carry out their vital functions. In
1) This approach is nice in theory, but it is
very complicated to take an integrated
approach to water resource management. A
addition to considering municipal, agricultural and
industrial demands for water, we must take into
account the environment’s needs for water.
Ecosystems need enough clean fresh water, for
example, to provide habitat for aquatic species such
as plants, fish, water birds and amphibians, and to
enable land-based species of plants and trees to survive. The environment has a natural capacity to
adjust, but this capacity is being exceeded, in parts
of Canada and around the world. We cannot continue with “business as usual”: we must take action
to ensure environmental sustainability.
2) Controlling chemical and biological pollution of water will have major health benefits.
The first step in ensuring clean drinking water is to
keep contaminants out of the lakes, rivers and
groundwater sources from which we draw our
water. It is much more difficult to remove pollutants from water than to keep them out in the first
place. We need to put much stricter controls on
agricultural, industrial and municipal emissions into
water supplies.
lot of time can be spent in consultations and
bureaucracy for little return. Integrated water
resource management processes are complex,
expensive and require years to implement. In the
meantime, there are pressing immediate needs for
decisions about how to use water resources. In
developing countries, it is even less likely that complex management systems can be put in place: there
are millions of small, unlicensed users of water (e.g.,
farmers pumping groundwater for agriculture) and
governments lack the capacity to implement integrated approaches to water resource management.
Recognizing the economic value of water and letting market factors work to balance water use is a
more immediately effective approach.
Destruction of habitat, diversion of water and pollution are reducing biodiversity. One-fifth of all freshwater fish
species are threatened or extinct. More than 1,000 bird species – many of them aquatic species – are threatened.53
Agriculture, industry and households are all important sources of water pollution.54 More than half of the world’s
major rivers are seriously depleted and polluted.55 Only 5 out of 55 rivers in Europe are considered pristine. In Asia,
all rivers running through cities are badly polluted. In Canada, the Great Lakes, the Fraser River, and the St.
Lawrence River are seriously contaminated by toxic chemicals.56
Groundwater pollution – from fertilizers, pesticides, manure, petroleum and other substances – is a particular problem
worldwide because groundwater takes much longer than surface water to cleanse itself of pollutants. In the US, water
in nearly 60 percent of wells sampled in agricultural areas contained pesticide residues.57 In Bangladesh, water tables
have been falling because of increased domestic use of well water in rural areas. Some scientists believe the falling water
tables have contributed to the increased concentration of naturally occurring arsenic in the water. More than 20 million
people in Bangladesh have been potentially exposed to drinking water with dangerous levels of arsenic.58
12
IN SUPPORT
IN OPPOSITION
3) The environment is the source of all life and
productivity. To have a sustainable economy, we
2) This approach puts too much emphasis on the
environment at the expense of people. Our top
must protect the environment. Properly functioning
ecosystems produce valuable food, forest and other
products, and services such as control of flooding and
erosion. Human life and economic production
depend on healthy ecosystems. Water conservation
could enable further economic growth in regions
where growth might otherwise be limited because of
water scarcity.
priority should be to ensure that all people have
access to clean water for basic needs. Funds are limited and choices must be made about how to spend
them. Ensuring clean water for all is more important
than spending limited funds on encouraging water
conservation or environmental studies. The needs of
people should take priority. Given the number of
people who lack water, major projects like dams and
bulk shipments of water should not be ruled out.
In 1999, the Canadian federal government announced a
strategy to prohibit bulk water removals from major
drainage basins in Canada, whether for domestic purposes
or for export.This strategy was an environmental measure
aimed at protecting ecosystems.59 All provinces have or are
developing legislation or regulations preventing the bulk
removal of water.60
These rules do not apply to bottled water, nor to water
used in manufacturing. In Québec, some citizens have
raised concerns about the amount of groundwater used by
the water bottling industry.61 In Ontario, there has been
controversy about the province’s decision to overrule an
Environmental Review Tribunal and allow OMYA
Canada Inc. to triple the amount of water it withdraws
from the Tay River to produce industrial slurry.62
3) This approach puts too much economic burden on consumers, farmers and industry. We
should concentrate on approaches to water management that make economic sense rather than pushing
expensive conservation measures. In dry areas, conservation may be called for, but in most areas of
Canada there is still much fresh water of very good
quality, which is a competitive advantage for our
economy. We shouldn’t destroy that advantage
through unnecessary regulations. In arid regions of
the world, technical innovations such as improvements in desalination, use of dams to store water etc.
can help improve supplies of water.
Concerns have also been raised about the potential implications of trade agreements, such as the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Some believe that
international trade rules do not prevent Canada from protecting fresh water supplies as long as measures do not
discriminate against individuals from other countries.63
Others believe that if one company were allowed to sell
water in bulk, NAFTA would compel Canada to provide
the same opportunity to all companies in Canada, the
US and Mexico.64 Some believe the issue is moot because
they do not think it would be economically viable to
export bulk water.65
13
There are many opportunities to reduce domestic, agricultural and industrial water use in order to leave sufficient clean
water for environmental needs. Many industries have made improvements in water efficiency, in part because of voluntary and legislated efforts to reduce pollution. In Canada, the pulp and paper industry has reduced its use of water
more than two-thirds in the past 25 years.66 General Motors has reduced water use in its North American plants by
nearly 30 percent since 1995.67 Further opportunities for conservation exist in many industries.68
There are also many ways to reduce water use in households, through repairs to leaky pipes and use of water-saving
appliances, low-flow showerheads and low-flush toilets. In Canada, during the summer, about half of all municipally
treated water is sprayed on lawns and gardens.69 Water-efficient landscaping can greatly reduce this water use.
Globally, agriculture accounts for the greatest water use, and improving the efficiency of irrigation can greatly reduce
water stress. Most irrigation systems waste water: typically, only about 40 percent of the water ever reaches the crops.
Most soaks into unlined canals, leaks out of pipes or evaporates before reaching the fields.70 Less than 5 percent of all
irrigated agriculture uses efficient methods such as sprinklers and drip systems, so there is much room for improvement.71
Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) has been encouraging local approaches to improving
water management in developing countries. In Egypt, with IDRC funding, researchers worked with farmers in an
area where the rate of irrigation had exceeded the sustainable limits of local groundwater. It was found that the right
kinds of irrigation could slow the pace of well-drilling and allow the groundwater to recharge.72
14
Approach
2
Ensure access to clean
water for all, for
health and basic needs
I S S U E : Water is vital for human life and
B R O A D R E M E D Y : Recognize that water is
health – access to a basic amount of safe fresh
water is a human right and should not be
conditional on economic status. Water is a
public good, and it is unacceptable that people in Canada and around the world lack
access to the minimum amounts of clean
water they need for life and health.
a public good, to which all should have
access. Give top priority to meeting the basic
needs of human beings, and to providing
clean water to all in a manner that is publicly
accountable.
A number of communities in Canada lack safe drinking
water. In 2002, for example, boil water advisories
affected 193 of 617 communities in Newfoundland and
Labrador.73 In August 2001, 304 communities in
British Columbia were under boil water advisories.74
More than 1.1 billion people around the world lack
access to a reliable supply of clean water, and 2.4 billion lack access to proper sanitation. More than 5 million people die every year as a result of poor water
quality – 10 times the number killed in wars.78 Over
250 million people suffer from water-related diseases
every year. Such diseases are responsible for 80 percent
of all illnesses and deaths in the developing world.79
In First Nations communities, 281 of 740 community
water systems are at high risk for poor water quality.75
In December 2002, 102 First Nations communities
were under a boil water advisory; 84 were under a boil
water order.76 The federal government recently committed
funds to improve water systems in 62 First Nations
communities.77
During the 1990s, about 835 million people in developing countries gained access to safe drinking water, and
about 784 million gained access to sanitation facilities.80
However, due to population growth, the overall number
of people without clean water and sanitation remained
about the same.81 80 percent of those without access to
improved sources of drinking water are the rural poor.82
Some 2.8 billion people live on less than $2 a day; 800
million of these people are chronically hungry.The majority of the world’s poorest and hungriest people live in
rural areas of South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Access
to water for small-plot irrigation could increase land productivity, incomes, and food security for these people.83
15
Examples of potential actions:
IN CANADA
Put priority on ensuring clean drinking water
for all through strong legislation, sufficient public investment, training of water system operators, and enforcement.
Give highest priority to ensuring access to
clean water in areas where water quality is currently poorest (e.g., First Nations reserves and
small rural communities).
Maintain municipal and community water systems as public utilities that are accountable to
citizens.
During the last decade, in an attempt to improve efficiency and financial management, South Africa implemented policies of cost recovery for water. In some cases,
water services were contracted to private sector corporations; in others, public sector utilities implemented
water charges.
An estimated 90,000 South African households had their
water cut off between 1996 and 2002. Most cut-offs took
place in poor neighbourhoods where households were
apparently unable to pay the higher rates.84 For some people, water bills equalled 30 percent of their incomes.85
Those who lack piped water and rely on public taps also
have had to pay. In some cities, public taps have been
equipped with meters. Consumers must buy prepaid
cards which are inserted into the meter to release a set
amount of water.Those who cannot afford cards must
draw water from rivers or ponds which may not be clean.
Between August 2000 and February 2002, cholera
infected nearly 114,000 people in South Africa; 259
died.86 The epidemic started after authorities in
KwaZuluNatal province cut water supplies to people
who were unable to afford new user fees.87 The South
African government spent more than $2.5 million
fighting the cholera and $45,000 per month trucking
clean water into the affected areas.88
16
I N T E R N A T I O N A L LY
In projects funded by development assistance,
focus on building the capacity of the public
sector to implement or oversee water projects,
and ensure that a basic amount of clean water
for daily needs is made available to all (free of
charge if necessary for the poor).
Increase aid for water supply projects and put
priority on providing basic water and sanitation
services to the poor before improving existing
service to higher-income people. Increase aid
for affordable, small-plot irrigation devices in
poor rural areas.
Involve communities in developing countries in
a meaningful way in decisions about access to
water – particularly women, as they are usually
responsible for meeting household water needs.
Most people in North America, Europe and Japan
receive water and sanitation services from publicly owned
and operated facilities.89 In negotiations for aid to developing countries, however, a number of international organizations are pushing privatization of water services.
A review of International Monetary Fund (IMF) loans
to developing countries showed that for 12 of 40 countries, conditions were imposed requiring water cost recovery and/or privatization of water services. (Cost recovery
means that user fees must cover water system costs.) In
general, the conditions were imposed for African countries
and the smallest, poorest and most indebted countries.90
A review of World Bank water and sanitation loans
approved in 2001 found that 80.9 percent of loans contained cost recovery measures and 51 percent contained
privatization measures.91
IN SUPPORT
IN OPPOSITION
1) Clean water is essential for health and
prosperity and should be a top priority. It is
1) Clean water for basic needs like drinking
water and small-scale irrigation is important,
but only part of the picture. One reason some
well worth investing sufficient public funds to
ensure that everyone has access to clean water.
Aside from the human cost, the medical and economic costs of water-related illnesses are huge. It is
scandalous that there are still many people in a
prosperous country like Canada who lack clean
drinking water. In developing countries, the biggest
single cause of ill-health among poor people is
water-related disease, and millions die from it each
year. With access to clean water, people would be
less likely to get sick and more able to attend school
or work. Girls and women who now spend hours
getting water could spend that time and energy on
education or other productive activities.
2) Access to safe water for basic consumption is a human right that has been recognized by the United Nations. This means that
governments must do all they can to ensure that
everyone has access to sufficient clean water for life,
health and dignity. Nobody should be deprived of
enough water to satisfy basic needs because he or
she cannot pay for it. In making spending decisions,
governments should give priority to ensuring basic
access for all rather than upgrading service for
some.
In 2002, the United Nations Committee on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights adopted a general comment
on the Right to Water. It notes that the right to water
entitles everyone to sufficient, affordable, physically accessible, safe and acceptable water for personal and domestic
uses. Governments are responsible for ensuring adequate
access to water for their citizens.While uses vary between
cultures, an adequate amount of safe water is necessary to
prevent death from dehydration, to reduce the risk of
water-related disease and to provide for consumption,
cooking, personal and domestic hygiene requirements.92
communities in Canada lack clean drinking water
is related to bacterial and chemical contamination
of their local surface water and groundwater.
Worldwide, many rural poor and indigenous people depend on water resources for livelihoods (e.g.,
fish for food). Pollution and draining of wetlands
can hurt them as much as lack of clean drinking
water or irrigation water, by destroying the sources
of their livelihoods.We must avoid short-term solutions like treating water while ignoring the pollution that is causing it to need treatment. Similarly it
is short-sighted to focus on drilling wells to
improve access to water if they deplete the resource
or contribute to contamination problems like the
arsenic in groundwater in Bangladesh. We must
take an integrated, ecosystem approach to managing water demands. Communities should have a say,
but not at the expense of the big picture: local decisions can sometimes be short-sighted and harm the
environment.
In most developing countries, women and girls are
responsible for collecting water for household needs. In
rural areas, many women and girls walk long distances
to fetch water, often spending 4 to 5 hours per day
carrying heavy containers. In urban areas, women and
girls can spend hours waiting in line at public taps to
collect water from intermittent supplies.93
In surveys and consultations, poor people in developing
countries consistently identify access to safe water as one of
their top three priority needs.Their priorities are not
always reflected in government plans for poverty
reduction.94
17
IN SUPPORT
IN OPPOSITION
3) As a basic human need and a vital factor in
public health, water must remain under public
control and accountability. Decisions about
2) The costs of providing safe water to all who
need it are huge. In Canada, $16.5 billion is
water access and pricing should be made democratically with local community input. As those who
will be most affected by decisions about water, local
citizens must have a say – including the poor, who
are often excluded from decision-making. For
example, most poor people in developing countries
who need clean drinking water live in rural areas,
but private companies have shown little interest in
providing rural water services because the potential
for profit is low. When private companies are
responsible for delivering water services, accountability to the public is weakened, because the top
priorities of such companies are to recoup their
investment, make profits and meet the needs of
stockholders – not the needs of the public.
In many societies, water has spiritual and cultural significance.Water has a central place in many religions, as a
symbol of purification, and because of its importance to
life.95
required to upgrade municipal water systems and
$36.8 billion is needed to upgrade municipal wastewater systems. 97 It will cost US$180 billion a year
to provide safe drinking water and proper sanitation
to everyone in the world by 2025. This is two to
three times greater than present investments.98 It is
simply not possible to raise all the money needed
through public sources (taxes and aid, which comes
mainly from tax money). Private sources of finance
are also needed; these need a return on their investment. Fees charged to water users can help to provide this return. Governments simply cannot afford
to keep providing water to households, farms and
industries for free or for artificially low prices.
Putting a reasonable price on water will also
encourage more responsible and efficient use of this
scarce resource.
3) There is no guarantee that the public sector will manage water supplies any better
than the private sector or be any more
accountable to those who need clean water.
The water systems of Walkerton and North
Battleford were publicly managed. So are most
The multi-faceted significance of water reinforces the need municipal water systems and irrigation water systems in developing countries, which perform very
for broad participation in decisions about how it is allopoorly and don’t meet the needs of the poor. Often,
cated. At the 3rd World Water Forum in 2003, indigethe private sector can provide better water services,
nous people from around the world noted that “our relationship with our lands, territories and water is the funda- more efficiently. Only about 5 percent of the
world’s people currently receive their water from
mental physical, cultural and spiritual basis for our existence...To recover and retain our connection to our waters, private services.99 So the more than a billion people who do not have access to clean water have
we have the right to make decisions about water.”96
been ignored by the public sector, not the private
sector. Given the massive need for clean water, we
should not rule out private sector delivery.
18
The public water utility in Porto Alegre, Brazil provides an example of efficiency, accountability and public participation. A Deliberative Council made up of representatives of 13 civil society organizations, including business and social
groups, reviews and approves the utilities’ plans, contracts and water rates.The public water system serves 99.5 percent
of the city’s population at a cost that is among the lowest in the country. Porto Alegre has one of the lowest rates of
infant mortality in Brazil.100
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is a World Trade Organization (WTO) agreement governing trade in services.WTO member governments are negotiating to further liberalize trade in services. A number of
WTO member countries have requested that their trading partners open their markets to imports of services,
including environmental services such as sewage and sanitation services.101 The European Union wants the definition of environmental services expanded to include “water for human use”.102
Services provided by governments on a noncompetitive, noncommercial basis are beyond the scope of GATS.103
However, it is unclear what GATS will mean for countries where the private sector is already involved in water
delivery. Some say GATS will “lock in” private-sector involvement and make it impossible for a government to
return to public sector management of water services.104 Others dispute this interpretation.105
19
Approach
3
Recognize the
economic value
of water
I S S U E : Clean fresh water is an increasingly B R O A D R E M E D Y : Recognize that clean
scarce resource, and there is growing competition for it. The demand for water will continue
to increase with economic development and
population growth. Treating water as a “free
good” has led to wasteful and environmentally
damaging use of water resources. We must recognize that water has an economic value and
use market principles to manage it effectively
and efficiently.
fresh water has an economic value and ensure
that users of water pay the real costs of supplying it. Use all sources of finance (public
and private) as appropriate to raise the necessary funds to supply water to all in the most
cost-effective way possible.
The average household in Canada with municipal water
service pays $27.65 per month for water, and uses about
30 cubic metres per month, for an average rate of $0.92
per cubic metre. Rates vary by region, though: monthly
household water bills can range from $15 to $90.106
Surveys show that people who pay flat or declining
rates for water consume more than those who pay constant or increasing rates. In 1999, Canadians who
paid constant or increasing rates consumed 269 litres
per person per day.Those paying flat rates used 457
litres per person per day, or 70 percent more.110
In 1999, 43 percent of Canadian households with
municipal water service paid flat rates – the same amount
regardless of how much water was used. 12 percent paid a
“declining block” rate: the more water used, the less paid
per unit of water. 36 percent paid a “constant rate”, the
bill climbed uniformly with the volume used. 9 percent
paid an “increasing block rate”: an increasingly higher
price was charged as more water was used.107 Commercial
water prices showed similar patterns to residential water
prices.108 For organizations using 10,000 cubic metres
per year, water costs average $0.53 per cubic metre.109
20
In Germany, 97 percent of the cost of supplying
treated municipal water is recouped through user
charges. Charges per unit of water are higher than in
most other European countries (and much higher than
in Canada), but per capita consumption is lower.Water
prices for households range from $1.26 to $7.90 per
cubic metre of water.111 For organizations using
10,000 cubic metres per year, costs average $2.50 per
cubic metre.112
Examples of potential actions:
IN CANADA
I N T E R N A T I O N A L LY
Ensure that all consumers of municipal water
(residential, industrial, commercial) are charged
the full cost for water treatment and delivery,
including the cost of maintaining infrastructure;
provide subsidies as needed to low-income
people.
In aid-funded projects, steadily increase water
prices charged to domestic, industrial, commercial and agricultural consumers until prices
cover the full costs of paying for infrastructure,
water treatment and expanding service to all;
establish a system of pricing to ensure lower
prices for basic water needs and subsidies for
the very poor if needed.
Encourage partnerships between the public and
private sectors to provide clean water (e.g., in
municipalities) in the most cost-effective way
possible.
Implement fees for water use permits (e.g., for
industrial, agricultural water use) that reflect the
true value of the water used (e.g., higher rates
in areas where water is scarce, higher rates the
greater the quantity used).
About 10 percent of the water used by Canadian
industries is drawn from municipal systems. Many
industries obtain provincial permits to draw and treat
water directly and pay the costs of treatment and delivery themselves.113
Generally, water bottling companies own or lease land
with a source and obtain provincial licences to withdraw
water.The companies are not required to pay fees for the
extraction of water in most provinces.114
Increasing water costs can stimulate industries to use
water more efficiently. A fertilizer plant in Goa, India
reduced its water use by 50 percent over five years after
water charges were increased. In Sao Paulo, Brazil, three
industries reduced their water consumption from 40 to
60 percent after charges for wastewater disposal were
implemented.115
Encourage partnerships between the public and
private sectors to provide clean water (e.g., in
municipalities) in the most cost-effective way
possible.
Where feasible, allow trading/sale of water
rights between users.
In many cases, the price consumers pay for water does
not reflect the true cost of treatment and delivery.The
capital costs of municipal water systems in Canada
have largely been covered by public subsidies. Beginning
in the 1970s, however, funding for public infrastructure
was gradually reduced, and much of Canada’s water
and wastewater infrastructure now needs upgrading or
replacement.118
An estimated $16.5 billion is required to upgrade
municipal water systems (plus $36.8 billion for wastewater systems).119 Between 1994 and May 2003, the
federal government’s infrastructure program allocated
about $600 million for municipal water infrastructure.120
In Canada, irrigation water charges cover from 10 percent to 25 percent of the cost of developing the
resource.116 The rest is subsidized by governments.117
21
IN SUPPORT
IN OPPOSITION
1) Assigning a realistic economic value to
water, and implementing appropriate user
charges for treated water, will encourage better management and conservation. Massive
1) If water is viewed primarily as an economic
commodity, it will tend to go to the highest
bidder rather than to other uses that may
be socially and environmentally preferable.
amounts of water are wasted – including in areas
where water is scarce – because users don’t have to
pay what water is really worth. Assigning a realistic
economic value to water will help ensure sufficient
supplies for vital human needs, agriculture, industry
and the environment.
Industries such as high-tech manufacturing can
afford to pay more for water than can farmers, particularly small farmers. That doesn’t necessarily
mean such industries should have priority for access
to water. Decisions about water use should be made
through democratic, transparent public processes,
not determined by who has the most money. Clean
water is vital for health and livelihoods, and should
not be limited to those with the ability to pay.
2) Charging the true costs of water will help
to provide the funds needed to improve water
treatment and distribution infrastructure. Major
investments are needed to improve water supplies in
Canada and developing countries. Taxes and international aid cannot supply all the capital needed:
opening up water services to private companies will
attract new investment. In Canada, this will enable
much-needed upgrading of infrastructure. In developing countries, it will enable suppliers to bring
clean water to more people, including the poor.
According to the World Bank, in developing countries,
people without piped water pay at least 10 times as
much for water (e.g., purchased from vendors) as those
with piped service.Those who have piped water pay on
average less than a third of what it costs to treat and
deliver the water, and have no incentive to conserve
scarce water.121
According to the United Nations, water losses due to
leakage, illegal water hookups and waste total about
50 percent of the water used for drinking in developing
countries.122 In Canada, losses due to leakage etc. are
estimated at about 25 percent of municipal water; in
some municipalities, losses are lower, in some they are
much higher. 123
22
2) The real motivation behind assigning an
economic value to water is the rush for profit.
International water companies and lending institutions are leading the push to privatize water services, whether or not that is in the public interest.
Estimates of the cost of providing clean water are
often based on the cost of providing piped service
to each dwelling. In poor communities, it is possible to provide clean water through central pumps at
a much lower cost,124 but lower-tech approaches are
often ignored because they don’t offer as much
potential for profit. A handful of multinational
companies control the international water business,
and it’s big business: the annual sales figures of these
companies are larger than the Gross Domestic
Products of some of the countries they’re dealing
with.125 Clean water should be a service provided
to citizens, not a commodity sold to customers for
profit. In developing countries, many people simply
cannot afford to pay for water. A basic amount of
water should be available to all – free of charge if
necessary for the very poor.
IN SUPPORT
IN OPPOSITION
3) A market-based approach that recognizes
the economic value of water, encourages private-sector involvement and competition
among suppliers, and rewards innovation will
result in more efficient allocation of water. In
3) Treating water as an economic commodity
will not necessarily help the environment. As
many countries, inefficient public water utilities
have done a poor job: distortions in water pricing
and bad management have led to inefficient and
inequitable decisions about water supply. A “userpay” approach is more fair than using taxpayers’
money to subsidize inefficient water use.
There is evidence that well-designed private-sector-run
water projects can bring about substantial benefits in
developing countries.The rate of new connections to
water and sanitation services in La Paz-El Alto, Bolivia
increased by two-thirds following introduction of the
private sector. Access to water increased significantly faster
than in other major cities in Bolivia.126
During the 1990s, about 30 percent of Argentina’s
municipalities privatized their water services. Following
privatization, investments were made to expand access
and improve the quality of service.The improvements
led to an estimated 8 percent reduction in child deaths
from water-borne disease.The impact was greatest in the
poorest areas, which had the worst service prior to privatization: there, the reduction in deaths was estimated to
be up to 26 percent.127
long as the environmental services provided by
ecosystems (e.g., habitats, groundwater recharge)
are considered to have no economic value, the
needs of the environment will always come last.
Adopting tradable water rights may lead to pressure
to export water or move it between ecosystems,
which is environmentally damaging. If water services are privatized, trade rules like GATS may
constrain governments from ensuring environmental protection.128 Decisions about water use, diversion, export etc. should be based on what the environment can support.
For years, Moncton, New Brunswick had discoloured,
bad-tasting, substandard water. High bacteria counts led
to repeated summer boil-water orders. In 1998, the
municipality embarked on a public-private partnership. A
private-sector company, Greater Moncton Water Ltd. was
awarded a 20-year contract to finance, design, build, and
operate a water treatment plant. According to the mayor
and city manager, the partnership relieved the city of
having to make expensive up-front investments. Overall
savings to ratepayers are estimated at 11 percent.129
Even opponents of the partnership concede that the
quality of the water in Moncton has improved.130
23
Over the years, various systems of rights for water use have evolved.131 In a riparian rights system, anyone who
owns land next to a river, stream or lake may take water from it as long as their use does not obviously alter the
quality or quantity of the natural flow. Under a system of prior appropriation rights, whoever first puts the
water to a “beneficial use” has the primary right to that water, although the right may be lost if the water is not
used.
Under a system of public allocation, government authorities decide how to allocate water. Most developing countries have some kind of public allocation of water. In many areas, there are also customary or traditional systems of water allocation and management, including among indigenous peoples.
For historical reasons, water rights systems in Canada vary. In western and northern Canada, governments own the
water and allocate rights to use it (usually on a prior appropriation basis). Most of central and eastern Canada has a
riparian rights system.132 Regardless of the difference in water rights systems, provincial governments across the country can regulate water use and quality. Aboriginal water rights have not yet been clearly defined in Canadian law.133
Some countries (e.g., Australia, Chile) and provinces (Alberta) have enacted legislation to allow water trading –
the buying and selling of water rights or entitlements.When water rights can be bought and sold, the price of water
is more likely to reflect the value of its alternative uses.This in turn creates incentives to put it to more productive
use – i.e., those who have water rights but are using the water for low-value uses have an incentive to sell their
rights to those who are willing to pay a higher price because they can put the water to more economically productive uses.
Compared with a centralized government system of allocating water, a tradable water rights system can provide
greater flexibility, for example enabling farmers to respond more quickly to changes in crop prices and climatic factors. Effective water trading arrangements can improve the efficiency of water use: those with water rights have an
incentive to use water efficiently so they can gain additional income through the sale of the saved water.134 At the
same time, those who buy water rights are more likely to use the water efficiently because they appreciate its value.
This greater efficiency can also have environmental benefits.The city of La Serena in Chile has been able to meet
its growing demand for water by purchasing water rights from farmers; this has removed the need to construct a
dam, which would be more costly and have environmental impacts.135
24
seeking
common ground
This guide offers three possible perspectives on sustainable access to fresh water. The
approaches are not mutually exclusive, but each is based on a different view of the problem and
the solution. Each approach involves different trade-offs and emphasizes different priorities.
One of the purposes of public deliberation is to search for common ground on difficult
issues. Of course, it is not realistic to think that after a few hours or even a few deliberations,
everyone will agree on everything. But through deliberation, some areas of common ground
often do emerge.
You may find, for example, that although you and another person would choose different
approaches to issues of access to fresh water, you share common values about community, health
or other aspects of your life. During and at the end of the deliberation, the moderator will try
to highlight any aspects of common ground that your group has found.
This information will be passed on to the Canadian Council for International Co-operation
(CCIC) for inclusion in a final report on the deliberations being held in various parts of the
country. A summary of the main trends of common ground from deliberations across the country will be distributed to participants as well as to decision-makers concerned with issues of
fresh water management and international development.
You may also find that the common ground you have achieved with others opens up possibilities for further dialogue, reflection, or action. Whatever the outcome of your deliberations,
we hope that you enjoy the opportunity to discuss important issues with your fellow citizens.
In deliberation, one submits one’s best thinking, knowing
that other people’s reflections will help improve it rather
than destroy it.
At the heart of deliberation is the question of whether we
are willing to accept the consequences of our choices.
25
Approach 1: Respect the
environment as the source of
all water
ISSUE
Our environment and health are increasingly threatened by
unsustainable water use. Climate change may worsen
droughts and water shor tages.
BROAD REMEDY
Acknowledge the impor tance of the environment as the
source of all water, and put priority on ensuring that water
use is environmentally sustainable.
EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL
ACTIONS: IN CANADA
• Put in place integrated approaches to water resources
management that take into account the impacts on the
environment
• Reduce demands on water resources through
conser vation
• Implement stricter controls on activities that threaten
water quality
EXAMPLES OF POTENTIAL
A C T I O N S : I N T E R N AT I O N A L LY
• Help developing countries implement integrated
approaches to water management
• Prohibit bulk water transfers from one ecosystem to
another
• In aid to developing countries, put priority on water
conser vation and include environmental assessments of
projects
IN SUPPORT
• All ecosystems need a cer tain amount of water to carr y
out their vital functions.
• Controlling chemical and biological pollution of water will
have major health benefits.
• To have a sustainable economy, we must protect the
environment.
IN OPPOSITION
26
• This approach is too complicated and will take too long
to implement. Letting market factors work to balance
water use is a more immediately effective approach.
• This approach puts too much emphasis on the
environment at the expense of people. Our top priority
should be to ensure that all people have access to clean
water for basic needs.
• This approach puts too much economic burden on
consumers, farmers and industr y. We should concentrate
on approaches to water management that make
economic sense.
Approach 2: Ensure access to
clean water for all, for health
and basic needs
Approach 3: Recognize the
economic value of water
Water is vital for human life and health – access to safe
fresh water is a right and should not be conditional on economic status. Too many people still lack access to clean
water.
Clean fresh water is an increasingly scarce resource, and
there is growing competition for it. Treating water as a free
good has led to wasteful and environmentally damaging
use of water resources.
Recognize that water is a public good, to which all should
have access. Give top priority to meeting the basic needs
of human beings in a way that is publicly accountable.
Recognize that clean fresh water has an economic value and
ensure that users of water pay the real cost of supplying it.
Use all sources of finance (public and private) to raise the
funds to supply clean water to all, cost-effectively.
• Put priority on ensuring clean drinking water for all
through legislation, public investment, training, and
enforcement
• Ensure that all consumers are charged the full cost for
water treatment and deliver y, including the cost of
maintaining infrastructure
• Give highest priority to ensuring access to clean water
where water quality is currently poorest
• Encourage par tnerships between the public and private
sectors to provide clean water
• Maintain municipal and community water systems as
public utilities that are accountable to citizens
• Implement fees for water use permits (e.g., for
industrial, agricultural water use) that reflect the true
value of the water used
• In aid projects, build public sector capacity and ensure
that a basic amount of clean water is made available to
all, free if need be
• In aid-funded projects, increase water prices to cover
the cost of infrastructure, treatment and ser vice for all;
subsidize the ver y poor
• Increase aid for water projects and put priority on
providing basic water and sanitation to the poor
• Encourage par tnerships between the public and private
sectors to provide clean water in the most cost-effective
way possible
• Involve/empower communities in developing countries in
decisions about access to water
• Clean water is essential for health and prosperity and
should be a top priority.
• Access to safe water for basic consumption is a human
right that has been recognized by the United Nations.
• As a basic human need and a vital factor in public
health, water must remain under public control and
accountability.
• Clean water for basic needs is impor tant, but it is only
par t of the picture. We must take an integrated ecosystem approach.
• The costs of providing safe water to all are more than
can be raised through taxes and aid. Users of water
must pay for it, and the private sector must be involved
in supplying it.
• There is no guarantee that the public sector will manage
water any better than the private sector or be any more
accountable.
• Where feasible, allow trading/sale of water rights
between users
• Assigning a realistic economic value to water, and
implementing user charges, will encourage better
management and conser vation.
• Charging the true costs of water and involving the
private sector will help to provide the funds needed to
improve water treatment and distribution infrastructure.
• A market-based approach will result in more efficient
allocation of water.
• If water is viewed primarily as an economic commodity, it
will tend to go to the highest bidder rather than to other
uses that may be socially and environmentally
preferable.
• The real motivation behind assigning an economic value
to water is the rush for profit.
• Treating water as an economic commodity will not
necessarily help the environment. Decisions should be
based on what the environment can suppor t.
27
Glossary
Accountable: Responsible; liable to be called to account. Accountability for service providers includes explaining and accepting responsibility for their policies, actions and use of funds.
Aquifer: An underground formation of sand, gravel or bedrock that holds groundwater and can be a source of water for wells and springs.
Arable land: Land that is suitable for growing crops.
Biodiversity: The variability among living organisms from all sources; this includes diversity of genes, species and ecosystems in a region.
Boil water advisory/order: A boil water advisory is a strong recommendation to boil water for a specific time period before using it for
drinking, making ice, juices and infant formula, cooking, washing food, brushing teeth, etc. In Canada, a boil water advisory is issued by the
relevant health authority (e.g., local Medical Officer of Health) if drinking water is considered unsafe. A boil water order is a legal requirement to boil water for a specific time period before using it.
Bulk water removal: The removal and transfer of water out of its basin of origin by man-made diversions (e.g., canals), tanker ships, trucks
or pipelines.The bottling of water is not generally considered bulk water removal.
Capacity-building: Improving and building the technical and managerial skills and resources within organizations or groups.
Cholera: A diarrheal illness caused by bacterial infection of the intestine. In severe cases, dehydration occurs rapidly. In the absence of adequate treatment, death can occur within hours.
Civil society: Groups and organizations, both formal and informal, which act independently of the state and the market to promote diverse interests
in society. Civil society organizations include voluntary and non-profit groups of many different kinds, as well as social and political movements.
Condensation: The physical process by which a vapour becomes a liquid.
Cost recovery: The practice of charging user fees to cover the costs of supplying a service.
Cubic metre: Unit of volume equal to 1,000 litres.
Ecosystem: A dynamic system of plants, animals and other organisms, together with the non-living components of the environment, which
functions as an interdependent unit.
Evaporation: The process through which liquid water is transformed into a vapour.
Food security: Access at all times to sufficient safe and nutritious food for an active, healthy life.
Fresh water: Water that generally contains less than 1,000 milligrams per litre of dissolved solids such as salts, metals or nutrients.
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS): A World Trade Organization (WTO) agreement governing international trade in services.
Grey water: Waste water which does not contain products of bodily functions, being mainly the product of bathing, showering, dishwashing
etc. It may be suitable for some other uses, such as irrigation of lawns and flower gardens.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total market value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given year: total con-
sumer, investment and government spending, plus the value of exports minus the value of imports.
Groundwater: Water that is found underground in cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rocks.The area where water fills these spaces is called
the “saturated zone”.The top of this zone is called the “water table”.
Groundwater recharge: The replenishment of water in an aquifer. Groundwater recharge can occur naturally (e.g., from melting snow or
from heavy rainstorms) or artificially (through direct injection of water into an aquifer, or by diverting water into basins from which it percolates
through the soil into the aquifer).The rate of natural recharge varies based on a number of considerations: some groundwater sources are renewed
within years or decades, while others may require centuries or even millennia to be recharged.
Infrastructure: The essential elements of a system or structure. Infrastructure for the delivery of clean water and removal of wastewater
includes water and wastewater treatment plants, water mains and pipes, towers and reservoirs that store water, and sewer pipes that carry
away wastewater.
28
Integrated water resources management: A comprehensive approach to watershed management based on consideration of all sources
and uses of water in a particular river basin, and their interrelationships. An integrated approach considers both water and the land uses that
affect it. It includes consideration of how much water is required for the environmental needs of ecosystems as well as for human needs such as
domestic water supply and sanitation, irrigation and industrial needs.
International Monetary Fund (IMF): A specialized agency of the United Nations system set up by treaty in 1945 to help promote the
health of the world economy.The IMF provides economic and financial policy advice to its 184 member countries, and provides loans to
countries that have balance of payments problems. Canada is a member of the IMF.
Irrigation: The controlled application of water to cropland and pasture to supplement water (e.g., rain) supplied by nature.
Liberalization: The process of removing limitations or barriers to trade.
Non-renewable fresh water: Water contained in aquifers and other natural reservoirs that are not recharged by the hydrological cycle or
are recharged so slowly that significant withdrawal of water for human use causes depletion.
Percolation: The slow passage of a liquid through small holes or spaces (e.g., the movement of rainwater through soil.)
Potable water: Water that is considered safe for humans to drink. Good drinking water is free from disease-causing organisms, harmful
chemical substances and radioactive matter.
Privatization: The transfer to private sector companies of ownership and/or management of a service previously provided by government.
Complete privatization of water services (including ownership of the water resources) is relatively rare.The most common approach is to
maintain public ownership of the water resources, but transfer responsibilities for sourcing, treating and delivering water to the private sector
through public-private partnerships.
Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Arrangements whereby private sector businesses participate with government in the delivery of
infrastructure or services. Examples of water service PPPs range from service or management contracts for short-term operation and maintenance of facilities and networks, to build-operate-transfer arrangements (in which the private partner is responsible for financing, designing,
constructing, then operating and maintaining facilities for a long period of time (e.g., 20-30 years), after which ownership of the facilities is
transferred to the public sector).
Rainwater harvesting: The capture, collection and storage of rainwater for use for small-scale irrigation, laundry, bathing and in some cases,
after treatment, for drinking and food preparation.
Renewable fresh water: Fresh water that is continuously replenished by the hydrological cycle within reasonable time limits, such as water
in rivers, lakes or reservoirs that fill from precipitation or run-off. Some groundwater sources are considered renewable.
Reservoir: A place, natural or human-made, where water is collected and stored.
Riparian rights: Legal rights which enable the owner or occupier of land next to a body of water to assert certain rights to that water.
Riparian rights historically have included the right of access to water, to receive water in its natural state (subject to limited uses by upstream
users who also have riparian rights), to fish, and to sue when interference with these rights takes place.
Slurry: A thin mixture of water and an insoluble (undissolvable) substance such as cement, mud or clay.
Sustainable development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
Thermal power: Electric power generated from thermal energy (heat).Thermal power plants may burn fossil fuels (such as coal, natural gas
or oil) or use nuclear energy to produce the necessary thermal energy.
Transparent: A transparent decision-making process is one in which decision-making institutions make public the information, rules and
procedures used. A transparent decision allows all people who are interested in the decision to understand what is being decided, how and
why.The opposite of a transparent process is a secret process.
Transpiration: The passage of moisture into the air through small openings on the surface of plant leaves.
Watershed: An area of land that drains into a common water body, such as a river or lake. A watershed may also be known as a basin or a
catchment.
29
Water table: See definition of Groundwater.
Water withdrawal: The removal of water from rivers, lakes or groundwater sources for use.
Wetland: An area of land, such as a marsh or swamp, that is saturated or flooded with water a majority of the time, and supports vegetation
that can withstand an extremely moist environment.
World Bank: A specialized agency of the United Nations (made up of 184 member countries including Canada) which provides low-interest loans, interest-free credit, and grants to developing countries. Loans include structural adjustment loans designed to support policy and
institutional reforms. Structural adjustment loans may carry strict financial obligations or require measures such as trade liberalization, privatization and reduction in government expenditures.
World Trade Organization (WTO): The international body dealing with the rules of trade between nations. Canada is one of more than
140 countries that are members of the WTO.
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