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Graduate School
1987
Yaks and grasses: Pastoralism in the Himalayan
countries of Nepal and Bhutan and strategies for
sustained development
Daniel John Miller
The University of Montana
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Ma n s f i e l d L i b r a r y
Un i v e r s i t y o f Mo n t a n a
D a t e :___ 1 _
YAKS AND GRASSES:
PASTORALISM IN THE HIMALAYAN COUNTRIES
OF NEPAL AND BHUTAN AND STRATEGIES FOR
SUSTAINED DEVELOPMENT
By
Daniel John Miller
B.A., University of Wisconsin - Madison,
1981
Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Forestry
University of Montana
1987
Approved by
Chairman, Board of Examiners
I
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I
would like to express ray sincere gratitude to
members of my committee,
Dr. E. Earl Willard,
Bedunah,
Habeck and Dr.
their
Dr.
advice
years,
of
James R.
and assistance.
Their
Dr. Donald J.
Mark J. Behan,
support,
my endeavors in the Himalaya has
the
over
been
for
the
greatly
appreciated.
I
Corps
owe a special note of thanks to the American Peace
which
first allowed me the opportunity to
work
in
Nepal as a Peace Cox-ps Volunteer and for supporting me with
a graduate assistanship during my studies at the University
of
Montana.
Bank,
I am also grateful to the Asian
Development
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
Nations
and
Development
the
United States Agency
for
United
International
for providing me with the opportunity to
work
on pastoral development projects in Nepal and Bhutan.
To His Majesty's Government of Nepal and to the Royal
Government
gave
thanks
me
of Bhutan I am indebted for the privilege
to work in their countries.
A special
is due to officials in the Department of
Development
and
Animal Health in
Laxmi Prasad S h a r m a ,
Nepal,
note
they
of
Livestock
especially
and to officals in the Department
Mr.
of
Animal Husbandry in Bhutan,
Mr.
Karma Dorji.
notably Dr.
Kinzang Dorji and
Dr. Phillips J. Young provided valuable
and enlightening comments and advice while I was working in
Bhutan
and his efforts to put me on the right path deserve
special attention.
Dr. Thomas A. Cope of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
England,
deserves credit for identifying numerous
species
of grasses I collected in the Himalaya.
David Scheinman,
thanks
whereever he is, deserves a note of
for taking me to see yaks and high altitude grazing
lands
in
Nepal
Kathmandu
for the first
provided
valuable
time.
Ted
information
Worcester
regarding
in
yak
herders and Tibetans and encouraged me to go for it.
Doug
Chadwick continually told me to take more photos and to try
and put my thoughts down on paper in some intelligible form
and
he
deserves
Wilderness
possible
afford
me.
beer.
Bill
Abbott
Travel made many of my investigations in
of
Nepal
by providing me with airplane tickets I could not
to buy.
Montana
more steak and
I am also grateful to all the cowboys
who bought the y ak hair ropes I brought back
Finally,
pastoralists
hospitality.
in
with
I am forever indebted to the yak herders and
throughout the Himalaya for their
My
life
incredible
has been made much richer
they have shared their lives with me.
because
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
Page
Mean Annual Rainfall at Various Stations in
Nepal and Bhutan ...............................
18
Mean Maximum and Minimum Temperatures for
the Warmest and Coldest Months at Four
Stations ........................................
21
3.
Amount of Rangeland in Nepal by Type... ..........
35
4.
Amount of Rangeland in Bhutan by Type
..........
37
5.
Composition of Yak Herds in Bhutan
........
68
2.
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.
Page
Generalized vertical zonation of vegetation for
the Himalaya ..................................
22
2.
Succession in the Themeda/Arundinella Type
...
41
3.
Successional Stages in the Schizachvrium Type
..
45
4.
Successional Stages in the Danthonia Type
v
......
48
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
.............
ii
...........................................
iv
..........................................
v
THE PASTORAL SITUATION IN THE HIMALAYAN
COUNTRIES OF NEPAL AN D BHUTAN ...................
1
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter
1.
Introduction
.....................
Pastoralism in the Himalaya
Country Profiles
TOPOGRAPHY,
........
.....
8
11
11
.............................
14
........
23
Vegetation Zones
Biogeography in the Himalaya... ...............
3.
2
6
.........................
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
Topography
Climate
..................
.................
The Role of Livestock
2.
1
RANGELAND RESOURCES OF THE HIMALAYA
............
29
33
......
34
Rangeland Resources of the Tropical
Zone ......................................
37
Rangeland Resources of the Subtropical
Zone ........
39
Rangeland Resources of the Temperate
Zone .....
42
Rangeland Resources of the Subalpine
Zone .....................................
46
Rangeland Resources of Nepal and Bhutan
vi
Chapter
3.
4.
page
(continued)
Rangeland Resources of the Alpine Zone
...
49
Rangeland Resources of the Steppe Zone
...
50
DOMESTIC YAK (Bos crrunniens) AN D THEIR ROLE
IN PASTORAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE HIMALAYA .
53
Introduction
...................................
Taxonomy and Description
Distribution
......................
...................................
Breeding and Hybridization
5.
54
61
. .................
63
The Role of Yaks in the Economy of
Pastoralists ............
65
Herding Strategies
68
PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT
......................
.....................
The History of Pastoral Development
...
.........
The Need for Understanding Pastoral Systems
6.
53
72
.
PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES FOR
THE HIMALAYA .......................................
Socioeconomic Considerations in Pastoralism
Land Tenure and Range Policies
Range Extension
Range Research
..............
71
74
80
.
81
84
................................
86
.................................
87
vii
Chapter
6,
page
(continued)
Strategies for Pastoral Development in the
Himalaya .....................................
89
Assessment of Social and
Economic Factors ........................
92
Identification of Rangeland Plants
92
.......
Preparation of Range Forage Plant
Field Guides ............................
93
Range Surveys and Inventories
............
93
Establishment of Test Plots
and Nurseries ...........................
94
........................
95
Livestock Ecology and the Role
of Livestock .............................
96
Forest Rangelands
Conclusion
......................................
LITERATURE CITED .........................................
viii
100
102
CHAPTER 1
THE PASTORAL SITUATION IN THE HIMALAYAN COUNTRIES
OF NEPAL AND BHUTAN
Introduction
"In a thousand ages of the gods,
of the glories of the Himalaya."
ancient
I could not tell you
These are the words of an
Sanskrit poet who found himself unable to describe
the beauty and magnificence of the Himalaya.
Although the
beauty and magnificence remain there is now an element that
threatens the Himalaya —
It
is
environmental degradation.
increasingly
recognized that
mountains
are
fragile environments in which human intervention may create
serious
degeneration in the form of
erosion,
landslides,
silting of rivers and the loss of soil fertility.
(1977)
a
noted that in the vast Himalayan region man has
devastating effect.
collapse
1976,
is
describing
so
This potential for
1979,
Nepal,
Ives
Eckholm
(1975),
in
mountain
are the forces of ecological degradation
building
environmental
and
"in probably no
(Eckholm
other
rapidly
says,
1979).
had
environmental
most apparent in the Nepal Himalaya
Cronin
country
Schaller
visibly".
stress
has
In
not
1
Bhutan
reached
the
the
degree
of
alarming
proportions
that
subcontinent.
it has in other regions
of
the
Indian
However, with increasing human population it
is
anticipated that deforestation may become as widespread
as
it is in neighbouring Nepal if steps are not
conserve the natural resources
(Sargent et a l .
taken
1985,
to
Karan
and Iijima 1985).
This
paper draws on years of personal experience
in
the Himalaya and an extensive literature review to describe
the
range
altitude
unique
and livestock resources of some of the
rangelands in the world.
To ensure
highest
that
these
rangelands remain productive sources of forage
livestock
and
strategies
and
implemented
in
wildlife,
range
viable
pastoral
management
programs
the Himalaya.
Present day
for
development
need
to
concerns
be
and
constraints associated with pastoralism in Bhutan and Nepal
will
be discussed and strategies for sustained development
will be outlined.
Pastoralism in the Himalaya
Rangeland
systems
include
deserts,
shrublands,
grasslands,
and open forests that support domestic and wild
herbivores.
These lands amount to nearly 50 percent of the
earth's
600
(Child 1985).
Of the 500 million to
million people estimated to be inhabiting the arid
semiarid
some
land surface
tropical
and subtropical regions of
the
30 million to 40 million people are believed to
2
or
world,
rely
on
"livestock-dependent"
dependent
economies.
These
livestock-
people are referred to as pastoralists
(Sandford
1983) .
Pastoralists
income
or
are
people who derive
most
sustenance from keeping domestic
of
their
livestock
in
conditions where most of the feed that the livestock eat is
natural forage rather than cultivated fodders and pastures.
Pastoral
the
areas are used by pastoralists and pastoralism is
term
used
to describe their way of
economic and land use systems
Ekvall
(1968),
in his classic treatise
pastoralism,
stated
Tibetan
plateau
has
its
own
from
the
classic
pastoralism,
which
all
across
ecological factor which,
their
on
Tibetan
that the pastoralism of
such as Mongolian,
extend
and
(Sandford 1983).
nomadic
differentiated
life
Asia
unique
identity
examples
Turkic,
and
and
of
the
is
nomadic
I r a n i c , and Arabic,
Africa.
The
prime
with only minor exceptions,
sets
apart the Tibetan pastoralists from those in the arid zone,
is one of altitude.
of
Pastoralism in the Himalayan countries
Nepal and Bhutan is very similar to that on the Tibetan
plateauj
however,
there are pastoral strategies that
are
unique in both countries.
Pastoralism
is
an important
production in Nepal and Bhutan.
herding
of
mode
agricultural
It is characterized by the
yaks and sheep between high
3
of
elevation
summer
rangelands
lands
above
timberline and lower
in the winter.
lai'ge
migratory
subtropical
herds
of
cattle
is
nomadism
Central Asian peoples
of
The
basically
herds
but
between
that
move
between
and
different
from
(von
the
pastoral
over
prescribed
the
altitudes.
are some areas in these countries where
seasonally and the herders live in tents
year,
agriculture
wide
movements
form of "pure" nomadism is practised in that the herds
moved
of
Furer-Haimendorf
herdsmen do not range
are usually confined to
there
and
The resulting system
a number of grazing areas at different
Although
are
grazing areas in the winter and temperate
transhumance
areas,
grazing
In some regions of Bhutan there
subalpine pastures in the summer.
1975).
elevation
the
majority
of
pastoralists
and
pastoral
nomadism in
a
are
throughout
include
their
both
subsistence
technology.
Spooner
nomadism,
nomadism
the
(1973)
publication
transhumance
on
pastoral
from
pastoral
by saying that transhumance is best reserved
habitations
movements
but
in
agro-pastoralism
Nepal
a
differentiated
seasonal
variations
in
of
cultivators
who
move their herds asccording
pasture.
for
Goldstein
subsistence
(1974)
modes
have
to
used
in
for
fixed
seasonal
the
term
northwestern
where the herding part of the economy parallels pure
nomadism and reserved the term transhumance for
4
situations
where
animals
are moved seasonally by agriculturists
but
where
transportable dwellings are not used throughout
the
year.
In
a rapidly changing world the pastoral population,
more
than any other,
even
eradication,
Political
had
the
1976).
pastoralists
have
of
Humla,
Throughout northern Nepal,
Limi,
Dolpo
and
Mustang,
for centuries had taken their herds
into
of
Tibet
during the
winter.
Herds
yaks
the
would
back to grazing areas in Nepal during the
Following
many
(Miller 1987).
regions
brought
the
(Shahrani
and
flocks of sheep and goats to grazing areas across
border
of
in Asia
change
severe consequences on rangelands and pastoral systems
pastoralists
and
particularly
events beyond the control of
in the Himalaya
in
has been the target for
be
summer.
the invasion of Tibet by China in 1959 thousands
Tibetan refugees fled south with their
Dolpo
and Mustang areas of Nepal.
regions
livestock
into
Pastoralists
from
of Nepal were no longer able to
take
their
animals to traditional pastures in Tibet during the winter.
This
sudden
tremendous
increase
pressure
in
the
on the arid
livestock
population
rangelands
of
put
northern
Nepal.
In
many of the upper valleys of the Himalaya grazing
resources have been overutilized and marked degradation
evident
(Bjonness 1980,
Casimir and Rao 1985,
is
FAO 1983).
Brown
(1982), working in the Mustang region of Nepal,
that
virtually every accessible piece of
the
alpine
pasture
investigators
situation"
regions
was
(FAO
that
of
1983)
exists
Nepal
have
to
restrict
Nepal
traditional
of
noted
the
the
"emergency
proposals
areas
Recent
northern
the movement of
grazing
including
overgrazed.
in many of
because
authorities
into
severely
range
found
by
border
Chinese
livestock
in
the
from
Tibetan
Autonomous Region of China.
Although
some
pastoralism in Nepal
1974,
Messerschmidt
these
studies
investigation has been
1974,
Palmieri 1976,
the
countries
of Nepal and Bhutan
the
ecology
Information
limited.
a
Sacherer 1977)
geographers
and
Other than some introductory information
regarding
Miller 1986)
on
(Alirol 1979, Bjonness 1980, Goldstein
have largely been done by
anthropologists.
conducted
rangelands
and grasses
(Brown
of
1982,
the
Himalayan
Dunbar
1981,
there is very little available data concerning
of
the
about
grasslands
livestock
in
of
the
Nepal
and
Himalaya
Bhutan.
is
also
This lack of knowledge of Himalayan rangelands is
serious impediment to proper management of these
lands.
Country Profiles
Nepal had an estimated human population of 16 million
in
1984
average
and
an area of 140,797
density
of
113
persons
6
square
per
kilometers
square
- an
kilometer
(Banister
kingdom
and Thapa 1981,
al.
1983).
agriculture
as
a
farmers.
primary
occupation,
and
per
countries
year,
animal
is one of
the
world's
poorest
a
had an estimated population of 1.2 million in
land
area
density
(World Bank 1984).
other
Nepal
(Hopkins 1985).
population
avoided
expectancy
With a gross domestic product of US$140 per
Bhutan
1982,
is
Twenty-five percent of
the children die before age five and adult life
45 years.
many are
The rate of population increase
estimated at 2.6 percent per year.
person
the
Ninety-five percent of the population is involved
subsistence
is
The
is one of the most densely populated areas of
Himalaya.
in
Goldstein et
of 46,500
of
square
25 persons
kilometers
per
square
and
kilometer
With its low population the country has
many of the environmental problems experienced
countries
husbandry
contributing
a
in the
region.
Agriculture,
is the dominant sector of
directly
about half of
the
by
including
the
economy,
gross
domestic
product
and providing an employment base to as much as
percent
of the total population.
95
The per capita income in
/
1981 was estimated at US$116.
lowest
This would give Bhutan the
per capita income in the South Asia region and
of the lowest
in the world
(World Bank 1984).
7
one
The Role of Livestock
The problem of heavy human population pressure on the
land
in
the Himalaya is compounded by the increase of
already
excessive
exceeds
the carrying capacity of forest and other
lands.
In Nepal,
livestock population that even now
the
that
there is approximately one large livestock
high rate of growth of the human
are
so
unit
per
(Mahat 1987).
an integral part of the
system and the rural economy of Nepal.
25
grazing
population
capita in addition to small livestock units
for
far
livestock population growth has kept pace
with
Livestock
agricultural
Livestock
account
16 percent of the national gross domestic product
percent
of
the agricultural
(Tulachan
et
estimated
at 7 million cattle,
al.
1982).
million sheep and goats.
cultivated
land
gross
The
domestic
livestock
and
product
population
is
4.5 million buffalo and
5
The animal population per unit of
area is one of the highest in
(Rajbhandary and Shah 1981).
rates
an
The resulting
the
world
high stocking
greatly exceed the carrying capacity of the land and
have led to heavy overutilization and degradation of common
grazing
land
and
of the forests.
The
result
livestock are short of forage for much of the year.
assumed
that
average
of
productivity
throughout the year animals obtain
half
of
the
(Wyatt-Smith
desirable
1982).
ration
The
for
lack of
is
that
It is
only
an
optimal
adequate
forage
for
important
livestock
is
constraint
considered
to
increasing
the
single
animal
most
production
(Hopkins 1985).
Livestock
systems
in
are an important component of the
Bhutan
providing
draft
and play
a
vital
farming
subsistence
power for crop production and
role,
transport,
milk and milk products,
meat and eggs for home consumption
and
It
sale
for
contribute
cash.
about
is
estimated
11 percent of the total
that
livestock
gross
domestic
product in the form of milk, butter, cheese, meat,
hides
(MPW
Australia
et
al.
1986).
The
eggs and
livestock
population in 1984 was estimated at 315,000 cattle,
yaks,
38,000 sheep and 23,000 horses.
Livestock,
traditionally
the
particularly
been
agricultural
With
very
low
the
production
system
environment.
population
diseases
a
grazing
very
important
animals,
part
population
traditional
agricultural
fitted
in
In recent years,
and
some
densities
the
Bhutan.
that
existed
and
harmoniously
have
of
production system and the economy in
previously,
and
30,000
livestock
with
the
however, growth in the human
success in the
control
of
animal
have resulted in an increase in livestock numbers
increased
environments.
pressures
on
the
grassland
and
forest
Livestock nutrition is declining and with it
the productivity of the individual animals.
9
Overgrazing is
an increasing problem which will eventually lead to serious
environmental
damage
if
steps are not taken
livestock nutrition and to control the growth in
numbers
(MPW Australia et a l . 1986).
10
to
improve
livestock
CHAPTER 2
TOPOGRAPHY,
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
To understand pastoral ecology in Nepal and Bhutan it
is
important
to
topographical
found
in
combine
and
and
the
have
an
understanding
climatic factors and
Himalaya.
These
of
the
vegetation
environmental
to influence the grasslands,
varied
the species
zones
features
herded,
the pastoral strategies adopted by the pastoralists in
these countries.
loEQgraphy
More
Tibet
than 100 million years ago the area that is now
and
Tethys
the Himalaya was covered by the waters
Sea
continent,
which
separated
Gondwanaland.
Eurasia
from
the
of
the
southern
The Tethys sea was an extension
of the present Mediterranean Sea.
Approximately 60 million
years ago there began one of the most spectacular mountainbuilding periods in the earth's history.
Indian
and
Peninsula,
was
drifting
At that time the
which had broken off from
northward,
came
into
Gondwanaland
contact
with
Eurasia.
The collision of these two land masses caused the
northern
edge of India to buckle,
the
Eurasian
continent.
The
11
warp and slide
vertical
beneath
uplifts
and
horizontal
thrusts,
moved
floor
the
the compressing and
raising,
of the Tethys Sea upward to
slowly
create
the
Tibetan highlands.
The
major
upheaval of the Himalayan system came
phases:
the
approximately
some
23
million
activity
into
occurred
during
million years ago;
years ago during
the
Eocene,
the second
a
period
three
occurred
of
intense
that raised the Himalaya by intrusion of granites
the
vast sedimentary deposits;
occurred
1966).
40
first
in
during the late Pliocene and
and a
final
period
Pleistocene
(Wadia
Mountain building continued through the Pleistocene
period.
The
Pleistocene
continuous
melting
to
the
of
glaciers from the
end
present is thought to have
slow increase in height as the ice
of
the
caused
is
a
removed
from the mountain s u m m i t s .
By
the
end of the Pleistocene the southern part
Eurasia had been upthrust,
and
complex
mountain
of
crumpled and folded into a huge
system;
its
present
height
and
conformation are determined by the nature of its formation.
For example,
4000
m
Himalaya
the
of
Mount Everest,
8848 m high, consists of about
raised Tibetan plateau,
4000
m
of
and 2000 m of mountain roots squeezed
original
upward
by
shifting of the continents along the line of contacts,
minus whatever erosion has occurred
(Hagen 1963).
The fact
that the watershed of many Himalayan rivers lies not
among
the
high
peaks but on the plateau beyond is
added
proof
that the the Himalaya were created after the raising of the
Tibetan
Plateau.
Gandaki,
channels
being
Rivers,
older
such as the Arun and the
than
the
mountains,
Kali
kept
their
open during the uplift and in the process created
the gigantic canyons that slice through the main
Himalayan
range.
The
main
Himalayan
mountain system
stretches
for
about 3000 km between Pakistan in the northwest and western
China in the southeast.
as
In width it varies from as little
80 km to more than 300 km.
Nepal,
the
Sikkim
Indian
short
plains to the crest of the range in
while
in parts of
the Himalaya is much wider.
dominates
of
eastern
and Bhutan the mountains rise steeply
distances
Pakistan
In some parts
the mountain system,
northwest
from
extremely
India
The Great
and
Himalaya
ranging from Nanga
Parbat
(8126 m) near the great bend of the Indus River eastward to
Namcha Barwa
(7715 m)
on the Brahmaputra River.
The main Himalayan system consists of three
mountain
zones.
Adjoining the Indo-Gangetic plain is the
Outer Himalaya, known as the Siwaliks.
seldom
exceeding
Sometimes
pushed
parallel
1000
This is a low range
m in height and 50
against the main range and
km
in
width.
other
times
separated from it by flat valleys called d u n s . the Siwaliks
follow
the
foot of the high Himalaya along
13
much
of
its
length.
The
middle Himalaya,
a complex series of ridges
and valleys seldom more than 4000 to 5000 m high,
north of the Siwaliks for some 50 to 100 km in
Nepal
this
range is known as
there
is the Inner Himalaya.
highest peaks —
dominate
Everest,
the skyline.
the
Finally,
A n n a p u r n a , Dhaulagiri, M akalu —
Eight of the world's
crest
of
ten
Tibetan marginal mountains
highest
Between the
the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau
lower than the main chain;
result
In
This is the range where the
are found within the borders of Nepal.
The
width.
Mahabharat.
peaks
ranges
is found
are
other
these are known as
the
(Hagen 1970).
immense mountain ranges of the Himalayan
region
in the terrain of Nepal and Bhutan being among
the
most rugged in the world.
Altitudes range from 160 m above
sea
(in some areas within
level to over 8,000 m
of less than 100 k m ) ,
with the intervening land comprising
mostly steep hills and deep river valleys.
range
greatly
distances
influences the
patterns in Nepal and Bhutan.
climate
and
The
Himalayan
precipitation
Local topographical features
also affect the micro-climate in specific areas.
Climate
The
Himalaya
systems
and
basic
are
patterns of weather and climate over
governed by the summer
of Asia.
and
winter
the
monsoon
These are often depicted as strong land
sea breezes which b low across the subcontinent once
14
a
year with remarkable regularity.
is
In addition,
the Himalaya
affected by extra-tropical winter weather systems
that
move over the north of the subcontinent from west to
There
are
region:
two periods of precipitation in
the
winter
rains
the
east.
Himalayan
or snowstorms brought
by
the
"western disturbances" and the summer rains brought by
the
summer monsoon winds.
The differential response of land and sea to incoming
solar
radiation
Asia.
In
is the primary cause of the
the summer months,
monsoons
the great land mass of Asia
gets much hotter than the sea areas to the east and
A
of
south.
strong low pressure area forms over the Tibetan Plateau,
while
high pressure areas build up over the
oceans.
south,
Air
from
the
south
oceanic areas moves in
laden with moisture drawn from the sea.
air, moving towards the heart of Asia,
moisture
Indian
from
the
This moist
releases part of its
as rain over the Indian subcontinent and
on
the
southern slopes of the Himalaya. The northern slopes of the
mountains and the region to the north of the main Himalayan
range receive little precipitation.
the
seas
In the winter months,
Asiatic land mass gets much colder than the
and
system.
becomes the center of an intense
The cold,
high
adjoining
pressure
dry continental air moving outwards from
the Tibetan Plateau dominates the Asian mainland.
15
A cold,
dry
autumn
isfollowed
by a relatively
dry
winter
and
spring until the winds shift again.
Broadly speaking,
Himalaya:
there are four main seasons in the
winter from December to February; pre-monsoon or
spring,
approximately from March to mid June;
season,
generally from mid June to m id September;
monsoon or fall season,
During
extends
winter
the belt of high pressure
over
Asia
from Siberia to the outer fringes of the Himalayan
Because
prevents
the spread of cold air from the
into north India.
of its height and extent,
There are exceptions,
the
the
Himalaya
Tibetan
Plateau
however, and these
associated with the passage of low
from
and post
from mid September to December.
massif.
are
the monsoon
west along the southern slopes
pressure
of the
systems
Himalaya.
An average six to seven "western disturbances" move
across
the
1981).
Himalayan
region every month in winter
(Mani
These
disturbances are often accompanied by heavy rain
snow.
Western disturbances still occur in March and April,
but
their frequency and severity are much less.
or
Afternoon
thunderstorms with occasional hail are common in April
and
May.
The
begins
monsoon,
blowing north from the Bay of
in the eastern part of the Himalaya in
early
and,
deflected by the mountains, moves westward,
over
the
Indian
subcontinent by the end
16
of
Bengal,
June
extending
July.
The
monsoon
persists over the entire region until the
end
of
September.
Contrary to popular belief the monsoon is not a
period
continuous rain.
of
There are spells of
intense
rainfall separated by periods of comparatively dry weather.
The
post
weather,
monsoon
except
for
period
low
depressions or cyclones,
is usually
pressure
one
of
systems
fair
(termed
depending on their severity) which
occassionally affect the eastern Himalaya in October.
The
upper
now
winds
which
were easterly during the
change to westerlies,
advances,
and
monsoon
increasing in strength as the season
western
disturbances begin to
affect the
western Himalaya again.
The
Himalaya has a profound influence on the climate
of the subcontinent.
to
the
north,
affecting
region,
the
and
Forming an almost impassable barrier
the Himalaya acts as
air
a
climatic
divide,
and water circulation systems
exercising
a dominanting
influence
of the
on
the
meterological conditions over the subcontinent to the south
and
the
substantial
central
part
Asian
highlands
to
the
of the rainfall received on
north.
the
A
Indian
subcontinent is largely due to the orographic influence
of
the Himalaya on the monsoon w i n d s .
With
orientation,
extremely
their
great
height,
extent
and
east-west
the Himalayan range obstructs the passage
cold
continental
17
air from the north
of
into the
subcontinent in the winter,
rain-bearing
their
while in summer it forces
monsoonal winds to ascend and drop
the
most
of
moisture as rain and snow on the southern slopes
of
the Himalaya.
Plateau
The north side of the range and the Tibetan
are in a rain shadow region and very arid.
While
the average annual rainfall on the south side of the
range
is about 1500 mm at Simla in the western Himalayan and 3000
mm
at Darjeeling in the eastern Himalaya,
Skardu,
range
Gilgit
receive
1981).
places such
and Leh to the north of the main Himalayan
only
75-150 mm of
annual
rainfall
(Mani
Table 1 shows the mean annual rainfall for selected
sites in Nepal and B h u t a n .
Table 1.
as
Mean annual rainfall (mm) at various stations
in Nepal and Bhutan.
Location
Altitude
Cm)
Total
(mm)
NEPAL
Pokhara
Jomsom
Namche Bazaar
Kathmandu
Dhunche
760
2750
3400
1330
1055
3477
295
940
2445
1828
BHUTAN
Phuntsholing
Paro
Thimphu
Tongsa
Samehi
234
2362
2392
2171
609
4467
673
690
1239
2910
18
The
eastern Himalaya has a prolonged monsoon
season
from June to October; very little precipitation is received
from
the
western disturbances
Himalaya,
to
winter.
The
western
on the other hand, has a short monsoon from July
August
April.
in
and a fairly long wet season from
In
the
thunderstorms
pre-monsoon
season from
March
to
to
May,
occur frequently in the eastern Himalaya and
precipitation is heavy,
increasing from March to May
the advance of the hot season.
pre-monsoon
November
season
with
In the western Himalaya the
is quite dry,
except
for
occasional
thunderstorms.
The permanent snow line and timberline are two limits
that
greatly affect the distribution of plants and animals
on mountain slopes
the
snow
mean
(Schaller 1977).
Influenced mainly
summer temperature and amount of
line varies considerably between ranges and
different exposures of the same range.
of
600
that
snowfall,
the
the
even
on
On the south slope
Central and Western Himalaya the snow line may
m lower than on the north slope.
by
Mani
(1968)
be
noted
the snow line on the south slopes of the Karakorum is
5650 m,
the Ladak Range 5790 m,
Western
Himalaya
5180 m,
Eastern
Himalaya
4480
the Zanskar Range 6090 m,
Central Himalaya
m.
These
data
4720
show
m,
that
and
arid
mountains have a higher snow line than those exposed to the
monsoon
(Schaller 1977).
19
The
systems
myriad
relief features
and
different
in various regions create numerous
within the Himalaya.
micro-climates
In many of the large river valleys of
Nepal and Bhutan a wind blows daily upstream,
clouds
slopes
reducing
Dry winds sucked into and funnelling through some
these
floor
clearing the
from the center of the valley and sharply
rainfall.
of
weather
valleys
create such arid
conditions
that
remain treeless for 600 to 1000 m above the
the
valley
(Schaller 1977).
There are also great contrasts of temperature between
the ground and the air above it,
or
as rocks and soil
absorb
emit radiation and heat or cool more rapidly.
changes
of
mountain
slopes
extremely
Aspect
There
surface
temperature
are
considerable
which are turned away from
the
cold at all times at high altitudes
greatly
influences
Diurnal
vegetation
in
are striking contrasts in vegetation
and
sun
are
(Mani 1981).
the
Himalaya.
between
north
and south facing slopes at identical elevations in the same
valley.
Timberline
coincides
roughly
with
isotherm at midday during May to September
the
(Mani
10-12
C
1968),
a
temperature which in the Himalaya is normally found between
3600
about
and
6.2
4000 m.
As a general rule,
C for every 1000 m altitude
20
temperatures
(Schaller
drop
1977).
Table
2 gives mean minimum temperatures for
coldest
month
of the year)
for July
(the warmest month of the year)
January
and mean maximum
(the
temperatures
for four locations
in the Himalaya.
Table
2.
Mean
maximum and minimum temperatures ( C) for
the warmest and coldest months at four stations .
Altitude
(m)
Location
1334
2259
2196
3506
Kathmandu
Darjeeling
Simla
Leh
Topographical
determining
Schaller
(1977)
plant
growth.
vegetation
zones.
is
of
Figure
Coldest month
(January)
Mean
max.
Mean
min.
Mean
max.
30
19
23
25
16
14
16
10
and
factors
atmosphere
Warmest month
(July)
the
18
8
8
- 1
climatic features
vegetation
in
2
2
2
- 13
are
important
the
Himalaya.
noted that the relative humidity
the
most important factor
in
Based on precipitation and
the Himalaya can be divided
1
illustrates
of
into
the vertical
the
determining
altitude,
vegetation in the central and eastern Himalaya.
21
Mean
min.
the
numerous
zonation
of
Figure 1.
Generalized vertical zonation of vegetation for
the Himalaya (adapted from Schaller, 1977) .
Meters
5000
Snow and Ice
Pioneer
Vegetation
Pioneer Vegetation
Moist
Alpine Scrub
Moist
Alpine
Scrub
4000
Krummholz
Subalpine
3000
Krummholz
(Betula)
Conifer
Rhododendron
Forest
Mixed
Oak - Conifer
Forest
Evergreen
Upper
Montane
Forest
(Quercus.
Rhododendron
2000
Pinus roxburahii
1000
Tropical
Evergreen
Lower Montane
Forest
(Quercus.
Castanopsis)
Tropical
Deciduous
Forest (dry)
(Shorea.
Terminalia)
Tropical
Deciduous
Forest (wet)
or Evergreen
Rain Forest
0
Central Himalaya
Eastern Himalaya
22
Vegetation Zones
The
flora
described
by
Schweinfurth
Descriptions
types
them
of
Stainton
of
(1957)
and
the
Himalaya were
(1972)
vegetation
in
have
geographical
by
Troll
analyzed and classifed the various
from the ecological standpoint.
(1982)
also
Nepal.
described
Investigations
(1976)
described
Martens
(1983)
the
by Negi
Sargent et a l .
(1985),
(1985)
and
ecology
dealing
and
with
vegetation in Bhutan have been limited although the
publications
been
(1967).
included
forest in Nepal and Dobremez
Shrestha
has
Troll
of vegetation in a climatic and
classification
(1967).
of the entire Himalayan region
Grierson and Long
the
recent
(1983) and
have greatly increased knowledge
of
the vegetation of this country.
Dobremez
(1976) divided the vegetation of Nepal
six large vertical zones:
zone,
and
1) tropical zone, 2)
3) temperate zone, 4)
6)
steppe
zone.
subtropical
subalpine zone, 5) alpine zone,
The following description
of
different vegetation zones is adapted from Dobremez
Grierson
and
Long
(1983),
into
Martens
(1983)
and
the
(1976),
Stainton
(1972).
The Tropical Zone
The tropical zone includes areas up to an altitude of
about
1000
limit
of
m.
The mean annual temperature at the
this belt is 20 C and in the
23
lower
areas
upper
(at
around 100 m)
this
zone
(Shorea
is approximately 25 C.
is
characterized
The upper boundary of
by the upper
limit
robusta) , the most important forest
that occurs here.
northeastern
tree
Indian
extensive
subcontinent
stands
occurrence in Bhutan
The
lower
tropical
stage.
sal
species
This tree is endemic to the northern and
and
the
representative of the Dipterocarpaceae in Nepal.
still
of
of sal
in
Nepal;
sole
There are
however,
its
is very limited.
zone
is divided into an upper
The lower stage includes the
and
actual
a
Terai
plains and the broad Dun valleys that are found between the
Siwalik
m.
and Mahabharat ranges up to an altitude of 400-450
These
support
a
Bauhinia.
forests occur
rich
range
Duabanga
mostly on alluvial
of
tree
species
and Terminelia) .
(e.g.
of
wallichii.
the tropical zone tree species
Castanopsis
indica
and
Bombax.
Alon g river courses
the dominant genera are Dalbergia and A c a c i a .
stage
gravels
and
such
In the upper
as
Schima
Engelhardtia
spicata assume more importance in the vegetal composition.
The Subtropical Zone
The subtropical zone extends from 1000 to 2000 m over
a broad hilly region in the Mahabharats and to the north of
this
submountain range.
It is the most densely populated
region of Nepal and extensive deforestation has taken place
24
in
this zone.
The mean annual temperature at 1000
m
is
between 20 and 21 C and at 2000 m is between 15 and 16 C.
The
subtropical
zone
upper and a lower stage.
is
not
can also be divided
The lower stage,
into
an
<1000 - 1500 m)
uniform but varies according to the
exposure
and
according to the different influences of the
monsoon.
In
the
wetter areas of Bhutan and eastern Nepal the
trees
are
Schima
Engelhardtia
wallichii.
spicata.
The
Castanopsis
chir pine
(Pinus
also belongs in the lower subtropical level.
indica
precipitation
(Pandanus
rapidly
nepalensis)
evaporate.
and
roxburcrhii)
This species
requires relatively dry sites or sites where large
of
dominant
The
typically occurs along
amounts
screw
rivers
pine
and
streams.
The
1500
subtropical level begins at altitudes
m in western and central Nepal and 1300 m in
Nepal.
with
upper
The
of
eastern
species from the lower level are joined
here
many temperate species which may show hygrophilic
xerophilic adaptations.
Quercus
that
are
Some species of Rhododendron
more widespread in the
penetrate into the upper level
temperate
or
and
zone
of this subtropical zone.
The Temperate Zone
This zone is located above the
forms
a
belt
approximately
extending
1000 m.
over
vertical
and
distance
of
It extends from an altitude
of
25
a
subtropical zone
2000 to 3000 m in central Nepal and from 1800 to 2800 m
the east.
at
the
The mean annual temperature varies between 15 C
lower
limit
and
8 C
at
the
upper
distinction can be made between two levels,
region and an
The
hill
The
spread
a
limit.
(lower)
A
hill
(upper) mountain region.
region is the most important
area of the evergreen oaks Quercus s p p . ) .
have
in
along the Himalaya from
distribution
All of the oaks
southwestern
genera Lithocarpus and Castanopsis also
China.
dominate
the
forest formations in this zone.
The
mountain
dominated
by
region
of
deciduous trees.
the
temperate
zone
It is dominated by
is
oaks,
although the species are different than those found in
hill
zone.
Quercus semecarpifolia is the most
oak
species.
constituent
Maple
of
(Acer
spp.)
is
the temperate forests.
also
blue
pine
temperate
Picea
Bhutan,
an
important
zone.
to
The
(Pinus wallichiana) is widespread throughout the
zone with a vertical distribution
1400 to 4000 m.
amounts
important
Conifers begin
assume more importance in the upper temperate
the
are
from
This species also tolerates widely v arying
of precipitation.
smithiana
ranging
Spruce forests,
dominated
by
in western Nepal and Picea
spinulosa
in
common
in the temperate zone as
(Tsucra dumosa) .
26
is
hemlock
The Subalpine Zone
Above
the
mountain zone lies a belt
trees extending all the way to timberline.
zone
of
coniferous
This subalpine
covers a vertical distance of about 1000 m,
with the
lower limit at 3000 m and the upper limit at 4200 m in
drier
western
region
and at 3800 m in
the
wet
the
eastern
region.
Himalayan
species
fir
(Abies spectabilis)
in the lower subalpine zone.
stands.
Species
associated
with
of
Rhododendron
fir forests.
is
Himalayan
larch
dominant
It often forms pure
trees
are
commonly
On dry sites these fir
also joined by the tall growing juniper,
The
the
are
Juniperus i n d i c a .
(Larix griffithiana) occurs
in
some
remote internal valleys in central and eastern Nepal and in
Bhutan.
The upper subalpine zone forms the upper limit of the
forest and is characterized by the Himalayan birch
utilis)
which
rhododendron
subalpine
grows
on
species
forests,
are
where
both dry
an
and
wet
important
they
number of species and individuals,
sites.
account for
the
even
advance
zone.
The
genus
is
of
largest
even though occasionally
species descend into the upper subtropical
main
The
component
some
in
(Betula
the form of bushes far into
level
the
or
alpine
distribution range of
the
rhododendron
in southern China where about
350
species
27
are
known.
Thirty - four
Nepal.
species of rhododendrons have
found
in
The number of species declines
along
the Himalayan range from east to
there
are 84 species of rhododendron and in eastern
west.
been
rapidly
In
Sikkim
Nepal
30 species, while in western Nepal only 5 species have been
recorded.
The Alpine Zone
The alpine zone extends from about 3800 m in the
eastern
Himalaya and 4200 m in the drier western
to approximately 5000 m.
are
common
entire
area
Shrub
Himalaya
Dwarf rhododendrons and junipers
in the lower elevations of this zone
supports
wet
a rich forb
species of the genera
and
Berberis.
and
graminoid
Lonicera.
the
flora.
Spirea.
E p h e d r a . Salix and Potentilla are also common.
The Steppe Zone
To
in
the
north of the
Dhaulagiri - Annapurna
Nepal lies an extensive steppe country with
and
a
massif
climate
flora more typical of the Tibetan Plateau than of
Nepal
Himalaya.
monsoon
the
This region is in the rain shadow of the
and annual precipitation is usually less than
mm.
This zone extends from an elevation of
2450
m
approximately
in the Kali Gandaki Valley of Nepal to heights
approximately 5000 m in Dolpo,
28
500
of
north of Dhaulagiri H i m a l .
The
region
is characterized by typical steppe
plants
of
bunchgrasses and shrubs of the genera C a r a g a n a . Ephedra and
Lonicera.
Biogeography in the Himalaya
The
of
Himalaya has greatly influenced the distribution
plants
and animals on the
Indian
subcontinent.
The
mountains have restricted most of the Central Asian species
from the forested lowlands of India and stopped the
species
from
migration
moving
north.
The
Himalaya
has
Indian
been
route for plants and animals and has become
meeting ground of five major biogegraphical subregions;
Mediterranean
Region
and
subregions
(1974)
and
the
of
Siberian subregions of
West
the Oriental Region
bringing
with
ancient
the
mountains.
of
of
and
(Schaller
1977).
the
the
Indian
Rau
western
the
contact
Chinese
Plants from China migrated westward and covered
the
peninsula,
tropical climate
more
Indochinese
the Indian subcontinent into
ecosystem
the
Palearctic
noted that the Tethys Sea first disappeared in
northeast,
most
Chinese,
the
a
arid,
which until the
(Cracraft 1973).
the
Miocene
had
a
After the climate became
flora found refuge on the moist
mountain
slopes of the Himalaya.
The
Pleistocene
existence
climatic conditions in the Himalaya
were
not
very
severe
and
during
permitted
the
the
and distribution of numerous plants and animals.
29
The
Himalaya acted as a refugiura and many
animal
found there today represent Palearctic relicts
In
the
originated
Himalaya
there
are
plant
species
(Ali 1981).
species
which
from the north temperate and arctic regions
Eurasia,
the
cold
Mediterranean
penetrated
deserts
region.
of
and
the
Flora from western China has
also
into the Himalaya.
Central
Asia
of
The species which
entered
the young Himalayan mountain range from the north, west and
east
extended
horizontally
complex.
the
their
as
In
well
range
under
favorable
as vertically within
Himalayan flora,
although
species retained their original identity
geography
species
Nepal
of
the
Himalayan
the different biogeographical regions
is the meeting place of the eastern and the
Tibetan
bio­
flora
(Stearn 1960)
from
both
having a
elements.
large
In
the
meet.
western
number
addition,
of
the
element is dominant in the flora in some dry areas
the Tibetan border.
dominant
throughout
The east Himalayan element
the flora
of
Nepal.
becomes much reduced towards western Nepal
flora
many
into
because it is in this country where many of
representatives
The
mountain
(Rau 1981),
occupies a unique position in
from
Himalayan
along
the
the course of time the species evolved
present-day
Nepal
conditions
This
element
(Stainton 1972).
west Himalayan element is strongly represented in
of
western
Nepal.
Many
species
is
of
this
the
group
terminate
their
Nepal.
Sykes
central
Nepal
extent
eastward
(1954)
range in the
western
half
of
noted that the Kali Gandaki River
in
appeared to act as a barrier to
between
the
a
certain
eastern and western elements
of
the
Himalayan flora,
Stearn
(1960)
concluded that the flora of Bhutan
is
closely linked to and partly conspecific with the flora
of
western China.
that
The vegetation of Bhutan is also unique in
numerous
species
(e.g.
Pinus
wallichiana.
Pinus
roxburghii.
Quercus semecarpifolia) found in central Nepal
and
or
absent
reappear
reason
rare in
again in Bhutan.
for
explained
rainfall
very
occurrence
in
local
Rainfall
inner valleys,
Stainton
these
to
Nepal
(1972)
species
topographical
sufficiently
species.
of
eastern
permit
and
Sikkim
noted that the
in
features
Bhutan
is
that
reduce
of
these
development
in east Nepal and Sikkim,
even in the
is not reduced significantly until altitudes
above the treeline are reached,
thus providing no suitable
habitats for these species that demand drier conditions.
Whyte
South
Asia
(1981) discussed the evolution of Gramineae in
and
noted that the
present
grass
flora
of
western monsoon Asia has evolved over nine major periods in
paleoclimatic
and
recent
history.
He stated
that
the
members of the gramineous flora of western monsoon Asia may
have
been transported into or may have migrated
31
into
the
region at different periods from different d i r e c t i o n s .
the
world's
9,000 species of grasses,
South Asia
graminous flora of 250 genera and 1250 species
32
(Bor
has
Of
a
1960).
CHAPTER 3
RANGELAND RESOURCES OF THE HIMALAYA
Rangelands
and forest grazing lands are an important
resource in the Himalaya,
is
essential
populations
for
Forage produced on these
maintenance
which
total
the
the majority of the
depend upon for a livelihood.
the
of
large
human
of
estimated that approximately
70
Wenxiu
percent
the total area of Xizang Province
rangeland.
The
providing
work
by
inhabitants
comprised
rangeland.
of
livestock
Approximately 12 percent of
land area of Nepal and Bhutan is
(1987)
lands
importance
(Tibet)
that forested areas
play
is
in
livestock forage in the Himalaya is reflected in
Panday
(1982)
who
noted
that
50
percent
of
livestock fodder in Nepal comes from forest sources.
There
Brown
1982,
Himalaya
an increasing
FAO 1983,
awareness
Hopkins 1985,
(Bjonness
1980,
Miller 1987)
in the
of the exploitation of natural resources and
insufficient
integral
is
and
forage
for livestock,
necessary
component
which
of
the
constitute
the
an
agricultural
system.
Rangelands are also important for wildlife species
in
Himalaya
the
1977)
and there is growing
concern
(Schaller
about the level of competition for forage
resources
33
between domestic animals and wild ungulates.
Very
little
information is available regarding the species composition,
productivity,
forage
rangelands.
proper
use
This
or
information
management
of
value
condition
is
of
essential
Himalayan
to
guidelines for the long term
rangeland
resources and
to
design
develop
sustained
programs
to
rehabilitate degraded rangelands.
Based on the works of others and my investigations in
Nepal
and
Bhutan,
this
chapter
will
describe
various
rangeland types in the Himalaya and important grass species
found
in
different rangelands.
preliminary
and
information
rangelands
subject
to
further
becomes available,
in
the
Himalaya
These
descriptions
revision
since the
is still
in
as
description
the
are
more
of
beginning
stages.
Rangeland Resources of Nepal and Bhutan
Rangelands
lower
elevations
vary from subtropical grasslands
in
the
to alpine meadows on ridge tops
in
the
midhills
and high mountain valleys of the inner
Himalaya.
A
dry
the
cold,
steppe
is found to the north
Himalayan range in parts of Nepal.
(4 million acres)
ha
percent
of the total land area of the
of land in Nepal or about
percent of the rangeland found in Nepal
12
country.
Over 55
is alpine.
Much of
steppe rangeland is also located above timberline.
34
main
Rangelands include 1,6
million
the
of
It
is
estimated that 95 percent of the rangeland in Nepal
located
in
the hills and only 5 percent is found
low-lying areas along the Indian border.
percent
of
estimated
Nepal's
land
area
Forests cover
(Panday 1982)
that approximately half of the forested area
is
Rajbhandary and Shah
(1981)
that rangelands provide 34 percent of the total feed
The
requirements are provided by croplands,
wastelands.
Table
3
Table 3.
depicts the amount of
rangeland
Amount of R angeland in Nepal by Type.
Type of rangeland
Amount
(sq km)
Subtropical and
temperate
Percent
%
6,293
34 .4
Alpine
10,141
55 .4
Steppe
1,875
10.2
18,309
100.0
Adapted from Rajbhandary and Shah
35
(1981)
remaining
forests
Nepal by type.
Total
32
is
requirements for livestock in the country.
feed
and
the
it
grazed by ruminant livestock.
noted
in
is
and
in
Rangelands
of
Nepal
are
becoming
degraded
by livestock overgrazing.
forested
areas
are
Grazing capacities
also being reduced
livestock
stocking rates.
not
adequate forage for most of
have
(1982)
Other
of
total
the
grazing
(APROSC 1979)
Rangelands
year.
of
determined
forests,
are
high
do
Panday
livestock.
that
and feeding systems only 55
digestible nutrients for ruminant
from pastureland,
of
in Nepal may reach 20
present demand for maintenance
investigators
existing
because
of
As a result most livestock
stated that the fodder deficit
percent
increasingly
under
percent
livestock was
of
met
or crop land.
estimated
to
cover
about
400,000
hectares of land in Bhutan or about 10 percent of the total
land area.
vary
from
Like neighboring Nepal,
tropical
grasslands in the
alpine meadows above timberline.
extensive
dry,
rangelands in
cold
southern
Bhutan
regionto
Bhutan does not have the
steppe rangelands
found
in
Nepal;
however, much of the rangeland in the northern border areas
has
Table
affinities with the vegetation of the Tibetan Plateau.
4 illustrates the amount of rangeland in
Bhutan
by
various ecological zones
in
type.
Rangelands
Nepal
and
range
of
different
occur
over
Bhutan and these different zones
climatic
range
and
soil
types.
conditions
Environmental
36
have
that
factors
a
wide
support
also
Table 4.
Amount of Rangeland in Bhutan by Type.
Type of rangeland
Percent
Amount
(sg km)
Barren
land and
rocky
areas (above 3500 m)
3,455
8.0
Barren
land, grassland and
shrubland (below 3500 m)
307
0.7
Alpine pasture/meadows
747
1.9
Alpine shrublands
1,918
4.7
Total
6,427
15 .3
Adapted from Negi
influence
(1983)
natural
distribution of
plant
species,
growth patterns, and reproduction strategies.
of
their
Descriptions
the rangeland resources will be done according
to
the
vegetation zones described earlier.
Rangeland Resources of the Tropical Zone
Tropical
approximately
covered
rangelands are found up to an elevation
1000
large
grasslands
m.
areas
have
Although
of southern
these
Nepal,
been converted into
rangelands
most
of
agricultural
of
once
these
lands.
Because Bhutan does not contain large expanses of flat land
along
the
Indian
border it does not have the
tropical rangelands present in N e p a l .
37
Excellent
extent
of
remnants
of
these tall tropical savannas can still be found in many
national
Here,
parks
and wildlife reserves in
southern
they provide valuable habitat for numerous
Nepal.
wildlife
species such as the Royal Bengal tiger, wild elephants, hog
deer,
spotted deer,
(1982)
estimated
hectares
of
widespread
Gangetic
sambhar and blackbuck antelope.
that these grasslands total 0.1
land in Nepal.
throughout
the
This type
Indian
of
million
grassland
subcontinent
Plain and the Brahmaputra Valley.
Panday,
in
is
the
Many of these
tropical grasslands are burned annually in late winter.
Whyte
(1968)
noted these tropical grasslands as being
the Phragmites/ Saccharum/ Imperata type.
Dominant
of
karka.
grass
spontaneum
(1968)
in these areas are Phragmites
and Imperata c v l i n d r i c a .
According
species
Saccharum
to
Whyte
the principal species representing this grass cover
type are:
Bothriochloa intermedia
Bothriochloa odorata
Chrysopogon aciculatus
Cynodon dactylon
Desmostachys bipinnata
Hymenachne pseudointerrupta
Imperata cylindrica
Ischaemum timorense
Narenga porphyrocoma
Neyraudia revnaudiana
Stainton
Cymbopogron
Rapti
(1972)
jwarancusa
Valley
Panicum notatum
Pa spa 1 urn con jucraturn
Phragmites karka
Saccharum arundinaceum
Saccharum bengalense
Saccharum spontaneum
Sclerostachya fusca
Sporobolus indicus
Vetiveria zizaniodes
noted a dense growth of
2-meter-tall
and Bothriochloa intermedia in
of Nepal only 18 months after the
38
area
the
had
been taken out of cultivation to make way for a
rhinoceros
reserve.
Because
appears
to
grasslands
of
man's
activities
be increasing in
and
Imperata
dominance
cvlindrica
throughout
the wee d Eupatorium odoratum is
replacing many of the more palatable species
these
gradually
(APROSC 1979).
Rangeland Resources of the Subtropical
Zone
Subtropical rangelands are located from approximately
1000
m to 2000 m in the hill regions of Nepal and
This
zone
and
livestock.
Bhutan.
has received the heaviest pressure from
A
large
percentage
of
humans
subtropical
rangelands that existed previously have been converted into
agricultural land. Many of these subtropical rangelands are
associated
with
of
the
rangelands
that are still existent are heavily grazed
and
in
poor
Pinus roxburghii
condition.
infested
with
Many
of
Eupatorium
forests.
these
grazing
adenophorum.
(Pteridium aguilinum) , stinging nettle
Most
lands
bracken
are
fern
(Utrica parviflora) ,
and Artemisia v u l g a r i s .
Whyte
(1968)
Themeda/Arundinella
termed
type.
He
these
stated that
rangelands
the
dominant
species of grass in this type were Arundinella nepalensis
39
a
and
Themeda a n a t h e r a .
He noted that principal
perennial
species characterizing this type were:
Arundinella benqalensis
Arundinella nepalensis
Bothriochloa intermedia
Bothriochloa pertusa
Chrysopogon fulvus
Chrvsopogon gryllus
Cymbopogon jwarancusa
Cymbopoaon olivieri
Grasses,
that
other
Cymbopogon stracheyi
Cynodon dactylon
Dimeria fuscescens
Eraqrostiella leioptera
Eulaliopsis binata
Hefceropogon contortus
Ischaemum barbatum
Themeda anathera
than
those listed by Whyte
(1968),
I have found to be common in the subtropical zone
Nepal and Bhutan are
:
Apluda mutica
Bracharia decumbens
Capillipedium parviflorurn
Digitaria setigera
Eleusine indica
Eragrostis nigra
Isachne globusa
Paspalidium flavidum
Disturbances,
affects
Figure
the
in
Paspalum dilitaturo
P a s p a 1um scrobiculatum
Pennisetum clandestinum
Pennisetum pedicellatum
Perotis hordeiformis
Sporobolus fertilis
Thysanolaena maxima
Oplismenus compositus
largely
vegetal
from
composition
2 shows some of
overgrazing,
of
these
greatly
grasslands.
the successional stages that occur
with grazing in these subtropical grasslands.
In the dry,
and
Tashigang
inner valleys of Wangdiphodrang
(1000
dominant
grasses
on
mutica.
Chrysopogon
Heteropogon c o n t o r t u s .
1900
m)
in
Bhutan,
south
facing
gryllus.
I
have
slopes
Cymbopogon
(1370 m)
found
were:
that
Apluda
jwarancus
and
In eastern Bhutan at elevations of
m near Jongkhar there are extensive grasslands
domi­
nated by Arundinella nepalensis and Chrysopogon g r y l l u s .
40
Figure 2.
Succession in the Themeda/A r u n d i n e 1 la type.
•a
Themeda/Arundinella
A
|
I
!
v
Protection
Grazing
I
!
v
Arund in ell a/Chrvsopoqon
A
|
I
!
v
Protection
Grazing
I
!
v
Heteropocron/Bothriochloa
I
!
v
Protection
Grazing
A
I
A
|
A
|
I
:
v
Cynodon
Adapted from Whyte
(1968)
Pennisetum clandestinum has become naturalized over a
wide
area of the community grasslands near the village
Tala
(1850 m)
are
very
in southwestern Bhutan.
common
in these heavily
Other grasses
grazed
pastures
of
that
are:
Paspalum dilitatum and Sporobolus fertilis .
Numata
(1980,
1987), conducting wor k in Nepal at Jiri
(1900 m ) , noted that community grasslands were dominated by
Cynodon
dactylon.
cylindrica.
In
Paspalum
Chitlang
distichum
(1400 m ) ,
41
and
Imperata
at the Government
of
Nepal's
Sheep Farm,
percent
of
(1978) noted that
the grassland flora was comprised
laxa.
Miller
Myagdi
Panchayat
dominated
Van Swindern
by
(1984)
of
70-80
Themeda
stated that subtropical grasslands in
<1800-2200 m ) ,
Arundinella
in
central
nepalensis.
Nepal,
Cvmbopogon
were
s p p .,
Chrysopocron gryllus and Heteropogon contortus .
The grass,
subtropical
Thysanolaena m a x i m a . is common throughout
regions of Nepal and Bhutan and is often grown
by farmers around their houses as a source of fodder.
The
large panicles are also used for makin g b r o o m s .
In
general,
the belt
considered
to
subtropical
and temperate grass genera
Bhutan
I
be
between
a transitional
zone
m
between
(Whyte
of
2360
m,
which
altitudinal
limit
Bhutan,
an elevation of 2500
at
dominates
the
1968).
In
species.
m,
be
near
Near
the
limit
This
Serbithang,
Imperata
site must also be
for this
species
cylindrica
close
which
an
upper
vegetation on the edges of fields that
burned.
altitudinal
for this
must
is
the
encountered Heteropogon contortus in Paro at
elevation
commonly
1800 and 2100
is
to
are
the
normally
considered to be a tropical or subtropical grass.
Rangeland Resources of the Temperate Zone
Temperate rangelands extend from 2000 m to 3000 m
the Himalaya.
up
to
in
Subtropical grass species can still be found
elevations of approximately 2500 m but
42
above
that
level
grasslands
Temperate
systems
grazing
in
subjected
Mauch
are
the
to
and
dominated
lands are very
Himalaya
years
and in
by
important
many
of heavy grazing
Schwank
(1979)
temperate
estimated
to
cases
and
species.
pastoral
have
mismanagement.
that
temperate
grasslands in the Dolakha District of Nepal produced
tons
Roder
dry
matter/ha.
(1987)
grasslands at
Whyte
grasslands
been
In the Bumthang region
of
1-1.5
Bhutan,
recorded dry matter yields of 0.7 tons/ha
in
2700 m.
(1968)
discussed
the
temperate
and
alpine
of the Indian Himalaya and noted the grasslands
were composed of the following species:
Acrropvron canaliculatum
Agrostis canina
Agrostis filipes
Agrostis munroana
Agrostis myriantha
Andropogon tristis
Calamagrostis epjgejos
Associated
Chrvsopogon grvllus
Dactylis glomerata
Danthonia jacguemontii
Koeleria cristata
Phleum alpinum
Poa pratensis
Stipa concinna
perennial species with a contribution
more than 10 percent in the vegetal composition were:
ftgr.asfc.i s pl.laaula
Brachypodium sylvaticum
Bromus ramosus
Calamagrostis emodensis
Eragrostis nigra
Festuca lucida
Efi&tuaa yaj.,esuas3.
Helictotrichon asperum
Muhlenbergia s p .
Poa alpina
Trisetum spicatum
43
of
Other
perennial
species present
in
lower
amounts
were:
Agropyron semicostatum
Agrostis micrantha
Calamagrostis pseudophragmites
Deschampsia caespitosa
Deyeuxia scabrescens
Glyceria tonglensis
Helictotrichon pratense
Helictotrichon virescens
duthieana
Muhlenbergia huegelii
Grass species,
I
have
Erianthus longisetosus
Festuca gigantea
Festuca kashmiriana
Festuca ovina
Festuca rubra
Oryzopsis aeguiglumis
Poa angustifolia
Poa pagophila
Trisetum micans
not listed by Whyte
(1968)
found to be important in temperate
above,
that
grasslands
in
Nepal and Bhutan are the following:
Arundinella hookerii
Bothriochloa bladhii
Cymbopogon distans
Elymus caninus
Eu l a 1ia m o l l i s
Pennisetum
grass
in
Bhutan.
Miscanthus nepalensis
Pennisetum flaccidum
Schizachyrium delavayi
Themeda guadrivalis
flaccidum appears to be a very
important
the temperate zone in the Himalaya of Nepal
In
the Kali Gandaki valley of central
and
Nepal
at
elevations of 2400 ~ 2700 m it is commonly found growing on
edges
is
of fields and terraces.
cultivated
as
a
hay crop
In this region of Nepal it
and
large
quantities
of
Pennisetum flaccidum are cut and stored for winter feeding.
In the Paro and Thimphu valleys of Bhutan it is also
growing
found
on edges of fields and is used in these areas as a
hay crop as w e l l .
In the Bumthang valley
dominant
grasses
(2640 m)
in central Bhutan the
associated with open
44
blue
pine
(Pinus
wallichiana)
forests
are:
Brachypodium sylvaticum.
Helictotrichon
Schizachyrium
areas
not
Arundinella
Elymus caninuro. Eragrostis n i g r a .
virescens.
Pennisetum
heavy,
there
Schizachyrium d e l a v a y i .
dominant
depicts
flaccidum.
delavayi and Themeda g u a d r i v a l i s .
in the temperate zone in Bhutan,
been
hookerii.
grass
are
In
many
where grazing
almost
pure
has
stands
of
Where grazing has been heavy
the
is often Arundinella h o o k e r i i .
the successional stages that take place
Figure
in
3
these
Schizachyrium g r a s s l a n d s .
Figure 3.
Successional Stages in the Schizachyrium type.
Schizachyrium
t
A
I
v
Grazing
I
!
v
Bothriochloa/Eragrostis
I
!
v
Protection
Grazing
I
!
v
Arundinella
:
Protection
A
<
A
|
A
|
In temperate grasslands around Paro,
Bhutan
(2500 m)
that have been heavily grazed common shrubs encountered are
of the genera: A r t e m i s i a . B e r b e r i s . C e r a t o s t i g m a . Rhapdosia
and
Lonicera.
At one time these grasslands were probably
45
dominated
by
the two grasses Schizachyrium
delavayi
and
Themeda quadrivalis and have now been replaced by the above
listed
shrubs
and grasses such
as
Arundinella
hookeri.
Bothriochloa bladhii and Eraqrostis n i g r a .
Andropoqon
Gandaki
tristis is the dominant grass in the Kali
Valley of Nepal
<2500 to 3200 m
elevation).
species is also the most commonly encountered grass in
Langtang
Valley
of
central Nepal
at
those
This
the
elevations.
Where grazing has been heavy Andropoqon tristis is replaced
by Arundinella h o o k e r i i .
Although
delavayi
both
Andropoqon
Andropoqon
and
Schizachyrium
appear to occupy the same type of
is dominant in Nepal
dominant in Bhutan.
one
tristis
while
habitat,
Schizachyrium
is
I have only encountered Andropoqon in
locality in Bhutan and have not yet seen Schizachyrium
in N e p a l .
Rangeland Resources of the Subalpine Zone
Rangelands
elevations
of
rangelands
in
pastoralism
in
Large herds of
these
grazing
of
the subalpine zone are
approximately
this
3000
m
to
located
4000
zone are of critical
the high elevations of Nepal
m.
The
importance
and
In
to
Bhutan.
yaks and flocks of sheep are dependent
lands for much of the year.
from
upon
addition,
transhumant herds of cattle and water buffalo utilize these
rangelands in summer.
46
I
have noted the following species of grasses to
be
common in the subalpine zone:
Agrostis inaeguiglumis
Agrostis pilosula
Anthoxanthum hookeri
Bromus himalaicus
Calamagrostis emodensis
Calamagrostis pulchella
Danthonia schneideri
Duthiea nepalensis
Elvmus canaliculatus
Elvmus dahuricus
Elvmus nutans
Elvmus schrenkianus
Festuca cumminsii
Festuca leptopocron
Festuca ovina
Helictotrichon virescens
Poa ludens
Stipa concinna
Stipa duthiea
Stipa koelzii
Stipa regeliana
Stipa sibirica
Trikeria oreophilia
Trisetum spicatum
Shrubs of the genera B e r b e r i s .
Juniperus.
Lonicera.
Potentilla.
Caragana.
Rosa.
Hippophae.
Spiraea
Rhododendron are common in subalpine rangelands.
subalpine
areas
the shrub,
Pipthanthus
In
and
many
nepalensis.
has
heavily invaded once productive rangelands.
On
drier
sites Danthonia schneideri
is
dominant grass species throughout the Himalaya.
areas
are
Langtang
Valley in central Nepal and in the Khumbu
the
eastern
Gandaki
valley
the
Extensive
dominated by these Danthonia rangelands in
near Mount Everest.
on
often
the
region
Danthonia grasslands are also dominant
slopes of Dhaulagiri Himal
in
the
Kali
of
depicts
the
Nepal.
Figure
4,
successional stages that take place in Danthonia rangelands
in the western Himalaya.
47
Figure 4.
Successional Stages in the Danthonia Type.
Danthonia
I
I
!
Protection
A
v
Grazing
«
I
!
v
Danthonia/Trisetum
A
«
I
!
Protection
v
Grazing
A
«
I
!
v
Danthonia/Agrostis
A
I
I
!
Protection
v
Grazing
I
A
|
I
V
Agrostis/Poa
Adapted from Gupta
Agrostis
to
replace
rangelands
appears
Sedges
of
inaeguiglumis and A g r o s t i s pilosula
Danthonia
in
to
(1978)
Nepal
increase
the
genra
schneideri
and
in
Bhutan.
degraded
Stipa
Kobresia
Danthonia
koelzii
where grazing has been
Carex and
appear
very
are
Forbs of
also
heavy.
important
components
of subalpine grasslands.
the
genera
Anaphalis.
Bistorta and Potentilla also become more common
as Danthonia is removed from the grassland.
In
elevation)
the Manang Valley of north central Nepal
there
are
large
48
areas
dominated
(3500
by
m
Stipa
brandesii.
(I960)
This grass is not grazed by livestock and
Bor
notes that it may contain glycosides.
In
the
herders
Mount
maintain
nutans
at
species
Everest region
of
Nepal
local
native hay meadows dominated
elevations
of 4000 to
4400
m.
yak
by
Elymus
This
native
is of great importance to the pastoral systems
in
high elevation areas of N e p a l .
Rangeland Resources of the Alpine Zone
Alpine rangelands extend from 4000 to 5000 m and
primarily
also
summer grazing lands for yaks and
sheep.
provide important habitat for wild ungulates
Himalaya.
zone
Many of the plant
They
in
At
the
species noted in the subalpine
are also found in the lower elevations of the
zone.
are
alpine
higher elevations forbs and sedges become
more
common.
Yon
the
Lari
(197G) ,
working on the slopes of Ganesh Himal in
area of north central Nepal,
delineated
three
different types of alpine meadows at approximately 4400
Kobresia
hookeri,
lehmani/Cvperaceae
hookeri
inner
Kobresia
type.
nepalensis
He
noted
and
that
a
A n d r o sae e
the
Kobresia
range type is important in the alpine zone in
valleys of central Nepal.
m:
Rhododendron shrubs
all
are
also commonly found in these alpine meadows.
Three main types of alpine vegetation have been noted
in
the
Langtang
Valley of central Nepal
49
(HMG
1976):
a
Cortia
depressa
type,
a
Kobresia
type
and
a
Carex/Agrostis/Poa t y p e .
Harris
Mount
(1986),
Chomolhari
comprised
worked in grasslands at 4100 m
in
Bhutan.
He
found
that
near
grasses
24.3 percent of the vegetation while sedges
and
rushes made up another 12.1 percent.
A
are
number of plant species growing in the alpine zone
utilized
Some
of
the
as medicinal plants
more
important
Nardostachvs j a t a m a n s i .
moorcroftiana.
various
Other
purposes
peduncularis.
Polygonum
of
local
inhabitants.
these plants
are:
Picrorhiza s c r o p hu lar if lor a. Rheum
alpine plants that are utilized for
by
local
Geranium
vjviparum.
by
villagers
donaianum.
are: Potentilla
Aster
Saussurea gossypiphora
stracheyi.
and
Swertia
multicaulis.
Rangeland Resources of the Steppe Zone
The
of
the
steppe type of vegetation is found to the
the main Himalayan peaks of Dhaulagiri a nd Annapurna in
areas
region
is
of Dolpo,
Mustang and Manan g
in
region
mm
Nepal.
located from approximately 2450 m in
Gandaki valley to elevations of about 5000 m.
500
north
This
the
The
Kali
entire
is situated in a rainshadow and averages less
annual precipitation.
The flora of the area
affinities with the vegetation of the Tibetan Plateau.
50
than
has
Stainton
(1972)
noted that in the northern
Dolpo two shrubs dominate the steppes:
and Lonicera s p i n o s a .
where
it
is
less
part
of
Caracrana brevifolia
In the southern part of the country,
dry,
the following
shrubs
are
more
n u m e r o u s : Rhododendron a n t h o p o q o n . R . l e p i t o d u m . R . n i v a l e .
Juniperus
wallichiana.
J.
squamata.
Rosa
Potentilia fruticosa and species of B e r b e r i s .
sericea.
Below 4100 m
Caracrana brevif olia is replaced by Caragana g e r a d i a n a .
the
Barbung
steppe
Khola of Dolpo there
with
some
is
an
low bushes of Caragana
In
A rtemisia-grass
gerardiana
and
Cotoneaster s p p . (Stainton 1972).
Stainton
grass in Dolpo:
Melica
(1972)
Deyeuxia h o l c i f p r m i s .
scaberrima.
Poa p a g o p h i l a .
ovina.
collected the following
Cymbopogon
of
Deyeuxia p u l c h e l l a .
Melica j a c g u e m o n t i i .
Poa a l p i g e n a .
species
Poa p o o p h a g o r u m .
Oryzopsis l a t e r a l i s . Festuca
stracheyi.
Danthonia cachemyriana
and
Orinus t h o r a l d i i .
In the Jomsom and Muktinath areas of
species
such
Aristida s p ,,
as Andropogon
are
found
in the temperate,
also
Calamagrostis
also encountered.
Many of these
s p .,
commonly found
in
species
are
subalpine and alpine rangelands as
Shrubs of the genus Ceratosticrma and
important
grass
Pennisetum flaccidum and numerous species of
Stipa
well.
tristis.
Mustang,
these
steppe
Sophora
are
rangelands.
An
species to villagers in the Mustang region is
51
a
native alfalfa, Medicacro f a l c a t a . which is fed to livestock
in winter.
52
CHAPTER 4
DOMESTIC YAK
(Bos crrunniens) AND THEIR ROLE IN
PASTORAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE HIMALAYA
I like yaks.
Bulky,
black, and shaggily clad, yaks
convey
a
rugged
elegance;
they belong
to bitter
storms and barren uplands (Schaller 1980, p . 63).
Introduction
Domestic
China,
from
Himalaya
live
yaks are found from Afghanistan to
the
subtropical,
Asian
Mongols,
slopes
to the taiga forests of Mongolia.
on the “Roof of the World"
Central
southern
without
pastoralists such as the
western
of
the
Man could not
yaks.
Numerous
Kirghiz,
Kazaks,
Tibetans and Sherpas depend on yaks for
survival
in some of the most inhospitable environments in the world.
Female yaks are important milk-producing animals
pastoralists of the Himalaya.
rich
in butterfat,
Mil k
products
Yak milk, which is extremely
is used for making butter and
are sold or exchanged for grain
necessities which pastoralists require.
is
characteristic
blankets,
were
White
an
of
pack bags,
important
and even tents.
and
cheese.
other
The long hair that
the yak is used for
making
ropes,
The bushy y a k tails
export item from Tibet
at
yak tails were imported into Europe and
53
for
one
the
time.
United
States
to
fine,
make Santa Claus beards.
inner wool,
spun
and
woven
in addition to the long hair,
into clothing.
making boot soles,
hide
Yaks also provide
ropes,
that
Yak hides are
a
is
used
for
and in many parts of Tibet
yak
coracles are still used to cross large rivers much as
Indian tribes on the Upper Missouri River used buffalo bull
boats.
used
In addition,
yaks are beasts of burden.
to pl o w fields and for carrying supplies
mountains
They are
across
the
where they are more sure - footed than horses or
mules.
Not
only are yaks used as
the sustenance of life by
pastoralists in the Himalaya and Tibet,
closely
linked
to the cultural and ritual
these herding societies.
vital
role
Himalaya,
of
but they are
yaks
activities
It is not surprising,
in the economy and
also
of
given the
ecology
of
the
that they and their products have religious
and
ritual functions as well.
Taxonomy and Description
Taxonomically,
Bovinae,
yaks
are
of the Bovidae family.
Palmieri 1976),
members of the
subfamily,
According to Bohlken
(in
the subfamily Bovinae is divided into four
genera: B i s o n . B u b a l u s . S y n c e r u s . and B o s .
The genus Bison
comprises two living species: |L_ b i s o n . the American bison;
and
Bj_
consists
bonasus.
of
the European
three living
bison.
species:
54
Bj.
The genus Bubalus
arnee.
the
wild
Asiatic
buffalo;
buffalo;
b u b a l i s . the
and
Celebes.
domesticated
water
d e p r e s s i c o r n i s . the dwarf buffalo of the
The genus Syncerus consists of a single species,
S . c a f f e r . the African buffalo.
The genus Bos is divided into three
Bibos .
and Poephacrus .
taurus.
g a u r ; , Bos
the mithan,
Bos j a v a n i c u s . the banteng;
Poephagus
zebu or
The subgenus Bibos includes Bos g a u r u s . the
frontalis.
Bali cattle;
Bos.
The subgenus Bos includes both Bos
European domestic cattle and Bos i n d i c u s .
humped cattle.
gaur;
subgenera:
and Bos s a u v e l i .
includes
Bos
a domesticated form of
Bos javanicus d o m e s t i c u s .
the kouprey.
mutus.
the
The subgenus
w il d
yak
and
Bos
g r u n n i e n s . the domesicated yak.
Allen
the
(1940)
noted that the y a k is closely related to
tropical members of the genus B i b o s .
gaur,
in
tubular
the banteng
the conformation of the penis which has a
urethal
prolongation
glandular thickening.
prolongation
free
from
the
and
short
terminal
He further stated that this peculiar
is absent in Bos as typified by the
domestic
cattle and Indian humped cattle.
Both
animals.
wild
and
domestic
yak
are
massively
Although yak have no zebu-like hump,
built
they do have
a dorsal ridge prominence at the withers that is due to the
elongated
cervical
neural
vertebrae.
spines
of
the
thoracic
and
seventh
This dorsal ridge prominence adds
55
to
the massive appearance of yaks.
instead
of
the
13 that are found
(Epstein 1974).
much
more
Yaks have 14 pairs of ribs
in
all
other
In the bull the withers and shoulders are
powerfully developed than in the cow
describing
cattle
the
yak
the
words
of
Epstein
yak.
In
(1974)
are
appropriate:
The
chest
and belly of yaks are deep and wide
but,
the
hind quarters tend to be light and the rump
is
short
and slopes to the tail.
The yak has
a wide
convex
forehead and long dished
face with high
set
eyes.
The muzzle
is much smaller than in
cattle,
with
the upper lip as fine and motile as
in
sheep.
The horns project outwards,
upwards and backwards in
a graceful curve.
The size at the base of the horns
is 50 cm in circumference and they can extend to
95
cm in length.
The spread at the horn tips can be 90
cm.
The
coarse,
and
most conspicuous feature of the yak is the long,
shaggy hair which hangs from the shoulders,
flanks like a long skirt.
with
long
range
hair and resembles the tail of a
in
majority
(1946)
color
of
from blac k to pure
domestic yaks are
suggested
Chinese
The tail is
yaks
may
white,
black.
also
due to
covered
horse.
Yaks
although
Phillips
that some of the varied colors
be
belly
crossbreeding
with
the
et
al.
seen
in
cattle
several generations earlier.
While
domestic
the
yak
considerably
Schaller
above descriptions characterize w ild
equally
in
1977)
size
well,
and
the
weight.
two
animals
and
differ
Engleman
(1938,
in
found wild yak bulls reaching a
height
of
56
203
era
body
at the shoulder and weighing 821 k g and
length of 4.25 m.
having
He found w il d yak cows
measuring
1.6 m at the shoulders and weighing 325 - 360 kg.
(1937,
in
Phillips et a l .
1946)
a
Schafer
recorded wild yak
bulls
weighing up to 1000 kg.
Domestic
yaks
are considerably
smaller
yaks.
According
to Phillips et a l . (1946)
weight
of
female yaks was
Epstein
(1974)
kg.
adult
cows
wild
the mean
live
estimated
at
225
(1965)
of 320 kg.
found
yak cows in Nepal
with
Average height at the withers for
was found to be 106 cm while the height of ya k
ranged from 117 to 132 cm
(Epstein 1974) .
have
measured
155 cm at the withers
(1974)
a
yak
bulls
An exceptionally
large domestic yak bull in northeastern Tibet was
to
kg.
found yak bulls weighing 350 k g and cows 240
Schulthess
weight
than
reported
(Phillips et
1946).
Epstein
noted that the yaks on the
Plateau
are generally larger and of a better
al.
Tibetan
conformation
than those found south of the Himalaya in Nepal and Bhutan.
The female y ak has her first calf,
period of 258 days,
born
after a gestation
when she is 4-5 years old.
Calves are
in May and June and birth weights range from 10-16 kg
(Epstein
1974).
Because of poor forage
conditions
yaks
generally produce a calf only every other year.
Female
the morning,
yaks are usually milked only once a
day,
in
after the calf has been tied or secured during
57
the
night.
The
calf is allowed to suck
milking and Phillips et a l . <1946)
of
briefly
before
stated that the practice
allowing the calf to suck just enough to stimulate
letting down of milk
calves
are
the
is almost universal among nomads.
allowed to run with their mothers
Yak
during the
day.
Yak
content
high
milk is a rich golden color and has a
with
high
fat globules of 4.0 - 4.5 u diameter
content of solids not f a t .
Yak milk has a
fat
a nd
specific
weight of 1.0361 and the following average composition;
percent
fat,
protein,
4.6 percent lactose,
percent
water.
course
10.9
percent solids not
The
of a lactation
percent and
colostrum
5.4
6.5
percent
0.9 percent minerals and 82.6
butterfat percentage
rises
in
the
p eriod of 240 days from 5.9 to
8.8
the milk protein from 4,5 to 5.6 percent.
The
contains 14.0 percent fat,
11.4 percent albumin and globulin,
(Schley
fat,
a
1967,
in Epstein
1974).
4.8 percent
casein,
and 1.9 percent lactose
Schulthess
<1967,
in
Epstein 1974)
noted that the average daily quantity of milk
obtained
Nepal in one milking was approximately 1
in
with as much as 7-^9 percent butterfat.
yak
He also noted that
milk resembles that of ordinary cows in
propionic
acid and butyric acid fermentation,
and
development
curd
(1946)
in cheese making.
kg,
lactic
acid,
coagulation
Phillips
noted a lactation period of about 225 days in
et a l .
Tibet
with
an
average
m ilk yield of 650 k g with
6.7
percent
butterfat.
Herders
July.
normally
shear yaks once a year in June
or
Yield of hair varies from 1 to 2 k g per animal.
long
coarse
thirds
of
hair of the outer coat makes
about
two-
the total weight and the soft down wool of
undercoat accounts for the r e s t .
length
up
The
the
The wool is up to 5 cm in
and has a fiber diameter ranging from 15 to 17 u in
young
animals
and from 18 to 19 u in adult
distinguished
by
the
nearly
complete
yaks.
It
absence of
is
yolk
(Epstein 1974) .
Information
limited.
on
the
White et a l .
(1946),
been introduced in Alaska,
covered
with
primarily
snow
the
feeding
behavior
found that when the forage
yaks
trampled the
even
wind,
during high winds,
rather than
horses commonly do.
al.
(1946)
twenty
They
to
also
browsed.
and that yaks
away from it as
cattle
was
fed
of
low
feed
and
Yaks travel as they feed and White et
found it was not uncommon for the herd to
thirty miles during a twenty-four hour
stated that yaks seem to prefer water
during winter,
is
They
yaks continued to graze during periods of
temperature,
the
snow and
on the low bunch grasses which provided most
that
into
yak
working with yaks that had
the winter feed although willows were also
noted
of
move
period.
to
snow
but they will not travel any great distance
to
obtain
Epstein
water if loose or uncaked
(1974)
snow
is
available,
stated that yak are adept at digging through
snow for feed.
Russian researchers
in
Epstein 1974)
26
times the length of its body,
(Burlakov et a l . 1961
noted that the intestines of the yak
while in Kirghiz
are
cattle
the intestines are 34.7 times longer than the body.
Epstein
(1974)
stated that the slender tongue of the
yak with its tough papillae and the strong teeth enable
it
to
of
feed
on short and low-growing plants in the manner
sheep and goats and Moorcroft
(1816, quoted in Fairly 1975)
wrote:
The bite of the yak is quicker and nearer the ground
than any other species of neat cattle I am acquainted
with.
a pecularity which fits them for the short and
scanty h e r b a g e .
Schaller
(1977)
noted that
in Tibet,
chiru, argali,
gazelle, kiang and yak all associate together, but that the
details
He
of their habitat divisions have not been
indicated
indicates
that
they
the
coexistence
Lapche
Kang
these
species
are not serious competitors or some
have become locally extinct.
the
of
studied.
would
Schaller also found that
area of northern Nepal blue
sheep
in
were
often observed grazing within 10 m of domestic yak.
Osmond
(1967)
noted similarities
between
muskox even though they are not closely related.
species,
living far apart and unconnected,
adapted to the same conditions,
60
yak
and
These two
have both become
finding the same solutions
to the same problems during their long evolution. This is a
case
of
convergence
- two
independently,
evolve
Rawling
quoted in Schaller 1977)
a
<1905,
defense
to
different
closely
animals,
resemble
quite
each
other.
found that y a k use
similar to the circular defense of the
muskox:
'‘all rush together and remain thus with their heads
toward
the threatening danger".
While
making a trip through Ladak,
India, Meinertzhagen
(1927)
in
northwestern
described yaks as follows:
They
are nervous creatures and quite small incidents
alarm them. On one occasion after a 4,000 feet climb,
all
my yaks were showing signs of distress,
panting
and grunting with their huge tongues
lolling
out.
But on reaching the plateau where they were faced by
an icy blast, first one and then another commenced to
frisk and buck like young goats,
scattering their
loads in all directions.
They are at their best
in
deep
snow and even though they sink in up to
their
bellies, they will push their way through, seeming to
enjoy it thoroughly.
A n d if they get too hot,
they
eat chunks of snow to quench their t h i r s t .
Distribution
The domestic y a k is bred in the high mountain
of central Asia,
through
from the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau,
the Pamirs,
Tien Shan and Altai,
mountains of Siberia.
Bhutan,
Nepal
Afghanistan,
western
and
parts
regions
ranges
of
into the
Sayan
The regions include Tibet, northern
India,
of
northern
the
U.S.S.R.,
Pakistan,
Mongolia
Inner Mongolia in Sinkiang
(Epstein 1974).
61
northest
and
in
the
China
Palmieri
(1976)
noted
the
most
important
factor
limiting distribution of yak seems to be temperature, which
varies
with
season,
vegetation cover,
latitude,
elevation,
and other factors.
wind,
slope,
He stated that
the
seasonality of temperature and inverse relationship between
temperature
migrations
in
Tibet
and elevation are the basis for great seasonal
of yak between high and low pastures so
and Nepal.
taken below 2500 m.
In Nepal and Bhutan yak are
Herders will often take
their
animals lower for breeding purposes or for
loads,
but such trips are not of long duration,
quickly returned to higher elevations.
Langtang
seldom
This is not to say that yak are never
encountered below this elevation.
are
common
carrying
and
In the
Valley in Nepal I have seen yak bulls at
yaks
lower
1450
m
during January where they are kept for breeding with cattle
to
obtain hybrid crosses.
Yaks are commonly taken up
elevations as high as 5600 m in the Himalaya while
to
packing
supplies for climbing expeditions.
Domesticated
y a k seem to have a much wider
range than wild yak. Palmieri
planation
for
this
(1976)
may be that the
suggested that the ex­
lively
genes between yak and common cattle has given
yak
vertical
exchange
of
domesticated
a better ability to survive in warmer temperatures and
1ower e 1evations.
62
Breeding and Hybridization
Yak herders in the Himalaya select breeding stock for
preferred colors and markings and for other characteristics
including
size,
conformation,
horn
shape,
characteristics and behavior patterns.
most
milking
Castration is
the
common method employed prevent bulls with undesirable
characteristics
from
breeding.
Because bull
yaks
intractable they are also castrated so they can be used
are
as
pac k a n i m a l s .
The
which
most
highly prized stud yaks
are very rare.
least valued.
tails,
or
of any color,
pastoralists
of
yak
are not valued as stud yaks.
and
common
cattle
throughout the Himalaya.
working ability,
approximately
stock
and milk production.
are
of
(Epstein 1974).
milk.
than
size,
hybrids
male
are
strength,
Their live weight is
Hybrid
female
cows
yaks
and
Male hybrids have
yak-cattle hybrids
are
cattle
reach
sexual
give
larger
fully
developed
(Epstein 1974).
sterile.
fertile when mated with either
63
by
The hybrid crosses
secondary sexual characters and show libido
However,
br e d
18 percent higher than that of their
earlier
quantities
and
are also highly prized.
between yak and cattle excel in hardiness,
maturity
white,
Yaks with white heads or white stockings and
Hybrids
parent
pure
Black yaks are the most common
combinations of these,
Polled yaks,
are
Female
parent stock,
but their male calves are sterile.
Hybrid oxen are highly
valued as beasts of burden.
Yak herding pastoralists in the Himalaya differentiate
between hybrids depending on the parentage of the sire
and
dam.
and
Female
female
yaks
can be mated to common hill bulls
hill cattle can be mate d to stud yak.
There is
a
definite distinction made between hybrids and the resulting
backcrosses that are obtained.
The
breeding
terminates
1976).
of
yak-cattle
hybrids
generally
with the second generation backcross
Herders
believe that breeding beyond
(Palmieri
that
point
would have no purpose because such breeding would result in
animals
with
characteristics no better than the
original
animals.
Palmieri
prized
(1976)
noted that the qualities most
of hybrids are:
highly
(1) the ability of the hybrids
to
function better at lower elevations and warmer temperatures
than
yaks,
compared
produce
(2)
the greater tractability of male
to yaks,
and
(3) the female h y b r i d ’s ability
(1977), working in the Solu-Khumbu
Nepal near Mount Everest,
altitude
herding
to
more milk than ya k cows.
March
high
hybrids
of
region
of
recognized two distinct types of
pastoralism among the Sherpa
yak hybrids and the herding
64
of
herders:
yaks.
the
These
different
types
of
animals
require
different
herding
strategies in order to obtain maximum production.
The Role of Yaks in the Economy of Pastoralists
Without yak it is questionable if pastoralism in
Himalaya
exist
and Tibet could exist.
in
its present viability and extent.
importance
parts
It certainly
of
could
The
the yak in the economy in Tibet
of the Himalaya is demonstrated in current
usage.
such,
Horses,
but yak
not
primary
and
other
language
sheep, and common cattle are enumerated as
(male and female in one category)
labeled in Tibetan,
In
the
n o r . which means wealth
are simply
(Ekvall 1968).
Tibet and throughout the Himalaya the yak is
not
only the principal economic base - uniquely adapted to high
altitude
conditions - but
transportation.
movement
The
also
yak
the
makes
primary
possible
of the pastoralist with his tent
the
and
means
of
seasonal
belongings
and the transporation to market of his livestock products.
By
means
nomad
of
the yak the Tibetan
pastoralist
a
(Ekvall 1968).
A number of researchers
(Alirol 1979, Goldstein 1974,
March 1977, Palmieri 1976 and Sacherer 1974)
the
becomes
importance
of yaks to the economy of pastoralists
the Himalaya of N e p a l .
romanticists
Sherpa
way
who
have discussed
March
(1977)
noted that in spite of
imply herding is disappearing
of life,
and of critics who argue
65
in
from
that
the
Solu
Sherpas are not real herding-farraing S h e r p a s ,
are
not
abandoning
pastoralism to
become
Solu Sherpas
exclusively
agricultural by any m e a n s .
The
milk and
a
most
important products derived from
meat products.
Bjonnes
(1980)
yaks
noted that in 1978
female yak crossbreed in the Khumbu region of Nepal
for
the
equivalent
of
US$ 190.
Prices
pai d
crossbreeds, yak and female ya k were US$ 165.
can
be
sold
for male
These values
understood when they are compared with
c r a f t s m a n ’s
are
a
daily income of approximatley US$ 2 a
skilled
day
in
the Khumbu region.
The
primary
milk
products are butter
and
cheese.
These products are produced using centuries-old traditional
methods.
After
milking the whole m ilk is first made into
curd.
This is usually done by heating the milk and adding
either
a small amount of curd or buttermilk as a
After
adding
the
starter
the milk
overnight until it forms into curd.
is
allowed
starter.
to
sit
The next day the curd
\
is churned in a large wooden churn until butter forms.
The
butter
and
is collected and handpressed to remove liquids
then packed into skin or wooden containers for storage.
The
buttermilk that is left over after
buttermaking
is then slowly heated over a fire until cheese forms.
cheese
then
is collected and hand pressed to remove fluids
pressed into large cakes.
66
This cheese is
then
This
and
cut
into
small
The
is
squares and dried in the sun or over
a
whey that is left over from the cheese-making
fire.
process
consumed by the herders and fed to yaks and guard
dogs
that are kept with every herd.
During
Bhutan,
a
the
summer
months,
in the Naro
region
herder with 20 m ilking yak cows was
of
reportedly
obtaining about 2.5 kg of butter and 2.5 kg of dried cheese
a
day.
Average
reported
annual production from one yak
cow
to be 10-15 kg of cheese and 10-15 kg of
was
butter.
Butter and cheese are consumed by the herders and exchanged
or sold in the marketplace.
dried
In Thimphu,
Bhutan,
1 kg of
yak cheese could be exchanged for approximately 6 kg
of rice.
One kg of butter was being exchanged for about 15
kg of rice in 1986.
every
A large number of yaks are slaughtered
fall in Thimphu,
Bhutan,
and the exchange rate
1986 was one yak for approximately 1000 kg of
rice.
in
Rice
was selling for about US $0.75 per kg in 1986.
Goldschmidt
structure
of
understand
(1981)
pastoral
stated that information
herds
a pastoral society.
is
required
Bjonness
in
on
order
the
to
(1980) has noted
the changing structure of yak herds in the Khumbu region of
Nepal.
From my investigations in Bhutan I found that
average
number
of
milki ng female yaks among a
herders was about 16 cows.
percent
group
the
of
This comprised approximately 16
of the total herd numbers as depicted in Table
67
5.
Table 5.
Composition of Yak. Herds in Bhutan.
Class of Yak
Number of Animals
(average of 5 herds)
milking cows
dry cows
stud bulls
pack yaks
females under 5 yrs
males
under 5 yrs
one year olds
calves
This
yak
Percent
(of the total)
15.8
16.1
3.1
11.8
10.0
9.8
11.8
15 .8
16.7
17.0
3.2
12 .5
10.7
10.5
12.6
16.8
composition information
shows
that
only
approximately 34 percent of the animals in a herd are adult
females
yaks,
to
and usually only half of them are
required
another,
Thus,
number
milking.
Pack
for transporting supplies from one pasture
comprise
12.5 percent of the
herd
numbers.
even though a herding family may have a fairly large
of animals,
only a small percentage
are
actually
producing milk products at any one time.
Herding Strategies
Dyson-Hudson and Dyson-Hudson
groups
whom
who are primarily dependent on livestock,
spatial mobility is regularly employed as a
strategy,
strategies,
of
(1980) noted that among
and
for
survival
there is enormous variability in herd management
in social organization,
in land tenure,
dependence on agricultural products,
68
degree
interactions with
outside
age.
groups,
Even
in
pastoralists
responses
and
differentiation of tasks by sex
the Himalaya one cannot
because
involves
about
contingent
to a wide range of variables in the physical and
social environment.
in
pastoralism
generalize
and
The response of herders in one valley
Nepal will be different from the strategies adopted
herders
in
the
between
regions
next valley
in
and
there
are
by
differences
the same country as well
as
between
countries.
Spooner
efficient
and
(1973)
stated that in order for herding to be
it requires maintaining a herd of
optimum
size
structure, which in turn requires that the pastoralist
group or camp must also be maintained with an optimum range
of size and structure.
for
What then is the optimum herd size
yak pastoralists in the Himalaya?
Bhutan
In one
region
herders told me that the optimum number of
milking
yak cows they would like to have was about twenty five.
there
were
more
than
that number
a
family
of
If
reportedly
would not be able to adequately care for them.
Livestock
requirements
herders.
behavior
and
can
therefore
Different
social
influence
relationships
of livestock have
habits that
labor
affect
different
or
patterns
and as a result the amount of energy that herders
have
expend.
A 12-year-old boy will
69
their
among
flocking
to
grazing
species
also
spend
movement
about
30
percent
fewer kilocalories per day herding than his father
in
the mountains
(Dyson-Hudson and Dyson-Hudson 1980)
in
the Himalaya it is often the young boys and girls
and
that
run up and down the mountains after the yaks.
Shahrani
emerges
in
(1976)
noted
territorial
behavior
among nomadic pastoralists when pastures
increase
value and summer and winter pastures become
rather than widely separated.
are
recognizing
valuable
herders
are
that
that
contiguous
Pastoralists in the Himalaya
grazing
lands
are
becoming
more
and in some areas along the Tibetan border, where
no longer have access to grasslands in Tibet,
forced
to
use
other areas
that
brings
they
them
into
The common feature of Himalayan pastoralists is
that
conflicts with other pastoralists.
mobility
is one of the adaptive strategies.
The dominant
feature of pastoralism is the movement from one pasture
another
livestock
utilized
through
the seasons.
populations
grazing
there
areas.
With increasing human
are
no
longer
any
Grazing resources are
to
and
under
becoming
limited and there is a need for increased awareness of
the
pastoral production systems in the Himalaya and development
of
strategies
for
the long term sustained use
rangelands.
70
of
these
CHAPTER 5
PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT
Rangelands
occupy
world's land area.
for
livestock
approximately 50 percent
of
These lands are used almost exclusively
production since soil and climatic
limit more intensive crop production.
factors
In Nepal and Bhutan
rangelands and forest grazing areas have to support
the
entire
the
livestock
population and represent
almost
the
most
in
the
important source of forage for ruminant animals.
With
the
developing
increase,
rapidly
expanding
world domestic food production has
pla cin g
reducing
Livestock offer the
resources
improvements
domestic
and
self
in
is
potential
the
food supplies,
reliance
of
developing
world,
as well as improve the
local
food
Given the vast range and
in productivity could substantially
(Bunderson and Frye 1986).
there
greatly
the deficit between rising demands for
and lagging agricultural o u t p u t .
livestock
to
increased pressure on natural resources
that are already stressed.
for
populations
and
national
modest
increase
stability
economies
In the entire Himalayan region
tremendous potential
71
for
increasing
livestock
productivity by implementing effective pastoral development
programs,
The History of^ Pastoral Development
Substantial
current academic and political
interest
has focused on the problems of environmental degradation in
much
of
the
Third
World.
Deterioration
of
grazing
resources and rangelands is often interpreted as the result
of
mismanagement
pastoralists
degradation
overuse,
of
(Nyerges
occurs
livestock
1982).
to
radical
management
these
sedentarizing
firewood
cutting,
husbandry,
Typically,
problems
by
changes.
nomads,
excluding goats,
view,
by
rangeland
of
which leads
in
development projects
attempting
to
These changes
may
curing cattle diseases,
replanting ranges,
institute
digging
include
forbidding
boreholes,
and introducing new techniques of
animal
grazing rotation and veterinary care.
Pastoral
development
always successful.
some cases,
projects,
are
not
Problems have been encountered and,
over
the last century
contributed to deterioration.
failure
however,
in
the development changes brought about in Third
rangelands
Bolivia
this
leading to lowered productivity,
respond
the
vegetation
in an accelerating downward spiral
turn to further overuse.
World
In
and
Browman
(1984)
of Andean arid land pastoral
and Peru because socio-cultural
72
have
themselves
has discussed
development
constraints
in
were
not
taken
(1987)
into account in the
has
livestock
described
planning
process.
the poor record of many
projects in West Africa.
Senock
range
Messerschmidt
and
(1974),
discussing high altitude pastoralism among Gurung shepherds
in
Nepal,
imported
brought
noted problems that have arisen when stud
from
in
abroad for crossbreeding with
foot
rot.
Fortman
(1985)
local
noted
is
because
pastoralists
process.
local
of
a lack
of
local
sheep
that
critical factor on which many range and livestock
fail
rams
the
projects
participation
of
themselves in the planning and implementation
Range
projects often fail because of a lack
involvement and lack of understanding of
the
of
local
ecological and socioeconomic conditions by foreign advisors
(Child et a l .
based
In retrospect, massive intervention
on technology and the principles of range management
developed
may
1984).
not
for ranching in the American West and
provide
the optimal
solutions
to
Australia
problems
pastoralism in many Asian and African countries,
significant
histories
differences
in
the ecological
because of
and
of Western and non-Western rangeland
of
cultural
ecosystems
(Nygeres 1982).
Traditional
pastoralism
is an
ancient
subsistence
adaptation to a harsh environment.
The various components
of
traditional
rangeland
ecosystems
under
m a n a g e m e n t , including human societies,
73
pastoral
domesticated animals
and
range
vegetation,
pressures
have
resulting
substantial,
if
been
from
varying,
subject
pastoral
ecosystems
are
interactions.
the
of
result
These
For example,
all
of
Consequently,
organisms
long
interactions
term
in
among
have
animals
adapted
and
people
to deter the
complex
species
and animals have
exploitation of the environment.
development
processes,
problems
to
pressures
to
Nyerges
in
in which
of
grazing
optimize
(1982)
the
these
and
rangelands constitute a series of co-adaptations,
plants
over
such as Dolpo, have a written
history going back to the 10th century.
characteristics
selective
production
periods of time.
some areas of northern Nepal,
ecological
to
their
noted that
projects have typically ignored these adaptive
yet the most pragmatic solutions to the
modern
of pastoralism may consist in readjusting systems
conform
to
strategies
alongside
and make
which
have
use
of
proved
traditional
adaptive
in
management
the
past,
the introduction of new technologies designed to
supplement the established sytems,
rather than in remaking
them completely.
The Need for Understanding Pastoral Systems
Information on pastoralism,
amount,
is
consisting
primarily
of
organization,
of which there is a large
anthropological
descriptions
of
the
in
its
history,
approach,
structure,
attitudes and interrelationships of pastoral
74
societies
and
economies.
the
By
adaptative
comparison
significance
there
has been
of
a
their
surprising
neglect of the role of pastoral regimes in the
functioning
of the rangeland ecosystems of which they form an important
part
(Lamprey
(1986,
1980).
1987)
and
Recent
White and Tiedeman
contributions to increasing
that
rangelands
publications
and
(1985)
by
O'Rourke
are
valuable
our understanding of the
livestock
play
in
role
pastoralism
in
developing c'ountries.
The
recent
widespread
populations
are
an
degradation
prevailing
recognition
important factor
that
in
the
ecological
in many of the arid and
grazing lands of the world
livestock
semi-arid
has drawn attention to the lack
of detailed knowledge of pastoral ecosystems in general and
of
the
the nature and degree of animal and human
soils
evident
and
that
particularly
from
their
tendency
to
vegetation in particualar.
ecological
in
degradation
semi-arid regions,
While
of
is
grazing
indeed
over-exploitation by pastoral
direct the problem simply
impact
upon
it
lands,
resulting
societies,
to
is
the
“over-grazing"
points attention only to an immediate and obvious cause and
obscures
to
historical,
factors
a
great
extent
socio-economic,
the
complex
political
indirect
and administrative
which have greatly accentuated it
75
of
(Lamprey
1980).
Until recently little information has been
on
available
the relationship between herds of domesticated
and
animals
resources of water and vegetation for any location
the developing countries.
between
foraging
production
Information on the relationships
herds and the management strategies
goals
of
in
shepherds
and
traditional pastoral societies remains
herd
and
owners
limited.
in
Domestic
animals,
however, are the basic means by which pastoralists
exploit
their
information
pastoral
of
a
environment.
on
the
group is
pastoral
Nyerges
(1982)
stated
ecology and "ethno"-management
essential to pinpoint the
system
of
production
that
in
a
shortcomings
and
to suggest
development alternatives that take advantage of established
ecological relationships.
Most studies of rangelands that are conducted as part
of
development
projects use measurements of
productivity
that emphasize questions of range management and economics.
Such studies often indicate that pastoralism
degrades
fails
range vegetation and that traditional
to
optimize
Studies
of
neglect
the
exploitation
the
substantially
productivity
productivity and
in
market
biomass, however,
many cultural factors which
govern
under tradi-tional management and also
adaptive
relationships
herd
management
processes
in
that
rangelands
76
modify
(Nyerges 1982).
terms.
tend
to
resource
ignore
plant-animal
Sandford
(1983)
noted
concentrate
it
pre-project
surveys
habitually
on mapping the vegetation and has stated
really
much more important to find
out
that
what
the
rationale of the present system of land use is and how
use
of
is
that
the resources is divided up between different people in
order
to
more
fully
understand
pastoralism
in
the
arising
from
developing countries.
In
dealing
overstocking
rangelands,
and
and
environmental
planners
ecological
They
with the complex problems
also
extremes
to
pastoral
need to understand both the cultural
contexts in which
need
in
understand
these
the
problems
basic
relationships that have evolved among people,
occur.
ecological
animals
and
plants in these ranges.
Planners
and range ecologists have increasingly come
to recognize that traditional patterns of exploitation pose
significant constraints on development, because they may be
difficult to change withhout incurring negative social
ecological
consequences.
productivity
therefore,
generate
studies
plants
and
(1980)
stated
animals
alone,
strategies
proposals.
evolved
Traditional
as an effective
pastoral
means
exploiting the available resources of vegetation and
and
of
that
may not provide an adequate basis from which to
management
management
of
Harrington
and
water
compensating for progressive range degradation
77
of
as
forage plants and domesticated animals co-evolved with
one
another.
the
The
ramifying
pastoral
analysis
processes
of
of
these strategies and
co-adaptation
is
of
necessary
development because planners need
to
in
understand
why existing ecological patterns occur in rangelands before
they
attempt to change or manipulate them.
found
that
it
introduction
is
increasingly
Nyerges
apparent
(1982)
that
the
of modern technology and management practices
in Third World rangelands may be costly, difficult and even
disruptive.
projects
He found that the most successful development
may
be those that either
minimally disrupt,
plants,
pastoral
has
reached
a turning
strategies.
new
techniques
they
of
ecological
Either
and
Over thousands of
decline
through
territories or they could a.dapt
two
their
major
lands
remain
Under twentieth century conditions
in
physical and political environments
changing at unprecedented rates,
strategies are no longer possible.
boundaries,
years
pastoral
to increasingly marginal conditions and
were.
its
gradual
they could move from degraded
which the pastoralists'
modern
point
societies have been able to adapt to the
processes
are
only
the past patterns of co-adaptation among
future remains to be determined.
where
or
animals and people.
Pastoralism
into
incorporate,
such
long
Restrictions imposed by
together with the fact that
78
standing
virtually
all
available
grazing
lands are
now
further migration to new t e r r i t i o r i e s .
occupied,
prevent
Adaptation to
the
rapidly changing environmental conditions of the developing
world
seems
normally
stated
basic
to call for adaptability beyond the reach
conservative
that
pastoral
people.
what is required is a new
Lamprey
insight
(1980)
into
the
principles of pastoral ecology and range management,
radical changes in the functioning of the pastoral
and
of
the adoption of new authoritarian systems under
the supervision of grazing can take place.
79
economy
which
CHAPTER 6
PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES FOR THE HIMALAYA
Rangelands
throughout
the world have
traditionally
supported mostly extensive forms of animal husbandry
what
in
and
the
harmony with the indigenous wildlife
intensive
cropping
systems
populations
nearby
lands.
populations
in many developing countries have resulted
managed.
changes
In
in
many
the
human
way
instances,
and
more
productive
significant
Increasing
on
some­
rangelands
agricultural
livestock
are
in
being
development
activities involving rangelands and livestock have not been
very successful
Bunderson
development
(Child et a l . 1984).
and
Frye
attitudes
technology
to
developing
countries.
treating
the
constraints,
solve
(1986)
centered
symptomatic
breeding
improvements,
interaction
efforts
features
programs,
etc.,),
of
while
important
(e.g.,
water
80
early
western
problems
in
concentrated
of
on
production
Emphasis was placed
livestock vaccination
development,
ignoring the
ecological
that
transfering
similar
rather than the causes.
on single-component technology
campaigns,
on
apparently
These
noted
and
influence
range
and
socio-economic
factors.
the
The
results have often led to a re-occurence of
symptoms,
processes
have
Nepal
and
there
is
current
range
frequently in more acute forms.
need to propose
ineffectiveness
and
of
the
more
and
strategies
to
the
stagnating
attitude
reverse
toward
This chapter will
important concepts
that
discuss
need
to
considered when designing range and livestock projects
outline
strategies
of
development
and livestock projects.
some
same
taken place in the Himalayan countries
Bhutan in regards to pastoral
a
The
for effective pastoral development
be
and
in
the Himalaya.
Socio-economic Considerations in Pastoralism
A
key
to appropriate and effective
rangelands
in
the
purposes
aims,
Modifying
such
integrated
people
well
the developing world lies in
themselves
as
and goals of its
systems
resource
development
involves
can
measure.
human
inhabitants.
models
advances
short,
that
ecologically sound.
They must also fulfill
appropriate
for
Indeed,
the
as
the
Such plans
must
be
particular local situations and
must
be
on explicit social theories or hypotheses as to
why
of
successful
strategies for rangelands must be socially
of the donor countries.
and
In
of
understanding
introducing
use that provide
regulations
based
development
a particular intervention is likely
only when development
to
how
succeed.
plans that incorporate such
theories
are consciously formulated and
implementation
process
criticism,
those
can
failure be identified
Horton
the
open
to
and
the
discussion
and
factors contributing to success
Bailey
(1986)
noted
and recognition of rangeland
that
the
problems
and
introduction of grassland management innovations at
village
and tribal
or
(Child et a l . 1984) .
and
identification
is
tested,
a
level cannot be undertaken without some
understanding of the worldview of the local people whom the
development
consists
factors
worker
of
out
decisions
is seeking to
help.
a matrix of religious,
of
which
are made.
individual,
This
social
worldview
and
village
economic
and
It is of equal importance
tribal
that
the
western grassland scientist understand his own worldview of
conscious
and unconscious religious,
social and
economic
values and assumptions and how those values and assumptions
may
bias
and filter his perceptions of the
attitude
and
actions of the local people whom he is seeking to serve.
Sandford
need
to
account
successful.
that
to
noted that pastoralists
be involved in the planning of
development.
into
(1983)
range
themselves
management
P a s t o r ali st 's needs and demands must be taken
if
range
management
Brownian (1984) ,
programs
are
to
working in the Andes,
found
the major obstacles to improved range management
be found not in the technical sphere but in the
82
be
are
socio­
cultural sphere.
is
important
which
Bartell and Visness
(1986)
stated that it
to identify the economic and social
facilitate
factors
or obstruct the acquisition and
use
of
technology in pastoral development programs.
For
example,
some
of
the
more
important
social
concepts that have been tested and found to be valuable
pastoral
development strategies are the following
1972,
in Child 1985):
(i)
Successful
with
people,
partners
order
in
to
(Jacobs
pastoral development depends on
not for them.
planning
The recipients must be equal
the planning and
help
in
identify
implementation
appropriate
process
and
in
relevant
interventions and to ensure favorable results.
(ii)
Development
expressed
social
concerned.
must
or
capitalize
in large part
technological needs
of
on
the
the
people
Correspondence between the innovation propose d
and
the needs expressed by the people concerned
one
of
the
most important factors
contributing
is
often
to
the
acceptability and success of an innovation.
(iii)
Systematic
consequences
monitoring
both
to
correct
unwanted
and to help identify successful procedures or
trends is essential.
(iv)
likely
Small-scale,
to
1 imited-purpose interventions are
succeed
immediately
multipurpose interventions.
That is,
83
than
more
large-scale,
the larger and more
complex
the innovations,
the greater are the problems
of
implementation and the more difficult it is to identify and
correct unintended consequences,
as well as to identify the
precise causes of success or failure.
(v)
Because
isolation,
technological
but
and institutions,
depend
than
solutions
do
not
exist
are embedded in complex social
behaviors
the ultimate success of an innovation may
less on the merits of new techniques or
technology
on the effective introduction of new modes of
organization
or
in
social
administrative control necessary to
make
them w o r k .
(vi) To
promote
success
all
development
plans
must
incorporate short-term proofs of effectiveness or benefits,
even
if the ultimate aim is long term.
demonstrate
are
more
Innovations
clear and immediate evidence of
likely to gain rapid and
that
effectiveness
widespread
acceptance
than are plans based only on long-term benefits.
Land Ilnurs and Ranga Policies
The
lack
of land control is often a
limiting livestock production in developing
major
problem
countries.
A
lack of control of grazing animals frequently hampers range
improvement p r o g r a m s .
will
prevent
resources.
are
Land tenure systems are needed that
overgrazing
and
sustain
the
rangeland
Many of the rangelands in the developing world
communally
owned.
Hardin
84
(1968)
noted
that
this
communal
ownership
widespread
was
the
underlying
degradation of grazing
reason
lands.
An
for
the
individual
herder attempted to maximise his profits, which meant
animals
needed
to be grazed on the same amount
more
of
land.
However,
Sandford
commons"
analysis makes several unjustified assumptions if
it
(1983) argues that the "tragedy of
leads to the conclusion that private ownership
only answer to land tenure in pastoral a r e a s .
is
Artz
the
the
(1985)
also stated that the "tragedy of the commons" paradigm does
not
accurately
reflect
the workings
of
common
grazing
systems and thus should not be allowed to dominate pastoral
development
policy.
capable
imposing controls on members of
which
of
can
result
livestock
grazing
patterns
carefully
local
pastoralists
local
ecological
understood.
the
There
many cases pastoral
groups
their
in the necessary levels of
grazing.
evaluated
within
In
The impacts of
in
development
(Child 1985).
be
and
may
traditional
projects
It is
be
many
need
to
important
that
conditions
alternatives
pastoral systems
of
traditional
involved in projects so
socioeconomic
group,
control
changing
are
that
be
that
the
are
available
could
be
applied to managing the rangelands.
lack
The
Child
(1985)
clear
policies and regulations regarding range
informal
found that many
policies
that
85
often
developing
exist
place
countries
use.
serious
constraints on the livestock production
need
to
be
problems
made
and
to develop
systems.
agencies
to
Efforts
handle
to implement effective pastoral
range
development
programs.
Range Extension
Effective
range extension programs may be among
most important aspects of range development projects
the
(Child
1985).
Unfortunately, many developing countries have only
limited
range
programs
extension
utilizing
established
programs.
to
be
in developing countries if progress is
to
be
regions
principles
users
of Nepal,
Brown
(1982), who worked in
found that good range
management
need not be totally unacceptable to local
if they are presented in imaginative terms
proposed
in
cultures.
great
extension
information from research need
expected in range management.
arid
Effective
deal
management
the
spirit
of sharing
good
He found that a little humility,
of
diplomacy,
than
a
may
do
broad knowledge
more
of
and
ideas
land
are
between
tempered with a
for
good
scientific
land
facts
presented improperly.
The orientation and focus of range extension programs
must
be perceived by the pastoralists as relevant to their
problems and needs
(Child et a l .
1984).
It is
important
that range extension programs have considerable flexibility
in order to encourage the interest and participation of all
86
the
pastoralists
in a project area.
It is only
the
active involvement of pastoralists that
through
solutions
to
problems can be found.
Range Research
Hatley
and
effectiveness
Thompson
(1985)
found
that
of aid in the Himalaya has been
the
compromised
by a split in the understanding of natural systems between,
on the one hand,
a naturalistic environmental science that
attempts to study nature on its own terms and,
hand,
on the other
a utilitarian conservation science that views nature
as a manageable and exploitable resource.
been
that
The result
development projects have been designed
exclusively
programs.
investigation has been locked out
It
programs
be
programs.
almost
in response to utilitarian criteria and
environmental
is
important
incorporated
However,
that
into
research
of
fundamental
pastoral
has
basic
these
research
development
has to be applied
research
that can directly benefit a range-livestock project.
Range
aimed
the
should
be
directly at or linked to the problems identified
at
in
developing countries
level of the pastoralist.
soils,
in
research
Information on vegetation,
animals, and other ecosystem components is required
order to address the problems and the objectives
pastoral
project.
of
a
Whenever possible applied research and
87
demonstration
projects
extension function
should
be
me rged
to
serve
an
(Child et a l . 1984).
Some research areas identified by Child et a l .(1984)
that
may
be appropriate for range management projects
in
developing countries are as follows:
(i)
Evaluation
of present grazing practices
and
their
influence on vegetation and other environmental factors.
(ii)
Range animal management
(iii)
Current production systems
(iv)
Range site delineation and condition
(v)
Vegetation classification and descriptions
(vi)
Dietary analysis of major herbivores
These
research
are
only
a
few examples
of
the
types
programs that might be useful in range management
projects.
Long term research might be handled best by the
development
developpment
of
permanent research stations
of
such
stations
Child et a l . (1984)
although
involves
training and education at the M.S. and Ph.D.
considerable
levels.
including developing and
testing management practices that are technically
feasible
and determining the applicability of these practices.
noted
that
the
emphasized that research stations
have several important functions,
also
of
it is important to
evaluate
They
management
practices for appropriateness in the intended socioeconomic
environment.
88
Strategies for Pastoral Development in the Himalaya
The
response of the world's wealthy nations
situation
the
in the Himalaya indicates a shared perception of
a serious crisis.
million
to
In the 10-year period
dollars
have
been
spent
reforestation
aid
in
1985).
the
effectiveness
Yet
Nepal alone
(1976-85)
or
promised
(Hatley
of
over 184
and
this
for
Thompson
aid
is
being
quest i o n e d .
A collection of Nepalese scholars,
seminar
event"
termed
by
a World Bank, official as
of public cognizance,
has not benefitted;
"landmark
mark.
programs
"Agriculture
the poor have been bypassed;
have not even been understood;
distribution
a
concluded that aid
have completely missed their ultimate
and
in an October 1983
of
the women
the relations of production
power have
gotten
worse;
and
the
technical assistance has not contributed to the improvement
of
administrative
the final statement
envied
(Luhan 1987).
Nepal may be unique,
by other developing countries;
development
Warburton
development
however,
its
problem appears to be the challenge of
with too much aid.
and
capability," the participants wrote
in
There is a growing awareness
1985)
that
conventional
frustrating experience.
89
and
main
coping
(Thompson
approaches
the Himalayan region have been
in
a
to
largely
Pastoralism is an important mode of production in the
high
altitude
Nepal
and
rangelands of the
Bhutan.
livestock
and
countries
of
Although there have been a number
of
pasture development programs
both Nepal and Bhutan,
has
been
Himalayan
initiated
the proper management of rangelands
virtually ignored.
There has been
no
placed on range management in Nepal or Bhutan.
shortage of personnel
serious
the
in
emphasis
There is a
specialized in range management and a
lack of knowledge about the range
ecosystems
livestock grazing the rangelands in the
and
Himalaya.
The widespread insufficiency or even complete lack of
reliable
basic information regarding Himalayan
rangelands
is a major impediment to the proper use of these
resources
for
A
livestock
understanding
production
and
wildlife.
basic
of the major factors determining the present
vegetation composition, plant phenology and forage value of
range
resources
present
for
for
estimating
the
and potential productivity of the
rangelands
and
developing
rangelands
environment
(FAO
in
is
a
prerequisite
the proper management and
1978).
the
The
Himalaya,
precarious
and
in
improvement
state
of
the
particular
the
deteriorating rangelands in many regions of Nepal,
an
demands
urgency to the collection of information regarding
rangelands,
the livestock and the pastoralists.
no time to lose.
90
of
the
There is
The
wide
precipitation
range
of
patterns
lower
areas
the
features
in the Himalaya results
variety of rangelands.
the
topographical
Temperate grasslands and
within forests are an important forage
extensive
rangelands
mountains.
range
elevations.
throughout
fragility
grazing
resource
the Himalaya and
arid
information is required from all the
and
however,
because
the increasing
of
their
pressure
being
upon them it is the high elevation rangelands
demand
immediate
to
be
in
comprehensive pastoral development strategy
designed for Himalayan rangelands.
(1986)
developing countries.
constraints
research
and development,
detailed
studies
predicated
more
Child
These models
through
and de-emphasize
of pastoral systems.
The
al.
(1986)
development
address
programs
needs
et
and Bunderson and Frye
developed models for successful pastoral
production
all
that
attention.
(1984), Gay and Bartel
have
type
Himalayan
placed
A
in
are
steppe
are located to the north of the main
Detailed
large
Subalpine and alpine ranges
types in the Himalaya,
ecological
in
Subtropical grasslands are found in
elevations.
middle
and
of
critical
adaptive
prolonged
or
approach
is
on intensive collaboration with pastoralists at
stages to ensure compatibility of interventions and
immediate
realization
of
91
production
a
improvements.
Some
of
the
key
components
for
effective
pastoral
development in the Himalaya are outlined below.
Assessment of Social and Economic Factors
In
order
development
to
properly plan and
projects
in
implement
the Himalaya
it
is
pastoral
of
utmost
importance that social and economic factors of pastoralists
be assessed and incorporated into development plans.
only
after
the
understood
the
most
operation
of
be
system
important needs can be identified and
involved
Pastoral
pastoral
in
that
addressed
Pastoralists themselves
planning
pastoral
need
development.
development projects have to be designed so
they are both ecologically and socially sound,
economically
stages
is
from the point of view of the pastoralist
(Bartell and Visness 1986).
to
the
It is
of
viable
(Child 1985).
rangeland
required
that
economic
information
During
as well
the
projects an integrated
involves
and
collection
the
of
approach
the
as
planning
relevant
analysis of
that
is
socio­
data
by
sociologists and livestock economists.
Identification of Rangeland Plants
There is a lack of information about range vegetation
in
Nepal and Bhutan and one of the first steps
studies
in
identification
the
of
Himalaya
is
range plants.
92
the
for
range
collection
and
This involves not
only
grasses but sedges,
from
rangelands
herbariums
and
forbs and shrubs as
need
more
to
be
well.
Specimens
deposited
with
importantly kept on
file
national
with
the
government agencies involved with range m a n a g e m e n t .
Preparation of Range Forage Plant Field Guides
Field guides for forage plant identification need
be
to
prepared to assist range personnel in the Himalaya with
identifying important range plants.
Care needs to be taken
to make sure that these field guides are appropriate to the
level
of
knowledge
and
training
that
range
personnel
working in the field have.
Range Surveys and Inventories
Range surveys and inventories are urgently needed
the
Himalaya
productivity,
rangelands.
to
range
What
determine
are
range sites?
What
the
species?
answered
for
it
the dominant range plants
What are the
decreasers?
increaser
What species are
in
key
to
Deteriorated rangelands
is only after basic soil and vegetation information
that
steps can be taken to improve
the Himalaya there is a need to identify
the
forage
are important questions that need
in the Himalaya.
of
species?
specific programs for reclamation and improvement
available
In
These
composition,
condition and carrying capacities
different
are
species
in
be
call
and
is
rangelands.
and
classify
the
various
plant
associations
rangelands.
Mapping
needs
ecolgically
significant
to
found
be
in
done
the
various
to
delineate
units and then forage
production
for each unit or range type needs to be determined.
stocking
Proper
rates must be determined for the different
range
sites.
Range
plant
investigated
phenology
patterns
need
in order to determine the optimum
initiating grazing.
to
be
times
for
This knowledge is also useful for seed
production purposes of native and introduced forage plants.
Knowledge
plants
about
to
species
the
grazing
and
responses
the nutritional
of
value
different
The preference
classes
of
forage
of
is needed in order to determine the most
grazing systems.
for
physiological
suitable
values of forage
livestock
also
range
species
needs
to
be
determined.
Establishment of Forage Test Plots and Nurseries
Forage
test
established
introduced
been
of
and
introducing,
nurseries
that
need
to
evaluating and
and native forage species.
selected
conditions
means
for
plots
appear to be
be
testing
After species have
adapted
to
the
investigations to determine the most
local
practical
establishment under local conditions need to
conducted.
revegetation,
Although
more
introduced species hold promise
emphasis
94
needs to be
placed
on
be
for
the
selection of native forage plants.
the
region,
including trees,
Native plant species of
shrubs,
forbs and grasses,
have largely evolved within the local climatic
of
the region for generations.
are
probably
better
As a result many of
adapted to the
local
forage
species
them
environmental
conditions of the area than many introduced
native
environment
species.
have largely been ignored
The
in
the
Himalaya.
Although
significant
progress
has been
made
with
identifying forage species suitable for pasture improvement
in
the
temperate
Bhutan
the
and subtropical regions
of
Nepal
there has been relatively little work conducted
higher altitude regions.
directed
at
species
that
conditions
identifying
and
may
prove
species
Attention also needs to
introduced
and
native
valuable
for
low
adapted to
the
and
in
be
forage
fertility
present
grazing
management systems be i n g practised.
Forest Rangelands
Forested
forage
areas
throughout
are important sources
the Himalaya.
rangeland
investigations
There
increasing concern that
is
forested
It
is
of
important
are also conducted
in
uncontrolled
areas is affecting
livestock
forests.
livestock
grazing
in
forests
and it is crucial that carrying capacities of
95
that
regeneration
of
the
different
forest types be determined and
proper
stocking
rates set.
Not
also
only
used
do forests provide grazing but,
to provide forage from
fodder
they
trees.
are
Fodder
trees are extremely important to the livestock industry
the
subtropical
Range
managers
concepts
mid
need
to be concerned
with
productivity
specialists
into
lower elevation
hill
regions.
agro-forestry
and practices in the Himalaya if improvements
livestock
range
and
working
are
to
be
expected.
in the Himalaya need
in
to
in
Range
incorporate
management practices and pasture agronomy techniques
the
present
cropping
systems
to
improve
forage
productivity as well.
Traditional medical practices in the Himalaya rely on
medicinal
plants.
purposes
Numerous
are found in alpine
investigations
should
especially
existing
disrupt
plants
if
the
used
rangelands.
for
medicinal
Any
rangeland
be concerned with medicinal
or
proposed
grazing
occurrence or quality of important
plants
practices
medicinal
plant species.
Livestock
To
Ecology
elucidate
the
and
the
complex
Role
of Livestock
relationships
between
livestock ecology and human behavior in pastoral societies,
more
studies are needed on livestock ecology and
(Dyson-Hudson
and
Dyson-Hudson 1980) .
96
In
the
behavior
Himalaya
investigations
need
to
be conducted
parameters such as calving rates,
structure.
pastoral
Goldschmidt
(1981)
on
important
female fertility and herd
noted that what is needed in
studies is research on not only the
structure
herd
actual
herd
and composition but p a st ora lis t's concept of the
ideal structure and its rationale.
In order to understand
the p a s t o ra li st's compromise with reality one needs to know
why
the
ideal herd structure differs from the
Dyson-Hudson
numbers
(1972)
needs
environment,
relation
the
one.
noted that information about livestock
be
seasonal
to
households,
to
real
stated
in
change,
human
relation
carrying
population
(as
to
natural
capacity,
in
individuals,
as a range of poor to wealthy headowners,
as
etc.)
and in relation to outside demands or the marketplace.
Dyson-Hudson
(1972)
stated that if
involves
understanding
understanding
pastoral
society
operation,
then understanding the herding operation in turn
involves understanding the species herded.
the Himalaya raise yaks,
buffalo,
goats
important
for
species.
information
calving rates,
longevity.
amount
of
and
on
its
a
Pastoralists in
yak-hybrid crosses,
sheep.
In Bhutan the
herding
cattle, water
mithun
is
an
In the Himalaya there is a great need
important
calf mortality,
herd
parameters
such
as
female fertility and female
Data about milk yields,
lactation periods and
livestock products consumed are
also
required
before
the
ecology and economics of
Himalaya will be understood.
Dyson-Hudson
(1980)
record
average
the
household
or
in
the
However, as Dyson-Hudson and
have stated,
number
tent without
pastoralism
of
it is not enough to just
lactating
collecting
animals
information
per
about
household composition or about variations among households.
They
a
point out that data must be gathered and presented in
systematic
order
to
way which permits
analysis
relate livestock production to human
human consumption.
the
statistical
in the Himalaya is also required.
parks
established.
still
and
Information on the grazing behavior of
different species of livestock raised by
national
needs
in
and
wildlife
pastoralists
Throughout the Himalaya
sanctuaries
have
been
In many of these areas local inhabitants are
allowed
to
graze livestock.
determine what levels of competition,
It is
important
if any,
to
exist between
wildlife species and livestock for forage resources.
In
order to kno w the role of livestock
groups
it
is
important to know
degree
of
dependence
on
commitment to livestock.
about diet,
exploitation
about
asking
the
livestock
and the like;
questions
human
and
pastoral
p o p u l a t i o n ’s
its
degree
of
The first requires specifications
seasonal food resources,
human values.
in
other technologies of
the second requires statements
In the Himalaya this
about the amount and kind
would
of
require
livestock
products
used
livestock
the
products
necessities
the
by
identifying
that are sold or exchanged
amount
for
of
livestock
other
produce
products.
It
to know how much wool or hair is required
family for clothing,
convertibility
land,
population,
and the number of animals required to
necessary
important
pastoral
food,
of
cash)
ropes,
pack bags,
livestock
to other
tents,
is
by
etc.
resources
a
The
(labor,
also needs to be specified,
along with
the mechanism of conversion and the appropriate
occasions,
contexts and motives for conversion
One
of
the
(Dyson-Hudson 1972).
major causes of overstocking
and
poor
nutrition of livestock in Nepal and Bhutan is the retention
of
large
numbers
of
unproductive
animals.
Religious
sentiments prevent the killing of animals although meat
eaten
by
most
countries.
Buddhists,
According
religion in Nepal,
consumed.
Cattle
to
including
Hinduism,
monks,
which is
in
the
herders are usually unwilling to
animals
for
slaughter and a considerable portion
unproductive
livestock
improved
in
the
major
not
can not be legally slaughtered in Nepal.
and
feed
both
the cow is sacred and its flesh is
Farmers
available
is
resources is used in
animals.
nutrition
the
sell
their
of
maintenance
Although short term improvement
can
be
achieved
by
the
of
in
establishing
pastures no real progress in the livestock sector
Himalaya will be made until
rational
culling
of
unproductive
stock is accepted by the people.
Government
agencies in Nepal and Bhutan need to recognize the
problem
and design methods for the removal of unproductive animals.
Establishment of Rangeland Institutions
Effective
development
of
institutions
Once
of
placed
support
of
transfer
management
There is an urgent need to promote
range management personnel in
in
the
field these
the range
organization
range
range resources need to be established
Nepal and Bhutan.
training
for
of
the
personnel
institutions.
The
and
in
the
Himalaya.
require
the
formation
and
departments for range extension
and
of technology related to range research needs
the
to
be established in the Himalaya as well.
Conclusion
Until
sound
policies
and strategies
for
pastoral
development are designed and implemented with collaboration
between
government
workers,
livestock
has
agencies,
researchers,
development
and pastoralists the potential of rangelands
in the Himalaya cannot be realized.
described some of the rangeland
resources,
and
This paper
livestock
resources,
and pastoral production systems practised in the
Himalayan
countries of Nepal and Bhutan.
been
made
that
can
An attempt
to develop strategies for pastoral
be used
by
governments,
100
donor
has
development
agencies,
and
development
With
the
workers
involved in agriculture
development.
deteriorating environmental conditions found
many parts of the Himalaya along with the increasing
population
natural
sustained
that
resources
human
is putting more and more pressure on
there is an urgency to develop
programs for agricultural
development.
in
the
viable,
It
is
hoped that these strategies that have been presented can be
used
to
develop sound policies and programs for
development in the Himalaya.
101
pastoral
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