TOÅNG LIEÂN ÑOAØN LAO ÑOÄNG VIEÄT NAM
TRÖÔØNG ÑAÏI HOÏC TOÂN ÑÖÙC THAÉNG
PHOØNG THCN & DN
READING
Compiled by: ThS.
ÑOÃ THÒ HOA QUYEÂN
Internal publishing
- HCMC, June 2010-
1
TOÅNG LIEÂN ÑOAØN LAO ÑOÄNG VIEÄT NAM
TRÖÔØNG ÑAÏI HOÏC TOÂN ÑÖÙC THAÉNG
PHOØNG THCN & DN
READING
FOR
ACCOUNTING
Compiled by: ThS.
ÑOÃ THÒ HOA QUYEÂN
Internal publishing
- HCMC, June 20102
PROCESSING ACCOUNTING DATA
BOOKKEEPING
Bookkeeping is an essential accounting tool. A small business or
company may employ only one bookkeeper, who records all of the
financial data by hand; large organizations may employ many
bookkeepers, who use electronic and mechanical equipment for a
large part of their work. Each organization has its own bookkeeping requirements, but all
systems operate on the same basic principles.
The two basic systems of bookkeeping are double entry and single entry.
The basic principle of double-entry bookkeeping is that every transaction has a twofold
effect. In other words, a value is received and a value is yielded. By recording both effects
of each transaction, this system offers protection against error.
An account is a record of the financial transactions that concern one item or a group of
similar items. The account includes categories of financial data for each area of interest
during a specific period: the value at the beginning of a period, changes in value during
the same period and the value at the end of a period.
Assets are those things of value that your company owns. The cash in your bank account
is your asset. So is the company car you drive. Assets are the objects, rights and claims
owned by and having value for the firm.
Since your company has a right to the future collection of money, accounts receivable are
assets The machinery on your production floor is also an asset. If your firm owns real
estate or other tangible property, those are considered assets as well. If you were a bank,
the loans you make would be considered assets since they represent
a right of future collection. There may also be intangible assets
owned by your company. Patents, the exclusive right to use a
trademark, and goodwill from the acquisition of another company
are such intangible assets. Their value can be somewhat hazy.
Think of liabilities as the opposite of assets. These are the
obligations of one company to another. If money is owed to an
organization or person for things or services purchased on credit,
this liability is called an account payable. So is the loan you took from your bank. If you
were a bank, your customer's deposits would be a liability, since they represent future
claims against the bank. Other liabilities include wages or salaries that are owed to
employees, or taxes that have not yet been paid.
We segregate liabilities into short-term and long-term categories on the balance sheet.
This division is nothing more than separating those liabilities scheduled for payment
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within the next accounting period (usually the next twelve months) from those not to be
paid until later. We often separate debt like this. It gives readers a clearer picture of how
much the company owes and when.
The value of the business to the owner or owners is known as capital. Other terms used to
designate capital are proprietorship, owners’ equity (usually abbreviated OE), ownership,
or net worth.
The two Income and Expense Accounts are used to increase or decrease the value of your
accounts. Thus, while the balance sheet accounts simply track the value of the things you
own or owe, income and expense accounts allow you to change the value of these
accounts.
Income is the payment you receive for your time, services you provide, or the use of your
money. When you receive a paycheck, for example, that check is a payment for labor you
provided to an employer. Other examples of income include commissions, tips, dividend
income from stocks, and interest income from bank accounts. Income will always increase
the value of your Assets and thus this becomes your Equity.
Expenses refer to money you spend to purchase goods or services provided by someone
else. Examples of expenses are a meal at a restaurant, rent, groceries, gas for your car, or
tickets to see a play. Expenses will always decrease your Equity. If you pay for the
expense immediately, you will decrease your Assets, whereas if you pay for the expense
on credit you increase your Liabilities.
All transactions affect at least two accounts. Each transaction must be analyzed to
determine which accounts are affected, and whether they should be increased or
decreased. An entry made on the left-hand side or column of an account is called a debit,
while an entry made on the right-hand side or column is a credit. Debit, usually
abbreviated DR, at one time meant value received, or literally he owes. Credit, usually
abbreviated CR, meant value parted with, or literally he trusts. Many students have trouble
with accounting because they forget that the only meaning for “debit” is the left side of an
account and the only meaning for “credit” is the right side of an account. Perhaps
someone once told you that you were a “credit” to your school or your family. As a result,
you may think that there is a “goodness” attached to credits and perhaps a “badness”
attached to debits. Such is not the case.
ASSETS
=
LIABILITIES
+
OWNERS’ EQUITY
Asset A/C’s =
Liability A/C’s
+
Proprietorship A/C’s
DR CR
DR
CR
DR CR
+ +
- +
For examples:
When Morgan’s Appliance Store, sells a refrigerator for $260, the bookkeeper debits the
cash account (asset) and credits the sales account (income) by $260. On the day that Mr.
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Morgan pays his monthly rent of $500, the bookkeeper debits the rent account (expense)
and credits the cash account (asset) by $500.
The second basic system of bookkeeping, as mentioned previous, is called the single-entry
method. This method refers to any system that does not include the complete results of
every transaction. The most common type of single-entry bookkeeping involves records of
cash, accounts receivable, and accounts payable.
Task 1: Comprehension
1. How do bookkeeping procedures in a large organization differ from those in a small
one?
2. What are the two basic methods of bookkeeping?
3. What is double-entry bookkeeping? How does it differ from single-entry
bookkeeping?
4. What is a liability? Assets? What are some examples of liabilities? Of assets? What is
the difference between asset and liability?
5. What does capital mean? What other terms are often used instead of capital?
6. What is an account? Give an example of an account. What abbreviation is commonly
used for account?
7. What is a debit? What kinds of accounts do debiting increase? What abbreviation is
commonly used for a debit?
8. What is a credit? What kind of accounts does crediting increase? How is it commonly
abbreviated?
9. Describe the entries to be made by a bookkeeper for a furniture store when (a) a couch
is sold for $300, and (b) when the janitor is paid his weekly salary of $175
Task 2: - Match the phrase on the left with the statement on the right
1.
2.
Liabilities
Credit
a. all the money received by a company during a given period
b. the amount of business done by a company over a year
3.
4.
Assets
Creditors (GB) account
payable (US)
Proprietorship
Debit
Debtors ( GB) or
accounts receivable
overheads(GB) or
overhead(US)
c. The left-hand column of an account
d. The right-hand column of accounts
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
e. That which is owed by an organization
f. a company ‘s owners
g. (the value of) raw materials, work in progress, and finished
products stored ready for sale
h. sums of money owed to suppliers for purchases made on
credit
shareholders ( GB)
i.
stockholders(US)
10. stock ( GB) or inventory j.
(US)
11. turnover
k.
sums of money owed by customers for goods or services
purchased on credit
Owners’ equity
something of value to an organization
5
12. revenue or earnings or
income
l.
The various expenses of operating a business that cannot be
charged to any one product, process or department
Task 3: What type of account-asset, liability, capital, income, or expense- do you think
each of the following items should be listed under?
1. Office supplies in stock
_________________________________
2. Accrued taxes
3. Typewriter rental
___________________________________
___________________________________
4. Installment payments received ___________________________________
5. Cash in bank
___________________________________
6. Managerial fees
__________________________________
7. Payroll accrued
_________________________________
8. Cash received from client
_________________________________
9. Withdrawals
10. Telephone bill
_________________________________
________________________________
Task 4-Check the appropriate box-debit or credit- to show what the bookkeeper should
do if he or she wants to . . . .
DR. CR
1. Increase the payroll account
2. Increase the notes payable account.
3. Increase the proprietorship account.
4. Increase the inventory (asset) account.
5. Increase the sales account.
6. Decrease the owners’ equity account
7. Decrease the furniture and fixtures account.
8. Decrease the telephone account.
9. Decrease the sales account.
10. Decrease the mortgage account
After recording transactions, a trial balance is prepared to test the equality
of the sum of the debit balances and credit balances. Preparing a trial balance requires five
steps:
1. Determine the balance of each account in the ledger.
2. List the accounts with balances other than zero, with the debit balances in one column
and the credit balances in another.
3. Add the debit balances.
4. Add the credit balances.
5. Compare the sum of the debit balances with the sum of the credit balances.
If the accounts are not balanced, some error has been made which the bookkeeper must
find and correct.However a trial balance is not absolute proof of accuracy. You may
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record a correct debit amount to the wrong account. This error will not cause a trial
balance to be out of balance.
JERRY DOW, ATTORNEY
Trial balance
December 31,1998
Cash ……………………..
$
650
Prepaid insurance…………
2,400
Office supplies……………
120
Law library……………….
2,880
Office equipment…………
6,880
Accounts payable………...
Unearned legal fee……….
Jerry Dow, capital………..
Ferry Dow, withdrawals…
1,100
Legal fees earned…………
Rent expense……………..
1,000
Salaries expense………….
1,400
Utilities expense…………
230
Totals ……………………
$ 16,660
$
760
3,000
9,000
3,900
$ 16,660
PRACTICE
A – Comprehension
1. What is a transaction?
2. What is a journal? general journal? Give some examples? In double-entry bookkeeping,
what is entered in the journal?
3. What is a ledger? Subsidiary ledger? Give example? What is the relationship of a
journal to a ledger? What does posting mean?
4. What does to foot mean?
5. What is a trial balance?
B- Vocabulary practice: Match each of the items in the left-hand column with the
appropriate item in the right-hand column
A
B
1. Purchase of office furniture
a) A book of original entries
2. Fixed asset
b) The test balance of the account
3. Post
c) Totaling or adding column
4. Asset equal
d) Acquisition of a fixed asset
5. Journal
e) The books that lists all of the accounts
6. Trial balance
f) To transfer entries from the journal to the ledger
7. Footing
g) Liabilities plus owners’
8. Ledger
h) Buildings and machinery
Special Terms
Asset: anything of value or use to an organization. This includes cash, receivables,
securities, property, and intangible, such as goodwill. Goodwill is the extra value (such as
a company’s reputation and other intangibles) of a business not reflected in its financial
statements. The word asset is frequently used in the plural.
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Note receivable: a written promissory note to pay a sum of money at fixed date
Account receivable: credit sales or sales on account (promises of future payment)
Office supplies: stamps, stationery, paper, pencils and similar items
Store supplies: wrapping paper, cartons, bags, string and similar items
Equipment: physical assets such as desk, chair, office machine, etc.
Liability: An obligation that is owed by an organization: debts to other organizations for
merchandise or services; wages owed to employees; accrued (owed but not yet paid)
taxes; and payments due on loans for mortgages.
Note payable: liability in written promise
Accounts payable: the amount owed on the basic of oral or implied promise to pay
(purchase on credit)
Capital: The investment in an organization or business by its owner or, owners. Other
terms often used instead of capital are owners’ equity, often-abbreviated OE, and
proprietorship.
Account: A record of the changes and balances in the value of an individual item listed in
the ledger of an organization. An example of an asset account is the company’s furniture
and fixtures, usually listed as one item since it would be impractical to list every desk and
chair. Each account, usually abbreviated a/c, frequently has its own page in the
organization’s ledger.
Income: the increase in assets through a result of the operation of the business
Revenue: the formal language of income
Expense: the increase in liabilities through an incurrence of the operation of the business
Double entry: A method of bookkeeping in which the twofold effect of every entry is
recorded, thus requires two entries to record each transaction.
Single entry: Any bookkeeping system that does not include the complete results of each
transaction. It is usually used by small companies or to keep track of specific accounts: for
example, a checkbook, which only keeps a record of the cash balance.
Debit: An amount entered on the left-hand side of an account. Asset and expense accounts
are increased by debiting, that is, by entering amounts in the left-hand column. Debit is
usually abbreviated DR.
Credit: An amount entered on the right-hand side of an account. Liability, capital, and
income accounts are increased by crediting, that is, by entering amounts in the right-hand
column. Credit is usually abbreviated CR.
Withdrawals account: the account used to record the transfers of assets from a business
to its owner; also known as personal account or drawing account
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FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Warm up:
Do you know how many kinds of financial statements are there in a business? What are
they?
Who are interested in the financial statements? Give some
examples
What are the purpose of the financial statements?
Reading:
Financial statements are used to communicate accounting
information and convey a concise picture of the results of operations and the financial
position of a business. In other words, financial statements show you where a company’s
money came from, where it went, and where it is now. Financial statements should be
understandable, relevant, reliable and comparable. Reported assets, liabilities and equity
are directly related to an organization’s financial position. Reported income and expenses
are directly related to an organization’s financial performance.
The financial statements of a business that are presented to its owners and other outside
parties include four primary statements: the operations statement, the statement of changes
in owners’ equity, statement of cash flows, and the balance sheet.
Operations statement
The operations statement is also referred to as a profit and loss statement or an income and
expense statement. It shows how much profit and loss was generated by the operations of
the company during the accounting period. In this case, operations may be considered as
sales of goods or services. The profit from sales after the direct costs for producing the
goods or services have been deducted is called gross income and gross profit. While
income is produced, however, the business has certain other expenses-indirect costs
related to the production of that income, such as general or selling expenses. The balance
is left when these further expenses are deducted is called net income or net profit. In other
word, three major captions involve in the income statement including: revenues (gross
income), expenses, and net income. Revenues are earned from the sale of goods or
services rendered by the entity to others for which the entity will receive (or has received)
cash or something else of value. Expenses represent the dollar amount of resources used
up by the entity during a period of time to earn revenues. The expense may be on credit so
that cash or other resource is paid after the expense is incurred, such as paying the
employees at the end of the month for services provided during the month. The expense
may represent the cost of using equipment or buildings that were purchased in one
accounting period for use in several accounting periods. This kind of expense is called
depreciation expense. If the total expenses exceed the total revenues, a net loss is reported.
9
When revenues and expenses are equal for the period, the business has operated at break
even.
Marjorie Breck, CPA
Income Statement
Year Ended December 31, 20X
Fee income
$30,000
Expenses:
Salaries
$3,000
Rent
2,000
Telephone
300
Supplies
1,000
Car Rental
1,200
Interest expense
100
Pretax income:
Income tax expense: ( $22,400 x 10%)
Net income
7,600
22,400
2,240
$20,160
An operations Statement for a service business
The statement of changes in owners’ equity
The statement shows an increase or decrease in working capital for the year and how this
change arose. In some cases, this statement will show the change in the cash position
rather than the carriage in working capital. In other word, the statement shows what
changes have occurred in regard to equity since the previous balance sheet was compiled.
It shows, for example, the money the owners have put in (investment) or taken out
(disinvestment) of the business, as well as profits and losses from its operation
JERRY DOW, ATTORNEY
Statement of Changes in Owner’s Equity
For month ended December, 31 1990
Jerry Dow, capital, November 30,1990 …………………………
$ -0Plus: Investment by owner………………………………………… $9,000
Net income………………………………………………… 2,200
Total………………………………………………………………… 11,200
Less withdrawals by owner………… ……………..
1,100
Jerry Dow, capital December 31,1990 …………….
$10,100
Balance sheet
The balance sheet shows the firm’s condition on the last day of the accounting period. It
shows what the business owns and what it owes to its creditors or its owners. This is
expressed in the following accounting formula:
Assets = liabilities + owners’ equity
The purpose of the balance sheets is to report the financial position of a business at a
particular point in time. Therefore, the balance sheet is frequently called the statement of
financial position.
.
10
Handy Andy House and Garden Supplies
Balance Sheet
March 14,
ASSETS
Current Assets
Cash
Account Receivable
Notes Receivable
Merchandise Inventory
Office Supplies
Store Supplies
Prepaid Insurance
$2,000
6,000
3,000
80,000
400
600
1,000
Total current assets
Plant Assets
Land
Buildings
Less accumulated Depreciation
Store equipment
Less Accumulated Depreciation
93,000
$10,000
$152,000
6,000
146,000
40,000
12,000
28,000
Total Plant Assets
184,000
Investments
Patents
Goodwill
100,000
20,000
10,000
TOTAL ASSETS
$407,000
LIABILITY
Current Liabilities
Accounts payable
Notes payable
Accrued Salaries
Accrued Taxes
$30,000
$10,000
2,000
4,000
Total Current Liabilities
46,000
Long-term Liabilities
Notes Payable
Mortgages Payable
$40,000
100,000
Total Long-term Liabilities
140,000
TOTAL LIABILITIES
186,000
CAPITAL
Andrew Kovacs Capital
TOTAL LIABILITIES AND CAPITAL
221,000
$407,000
It has sometimes been said that the balance sheet shows the financial condition of a
business. However, the use of the word “condition” is apt to be misleading because it has
too broad a significance. Its use gives the impression that the balance sheet shows all
aspects of the relation of an enterprise to the business world about it. But this is not so.
There are many factors affecting the condition of a business that are not shown in a
balance sheet; for example, contracts, commitments, technical problems in an industry,
market conditions, taxation, tariffs, the public’s demand for commodities, and the ability
of the management.
The information contained in the balance sheet is restricted to that contained in the
accounts. Therefore, rather to say that it is a statement of the financial condition of a
11
business, it is more correct to say that it is a statement of the financial position of the
accounting for that business. The balance sheet is sometimes referred to as a statement of
assets and liabilities, or statement of assets, liabilities and capital. Either of these titles is
quite appropriate, but the name balance sheet is in most common use.
Assets are the resources owned by the entity. Assets may be tangible ( physical in
character) or intangible ( characterized by legal claims or rights). An asset should be
measured on the basis of the total cost incurred to acquire it. In other word, this will be
reported as its original acquisition cost instead of its current market value. Liabilities are
the debt or obligations of the entity. They arise primarily because of the purchase of goods
or services from others on credit and through cash borrowings to finance the business.
Owner’s equity represents a residual interest in the assets because creditors’ claims legally
come first. It is sometimes called net worth. However, the preferable designations are
owner’s equity for a sole proprietorship, partners’ equity for a partnership and
stockholders’ equity for a corporation. Owner’s equity in a business comes from two
sources: contributed capital, which is the investment of cash and other assets in the
business by the owners and retained earnings, which is the amount of accumulated
earnings kept in the business.
The statement of cash flows.(SCF)
JERRY DOW, ATTORNEY
Statement of Cash Flows
For month ended December, 31 1990
Cash flows from operations:
Cash received from customers……………………………….. $3,900
Cash paid for rent……………………………………………… - 1,000
Cash paid to employee……………………………………… - 700
Net cash provided by operating activities..……………………. 2,200
Cash flows from investing activities:
Purchase of office equipment…………………………………. - $5,600
Purchase of law library …………………………… …………. - 2,500
Net cash used by investing activities: …………………… - 8,100
Cash flows from financing activities:
Investment by owner………………………………………… + $9,000
Withdrawals by owner……………………………………….. - 1,100
Repayment of debt………………………………………… . - 900
Net cash provided by financing activities….
Cash balance, November 30,1990…………
Cash balance, December 31,1990…………
+ 7,000
–0–
$ 1,100
This statement shows the cash inflow and cash outflows of the business, summarized in
three categories: cash flows from operations, cash flows from investing activities, and
cash flows from financing activities.
12
1. Cash flows from operating activities: are related directly to earning income(
normal business activity) for example, cash collected from customers, or cash paid
to employees etc
2. cash flows from investing activities: are related to the acquisition or sale of
productive assets used by the company for example the purchase of a new factory
or the sale of a used delivery truck etc
3. cash flows from financing activities are related to the financing of the enterprise
itself for example, cash received from owners for their initial investment in the
business or cash used to repay a loan from a bank etc.
Task 1 : Discussion
1Why are business papers such as sales invoices considered essential reference in
accounting?
2What do the balances show? What does a statement of owners’ equity show?
3What does the operations statement show? What can operations be considered as?
4What is the difference between gross profit and net income?
5What does a statement of cash flow show?
6Explain why the income statement and the SFC are dated “ for the year ended
December, 31st 20X”, whereas the balance sheet is dated “ at December 31st 20X”?
7What are the two primary sources of owner’s equity in a business?
8What are the appropriate titles for owners’ equity for sole proprietorship,
partnership and corporation?
9A new business has the following transactions: (1) the owner invested $2,500; (2)
$1,500 of supplies were purchased for cash; (3) $1,200 was received in payment for
services rendered by the business; (4) a salary of $900 was paid to an employee; and (5)
$2,000 was borrowed from the bank. After these transactions were completed, the total
assets, total liabilities and total owner’s equity of the business are:
a. $4,800; $2,000; $2,800
c. $4,800; $3,200; $1,600
b. $6,300; $3,500; $2,800
d. $4,800; $2,300; $2,500
Task 2:Practice
A-Zaren Smith is in the business of managing apartment houses. Examine each of the
following items related to the business and state with the appropriate letter (a, b, c or d)
whether the item should appear on (a) an income statement, (b) a statement of changes in
owner’s equity, (c) a statement of cash flows, or (d) a balance sheet. If an item should
appear on two statements, state both letters.
1Management fees earned
6Cash withdrawals by owner
2Accounts receivable
7Office supplies
3Investments of cash by owner
8Accounts payable
4Cash received form customer
9Payroll
5Rent expense paid in cash
10Tax accrued
13
References
1- Fundermental Accouting Principles – Kermit D.Larson – University of Texas at
Austin
2- The language of accounting in English – Sandra Costinett – Prentice Hall Regents,
1977
3- Vietnamese accounting system, Finance Publishing House – Hanoi 1996
14
TOÅNG LIEÂN ÑOAØN LAO ÑOÄNG VIEÄT NAM
TRÖÔØNG ÑAÏI HOÏC TOÂN ÑÖÙC THAÉNG
PHOØNG THCN & DN
READING
FOR
InformatIon technology
Compiled by: ThS.
ÑOÃ THÒ HOA QUYEÂN
Internal publishing
- HCMC, June 2010-
15
Unit 1
Configuration
Task 1: Warm up
Label the elements of the computer. Then read the text in Task 2 to check your answers.
Task 2: Reading
Computers are electronic machines which can accept data in a certain form ,process the
data and give the results of the processing in a specified format as information
Three basic steps are involved in the process. First, the data is fed into the computer’s
memory. when the program is run, the computer performs a set of instructions and
processes the data. Finally, we can see the results (the output) on the screen or in printed
form.
Information in the form of data and programs is known as software, and the electronic
and mechanical parts that make up a computer system are called hardware. A standard
computer system consists of three main sections: the central processing unit (CPU),
the main memory and the peripherals.
Perhaps the most influential component is the central processing unit. Its function is to
execute program instructions and coordinate the activities of all the other units. In a way,
it is the “brain” of the computer. The main memory holds the instructions and data which
are currently being processed by the CPU. The peripherals are the physical units attach to
the computer. They include storage devices and input/output devices.
Storage devices (floppy, hard or optical disks) provide a permanent storage of both data
and programs. Disk drives are used to handle one or more floppy disks. Input devices
enable data to go into the computer’s memory. The most common input devices are the
mouse and the keyboard. Output devices enable us to extract the finished product from
the system. For example, the computer shows the output on the monitor or prints the
results onto paper by means of a printer.
16
On the rear panel of the computer there are several ports into which we can plug a wide
range of peripherals –modems, fax machines, optical drives and scanners.
These are the main physical units of a computer system generally now as the
configuration.
Use the information in the text to help you match the terms in the box with the
appropriate explanation or definition below
a-software
b- peripheral devices c- monitor
g- port
h- output
d-floppy disk e-hardware
f- input
i- central processing unit
1- The brain of the computer.
2- Physical parts that make up a computer system.
3- Programs which can be used on a particular computer system.
4- The information which is presented to the computer.
5- Results produced by a computer.
6- Hardware equipment attached to the CPU.
7- Visual display unit
8- Small device used to store information. Same as “diskette”
9- Any socket or channel in a computer system into which an input/output device may be
connected.
Task 3: Read and guess
Read these slogans or quotations and say what computer element they refer to
1-
“Point and click here for power.”
“Obeys every impulse as if it were an extension of you hand.”
2-
“Displays you ideas with perfect brilliance.”
“ See the difference – sharp images and a fantastic range of colors.”
3-
“ I love this drive. It’s quiet and fast.”
“With this it’s easy to back up your data before it’s too late.”
4-
“ Power and speed on the inside.”
r “ Let your computer’s brain do the work.”
5-
“…a big impact on the production of text and graphics.”
“ Your choice: a laser powerhouse.”
Task 4:
Complete the text below with the words in the box
17
Systems
memory
task terminals
desktop
CAD applications
The first microcomputers, also known as (1) ‘_____’ PCs, are for single users only, and
this clearly distinguished them from minicomputers. Another important difference was
that ‘minis’ are much more powerful than ‘micros’: they could execute more than one (2)
_____ simultaneously and were used as file servers for (3) ____ and workstations.
However modern microcomputers have operating (4)_____ and net work facilities that
can support many simultaneous users. Today, most personal computers have enough
(5)____ to be used for word processing and business (6)____. Some PCs can even handle
multitasking and (7)_____ applications. As a result, the division between ‘minis’ and
‘micros’ is now disappearing.
Task 5: Summarize
Label this diagram with the correct terms
Computer
system
Programs and data
Mechanical and electron ice
equipment
Physical units
attached to the
computer
Main memory
The ‘brain’ of the
computer
ROM
Storage
device
Input/output
devices
18
What’s inside a microcomputer?
The nerve center of a microcomputer is the central processing unit or CPU. This unit is
built into a single microprocessor chip – an integrated circuit – 1which executes program
instructions and supervises the computer’s overall operation. The unit consists of three
main parts:
(1) the control unit, which examines the instructions in the user’s program, interprets
each instruction and causes the circuits and the rest of the component – disk drives,
monitor, etc..- to be activated to execute the functions specified;
(2) the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs mathematical calculations (+, -,
etc..) and logical operations ( and, or, etc.)
(3) the registers, which are high-speed units of memory used to store and control
information. One of these registers is the program counter (PC) which keeps track
of the next instruction to be performed in the main memory. Another is the
instruction register (IR) which holds the instruction 2that is currently being
executed
One area where microprocessors differ is in the amount of data – the number of bits –
3
they can work with at time. There are 8, 16, 32, and 64-bit processors. The computer’s
internal architecture is evolving so quickly that the new 64-bit processors are able to
address 4 billion times more information than a 32-bit system.
The programs and data which pass through the central processor must be loaded into the
main memory (also called the internal memory) in order to be processed. Thus, when the
user runs an application, the microprocessor looks for 4it on secondary storage devices
(disks) and transfers a copy of the application into the RAM area. RAM (random access
memory) is temporary; i.e. 5its information is lost when the computer is turned off.
However, the ROM section (read only memory) is permanent and contains instructions
needed by the processor.
Most of today’s computers have internal expansion slots 6that allow users to install
adapters or expansion boards. Popular adapters include high-resolution graphics boards,
memory expansion boards, and internal modems.
The power and performance of a computer is partly determined by the speed of its
microprocessor. A clock provides pulses at fixed intervals to measure and synchronize
circuits and units. The clock speed is measured in MHz (megahertz) and refers to the
frequency at which pulses are emitted. For example, a CPU running a 500 MHz (500
million cycles per second) is likely to provide a very fast processing rate and will enable
the computer handle the most demanding applications.
A- Read the text below and then decide if the sentences are true (T) or false (F), and
rewrite the false ones to make them true
1- The CPU directs and coordinates the activities taking place within the computer
system.
19
2- The arithmetic logic unit performs calculations on the data
3- 32-bit processors can handle more information than 64-bit processors.
4- A chip is an electronic device composed of silicon elements containing a set of
integrated circuits.
5- RAM, ROM, and secondary storage are the components of the main memory.
6- Information cannot be processed by the microprocessor if it is not loaded into the
main memory.
7- ‘Permanent’ storage of information is provided by RAM (random access
memory).
8- The speed of the microprocessor is measured in megahertz. One MHz is
equivalent to one million cycles per second.
B- what do the words in bold print refer to?
1- …Which executes program instructions and supervises …(line2)
2- …the instruction that is currently being executed.( line 13)
3- … the amount of data – the number of bits – they can work with at a time (line
16)
4- … the microprocessor looks for it on …(line 21)
5- … its information is lost when the computer is turned off. (line23)
6- …expansion slots that allow users to install adapters or expansion boards.(line
24)
Task 3:
A- Read the text and complete it with the phrases in the box
All the information stored in the RAM is temporary
Microcomputers make use of two types of main memory
ROM chips have ‘constant’ information
The size of RAM is very important
MAIN MOMORY: RAM and ROM
The main memory of a computer is also called the ‘immediate access store’, as distinct
from any storage memory available on disks. (1) ____: RAM and ROM, both contained
in electronic chips connected to the main board of the computer.
RAM stands for ‘random access memory’ and is the working area of the computer, that
is, the basic location where the microprocessor stores the required information. It is
called ‘random access’ because the processor can find information in any cell or memory
address with equal speed, instead of looking for the data in sequential order.
20
(2)___ so it is lost when the machine is turned off. Therefore, if we want to use this
information later on, we have to save it and store it on a disk. When running an
application, the microprocessor finds its location in the storage device (the floppy or hard
disk) and transfers a temporary copy of the application to the RAM area. Consequently,
(3)_____ if we want to increase the performance of a computer when several applications
are open at the same time or when a document is very complex.
The RAM capacity can sometimes be expanded by adding extra chips. These are usually
contained in single in-line memory modules or SIMMs, which are installed in the
motherboard of the computer. We can designate a certain amount of RAM space a cache
in order to s tore information that an application uses repeatedly. A RAM cache may
speed up our work, but I mean that we need enough internal memory or a special cache
card.
ROM is an acronym for ‘read only memory’, which implies that the processor can read
and use the information stored in the ROM chip, but cannot put information into it.
(4)____, including instructions and routines for the basic operations of the CPU. These
intrusions are used to start up the computer, to read the information from the keyboard, to
send characters to the screen, etc. They cannot be changed and are not erased when the
power is turned off. For this reason, the ROM section is also referred to as firmware.
B- As we have seen, there is three types of memory used by computers: RAM, ROM and
secondary storage. Look through this list of features and decide which type of memory
they refer to
1- Any section of the main memory can be read with equal speed and ease.
2- It is available in magnetic, optical and video disks.
3- A certain amount of this memory can be designated as ‘cache’ memory to store
information in applications that are used very frequently.
4- It stores basic operating instruction, needed by the CPU to function correctly.
5- Memory which can be expanded by adding SIMMs of 8 MB, 16MB, 32MB or other
major increments.
6- Information is permanent and cannot be deleted.
7- You can save and store your documents and applications.
CPU- THE PROCESSOR
Task 1: Reading
21
It is common practice in computer science for the words “computer” and “processor” to
be used in interchangeably. More precisely, ‘computer’ refers to the central processing
unit (CPU) together with an internal memory. The internal memory or main storage
control and processing components make up the heart of the computer system.
Manufacturers design the CPU to control and carry out basic instructions for their
particular computer.
The CPU coordinates all the activities of the various components the computer. It
determines which operations should be carried out and in what order. The CPU can also
retrieve information from memory and can store the results of manipulations back into
the memory unit for later reference.
In digital computers the CPU can be divided into two functional units called the control
unit (CU) and the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU). These two units are made up of
electronic circuits which millions of switches that can be in one of two states, either on or
off.
The function of the control unit within the central processor is to transmit coordination
control signal and commands. The control unit is that portion of the computer that directs
the sequence or step-by-step operations of the system, selects instructions and data from
memory, interprets the program instructions and controls the follow between main
storage and the arithmetic-logical unit.
The arithmetic-logical unit, on the other hand, is at portion of the computer in which the
actual arithmetic operations, namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
exponentiation, called for in the instructions are performed. It also performs some kinds
of logical operations such as comparing or selecting information. All the operations of the
ALU are under the direction of the control unit.
Programs and the data, on which the control unit and the ALU operate, must be in
internal memory in order to be processed. Thus, if located on secondary memory devices
such as disks or tapes, programs and data are first loaded into internal memory.
Main storage and the CPU are connected to a console, where manual control operations
can be performed by an operator. The console is an important, but special purpose, piece
of equipment. It is used mainly when the computer is being started up or during
maintenance and repair. Many mini and micro system do not have a console.
Decide whether the following statements are true or false (T/F) by referring to the
information in the text. Then make the necessary changes so that the false statements
become true.
1- The central processing unit is made up of three components.
2- The CPU is responsible for all the activities taking place within a computer.
3- The processor itself has three components.
4- The control unit directs the flow of information within a processor.
22
5- The arithmetic-logical unit of the processor is responsible for the interpretation of
program instructions.
6- The arithmetic-logical unit is also responsible for choosing and comparing the
appropriate information within a program.
7- The processor cannot operate on any information of that information is not main
storage.
8- Secondary memory and internal memory are located in the same place the computer
system.
9- Only after the data has been processed by the CPU can results be transmitted to an
output device.
10- Computers can solve problems more quickly if they operate on new information.
Task 4 : Further reading
HARDWARE and SOFTWARE
Computer systems may be catalogued into two parts:
The first part is hardware – the physical, electronic and electromechanical devices that
are thought of and recognized as “computers” The second part is software – the program
that controls and coordinates the activities of the computer hardware and that direct the
processing of data.
The basic components of computer hardware joined together in a computer system. The
centerpiece is called either the computer the processor, or usually the central processing
unit.(CPU). The term ‘computer’ usually refers to those parts of the hardware in which
calculations are performed and the internal memory in which other data and instructions
are stored during the actual execution of programs. The various peripherals, which
include input and /or output devices, various secondary memory devices, and so on, are
attached to the CPU.
Computer software can be divided into two very broad categories system software and
applications software. The former is often simply referred to as ‘systems’. These, when
brought into internal memory, direct the computer to perform tasks. The latter may be
provided along with the hardware by a system supplier as part of a computer product
designed to answer a specific need in certain areas. These complete hardware/software
products are called turnkey systems.
The success or failure of any computer systems depends on the skill which the hardware
and software components are selected and blended. A poorly chosen system can be a
monstrosity incapable of performing the tasks for which it was original acquired.
UNDERSTANDING THE PASSAGE
Indicate whether the following idea are stated or not stated (S/NS) in the text
23
1- A system implies as good mixture of parts working together.
2- Input and output devices operate more slowly than the decision-making devices.
3- The control unit and the arithmetic-logical unit are parts of the processor.
4- The ‘computer’ is the hardware.
5- Software is the program on cards, tapes and disks.
6- The processor is usually referred to as the computer.
7- The word ‘computer’ means the processor and the internal memory
8- Systems software is usually referred to as programs.
9- Complete hardware/software products are called turnkey systems
10- Computers process specially prepared items of information.
Unit 3
WORD PROCESSING
Task 1: Warm up
Try to answer these questions
1- What is a word processor?
2- What makes word processors superior to traditional typewriters?
3- Make a list of the most important features offered by word processors.
Task 2: Reading
Word-processing facilities
Writing letters, memos or reports are the ways most people use computers. They
manipulate words and text on a screen- primarily to print at some later time and store for
safe keeping. Computers alleviate much of the tedium associated with typing, proofing
and manipulating words. Because computers can store and recall information so readily,
documents need not be retyped form scratch just to make corrections or changes. The real
strength of word processing lies on this ability to store, retrieve and change information.
Typing is still necessary (at least, for now) to put the information into the computer
initially, but once in, the need to retype only applies to new information.
Word processing is more than just typing, however. Features such search and replace
allow users to find a particular phrase or word no matter where it is in a body of text. This
becomes more useful as the amount of text grows.
Word processors usually include different ways to view the text. Some include a view
that displays the text with editor’s marks that show hidden characters or commands
(spaces, returns, paragraph endings, applied styles, etc...). Many word processors include
the ability to show exactly how the text will appear on paper when printed. This is called
WYSWYG(What YOU SEE IS WHAT YOU GET, pronounced ‘wizzy-wig’).
WYSIWYG shows bold, italic, underline and other type style characteristics on the
24
screen so that the user can clearly see what he or she is typing. Another feature is the
correct display of different typefaces and format characteristics (margins, indents, superand sub-scripted characters, etc). This allows the user to plan the document more
accurately and reduces the frustration of printing something that doesn’t look right.
Many word processors now have so many features that they approach the capabilities of
layout applications for desktop publishing. They can import graphics, format multiple
columns of text, run text around graphics, etc.
Two important features offered by word processors are automatic hyphenation and mail
merging. Automatic hyphenation is the splitting of a word between two lines so that the
txt will fit better on the page. The word processor constantly monitors words typed and
when it reaches the end of a line, if a word is too long to fit, it checks that word in a
hyphenation dictionary. This dictionary contains a list of words with the preferred places
to split it. If one of these cases fits part of the word at the end of the lien, the word
processor splits the word, adds a hyphen at the end and places the rest on the next line.
This happens extremely fast and gives text a more polished and professional look.
Mail merge applications are largely responsible for the explosion of ‘personalize’ mail.
Form letters with designated spaces for name and addresses are stored as documents with
links to lists of names and addresses of potential buyers or client. By designating what
information goes into which blank space, a computer can process a huge amount of
correspondence substituting the ‘personal’ information into a form letter. The final
document appears to be typed specifically to the person addressed.
Many word processors can also generate tables of numbers or figures, sophisticated
indexes and comprehensive tables of contents.
A- Read the text and underline any word-processing capabilities that you did not list
in task 1
B- Look at the words in the box and complete the following with them. Use the
information in the text or glossary if necessary
Type style
WYSIWYG
format
indent
font menu
justification
Mail merging
1- ___ stands for ‘what you see is what you get’. It means that your printout will
precisely match what you see on the screen.
2- ___ refers to the process by which the space between the words in a line is
divided evenly to make the text flush with both left and right margins.
3- You can change font by selecting the font name and point size from the ____.
4- ___ refers to a distinguishing visual characteristic of a typeface; ‘italic’, for
example is a ____ that may be used with a number of typefaces.
25
5- The ___ menu of a word processor allows you to set margins, page numbers,
spaces between columns and paragraph justifications.
6- ____ enables you to combine two files, one containing names and addresses and
the other containing a standard letter.
7- An ___ is the distance between the beginning of a line and the left margin, or the
end of a line and the right margin. Indented text is usually narrower than text
without__
C- Match the words and expressions on the left with their explanations on the right
1- retrieve
a- text printed in the top margin
2- typefaces
b- recover information from a computer system
3-
c- letter, number or symbol that appears below the
baseline of the row of type; commonly used in math
formulas.
header
4- Footer
d- text printed in the bottom margin
5- Subscripted character e- division of words into syllables by a short dash or
hyphen
6- Hyphenation
‘fonts’
f- styles for a set of characters; sometimes called
Unit 4
COMPUTER NETWORKS
Task 1: Warm up
1- What is a LAN?
2- What is a WAN?
3- What is a distributed system?
Task 2: Reading
A - Before reading the text opposite, match these words and phrases with their definitions
1-
protocol
a- analyze the syntax of a string of input symbols
2-
Bulletin board
b- a teleconferencing system allowing users to read messages
left by other users.
3-
User interface
c- agreement governing the procedures used to exchange
information between co-operating computers
4-
Make a query
d- means of communication between a human user and a
computer system
26
5- Parse
e- taking place at exactly the same time as something else
6- Synchronous
f- request a search
Computer networks
Computer networks link computers by communication lines and software protocols,
allowing data to be exchanged rapidly and reliably. Traditionally, networks have been
split between wide area networks (WANs) and local area networks (LANs). A WAN is a
network connected over long-distance telephone lines, and a LAN is a localized network
usually in one building or a group of buildings close together. The distinction, however,
is becoming blurred. It is now possible to connect up LANs remotely over telephone
links so that they look as though they are a single LAN.
Originally, networks were used to provide terminal access to another computer and to
transfer files between computers. Today networks carry e-mail, provide access to public
database and bulletin board, and are beginning to be used for distributed systems.
Networks also allow users in one locality to share expensive resources, such as printers
and disk-systems.
Distributed computer systems are built using networked computers that co-operate to
perform tasks. In this environment each part of the networked system does what it is best
at. The high-quality bit-mapped graphics screen of a personal computer or workstation
provides a good user interface. The mainframe, on the other hand, can handle large
numbers of queries and return the results to the users. In a distributed environment, a user
might use his PC to make a query against a central database. The PC passes the query,
written in a special language (e.g. Structured Query Language – SQL) to the mainframe,
which then parses the query, returning to the user only the data requested. The user might
then use his PC to draw graphs based on the data. By passing back to the user’s PC only
the specific information requested, network traffic is reduced. If the whole file were
transmitted, the PC would then have to perform the query itself, reducing the efficiency
of both network and PC.
In the 1980s, at least 100,000 LANs were set up in laboratories and offices around the
world. During the early part of this decade, synchronous orbit satellites lowered the price
of long-distance telephone calls enabling computer data and television signals to be
distributed more cheaply around the world. Since then, fiber-optic cable has been
installed on a large scale, enabling vast amounts of data to be transmitted at a very high
speed using light signals.
The impact of fiber optics will be considerably to reduce the price of network access.
Global communication and computer networks will become more and more a part of
professional and personalizes as the prices of microcomputers and network access drops.
At the same time, distributed computer networks should improve our work environments
and technical abilities.
27
B- Read quickly through the text above, and then match each paragraph with the
appropriate summary.
1- Network uses, past and present
2- How distributed systems work
3- Networks and the future
4- What networks are and how they operate
5- The growth of networks, past and present
- Using the line references given, look back in the text an find words that have
a similar meaning to
1- unclear
2- place
3- carry out
4- cost
5- world-wide
an opposite meaning to
1- Disparate
4-conflict
2- Preventing
5- tiny
3- increase
Task 3: Reading
Read the following texts. Match each text with the correct illustration
1- Star
In the star configuration, the central computer performs all processing and control
functions. All access devices are linked directly to the central computer. The star
configuration has two major limitations. First of all, the remote devices are unable to
communicate directly. Instead, they must communicate via the central computer only.
Secondly, the star network is very susceptible to failure, either in the central computer
or the transmission links.
a
b


File serve






Central
computer



28
c

d



File
serve


Exchange

2- Switched
Computer



The central switch, which could be a telephone exchange, is used to connect different
devices on the network directly. Once the link is established, the two devices
communicate as though they were directly linked without interference from any other
device. At the end of the session, the connection is closed, freeing capacity for other
users and allowing access to other devices. Multiple switches can be used to create
alternative transmission routes.
3- Ring
Each device is attached to a network shaped as a continuous loop. Data proceeds in
only one direction and at a constant speed round the loop. Devices may send
information only when they are in control of the ‘token’. The token is a package of
data which indicates which device has control. The receiving device picks up the
token, and then clears it for another’s use once it has received the message. Only one
device may send data at any given moment, and each device must be working for the
network to function.
4- bus/ Ethernet
a bus network consists of one piece of cable terminated at each end to which all
devices are connected. In a bus-based network, each device is able to broadcast a
message when it has detected silence for a fixed period of time. All devices receive
the broadcast and determine from the content of the message whether it was intended
for them. The only problem occurs when two devices try to send at the same time.
When a sending device detects another’s transmission, it aborts its own.
B-These are answers to questions about the text. Write the questions
1- To connect different devices on the network directly
2- No, it goes in only one direction round the loop
3- No, only one device may send data at any given moment
29
4- from the content of the message
5- It cancels its own transmission.
Unit 5-
COMPUTER VIRUSES
Task 1: Warm up
4- What is a virus?
5- How does a virus work?
Task 2: Reading
A - Before reading the text , match these words and phrases with their definitions
1- a detonator a- a protective device
2- an infector b- to remove all traces of something
3- to boot
c- a device used to set off an explosion or other destructive
process.
4- to trigger
d- to discover or recognize that something is present
5- to erase
e- to set a process in motion
6- pirated
f- something which transmits a disease or virus
7- a shield
g-stolen, obtained without the owner’s consent
8- to detect
h – to load the operating system into memory
A computer virus - an unwanted program that has entered your system without you
knowing about it – has two parts, which I’ll call the infector and the detonator. They have
two very different jobs. One of the features of a computer virus that separates it form
other kinds of computer program is that it replicates itself, so that it can spread (via
floppies transported from computer to computer, or networks) to other computers.
After the infector has copied the virus elsewhere, the detonator performs the virus’s main
work. Generally, that work is damaging data on your disks, altering what you see on your
computer display, or doing something else that interferes with the normal use of your
computer.
Here’s an example of a simple virus, the Lehigh virus. The infector portion of Lehigh
replicates by attaching a copy of itself to COMMAND.COM (an important part of DOS),
enlarging it by about 1,000 bytes.
So let’s say you put a floppy containing COMMAND.COM into an infected PC at our
office – that is , a PC that is running the Lehigh program. The infector portion of Lehigh
looks over DOS’s shoulder, monitoring all floppy accesses. The first time you tell the
infected PC to access your floppy drive, the Lehigh infector notices the copy of
COMMAND.COM on the floppy and adds a copy of itself to that file.
Then you take the floppy home to your PC and boot from the floppy. (In this case, you’ve
got to boot from the floppy in order for the virus to take effect, since you may have many
copies of COMMAND.COM on your hard and floppy disks, but DOS only uses the
COMMAND.COM on the boot drive.)
30
Now the virus has silently and instantly been installed in your PC’s memory. Every time
you access a hard disk subdirectory or a floppy disk containing COMMAND.COM, the
virus sees that file and infects it, in the hope that this particular COMMAND.COM will
be used on a boot disk on some computer someday.
Meanwhile, Lehigh keeps a count of infections. Once it has infected four copies of
COMMAND.COM, the detonator is triggered. The detonator in Lehigh is a simple none.
It erases a vital part of your hard disk, making the files on that part of the disk no longer
accessible. You grumble and set about rebuilding your work, unaware that Lehigh is
waiting to infect other unsuspecting computers if you boot from one of those four
infected floppies.
Don’t worry too much about viruses. You may never see one. There are just a few ways
to become infected that you should be aware of. The sources seem to be service people,
pirated games, putting floppies in publicly available PCs without write-protect tabs,
commercial software (rarely), and software distributed over computer bulletin board
systems( also quite rarely, despite media misinformation).
Many viruses have spread through pirated – illegally copied or broken – games. This is
easy to avoid. Pay for your games, fair and square.
If you use a shared PC or a PC that has public access, such as one in a college PC lab or a
library, be very careful about putting floppies into that PC’s drives without a writeprotect tab. Carry a virus – checking program and scan the PC before letting it write data
onto floppies.
Despite the low incidence of actual viruses, it can’t hurt to run a virus checking program
now and then. There are actually two kinds of antivirus programs: virus shields, which
detect viruses as they are infecting our PC, and virus scanners, which detect viruses once
they’ve infected you.
Viruses are something to worry about, but not a lot. A little common sense and the
occasional virus scan will keep you virus-free.
Remember these four points:
Viruses can’t infect a data or text file.
Before running an antivirus program, be sure to cold-boot from a write-protected floppy.
Don’t boot form floppies except reliable DOS disks or your original production disks.
Stay away from pirated software.
C- Decide these statement T or F. Change the false to make it true.
1- viruses cannot be spread through a computer network, only via floppies transported
from computer to computer.
2- the virus will spread as soon as you put the infected floppy in your PC.
3- The infector works by interfering in some way with the normal use of your computer.
31
4- the detonator in Lehigh works by altering what you see on your screen.
5- most viruses spread through pirated games.
6- you should run an antivirus program every time you use your computer.
7- there are not very many viruses in circulation.
8- virus shields are more effective than virus scanners.
D- these are answers to questions about the text. Write the questions
1- two, one that infects and one that does the damage.
2- by interfering in some way with the normal use of the computer.
3- after it has infected four copies of COMMAND.COM
4- every time you access a hard disk subdirectory or a floppy disk containing
COMMAND.COM
5- Yes, by using your common sense and by occasionally scanning for them.
E- look back in the text and find words or phrases with
a similar meaning to:
1- reproduces 2- infect
an opposite meaning to
6- reducing 7- removed
3- changing
8- records
4- immediately
9- ignorant
---oOo---
5- complain
10- frequent
References
1- Computing, Keith Boechkner, P.Charles Brown- Oxford university press 1993
2- Infotech, Santiago Remancha Esteras – Cambridge university press 2001
32
TOÅNG LIEÂN ÑOAØN LAO ÑOÄNG VIEÄT NAM
TRÖÔØNG ÑAÏI HOÏC TOÂN ÑÖÙC THAÉNG
PHOØNG THCN & DN
READING
FOR
Computer graphiC design
Compiled by: ThS.
ÑOÃ THÒ HOA QUYEÂN
Internal publishing
- HCMC, June 2010-
33
COLOR THEORY BASICS
Color Theory is a set of principles used to create harmonious color combinations.
Color relationships can be visually represented with a color wheel — the color
spectrum wrapped onto a circle.
Monochromatic color scheme (kiểu phối màu đơn sắc)
Examples
The monochromatic color scheme uses variations in lightness and saturation of a single
color. This scheme looks clean and elegant. Monochromatic colors go well together,
producing a soothing effect. The monochromatic scheme is very easy on the eyes,
especially with blue or green hues. You can use it to establish an overall mood. The
primary color can be integrated with neutral colors such as black, white, or gray.
However, it can be difficult, when using this scheme, to highlight the most important
elements because this scheme lacks color contrast. Tints, shades, and tones of the key
color should be used to enhance the scheme.
Analogous color scheme
Examples
The analogous color scheme uses colors that are adjacent to each other on the
color wheel. One color is used as a dominant color while others are used to enrich
the scheme. The analogous scheme is similar to the monochromatic one, but offers
more nuances. Avoid combining warm and cool colors in this scheme and avoid
using too many hues in the analogous scheme, because this may ruin the harmony.
Complementary color scheme
Examples
The complementary color scheme is made of two colors that are opposite each
other on the color wheel. This scheme looks best when you put a warm color
against a cool color, for example, red versus green-blue. The complementary
scheme is intrinsically high-contrast. When using the scheme, it is important to
choose a dominant color and use its complementary color for accents. Using one
34
color for the background and its complementary color to highlight important
elements, you will get color dominance combined with sharp color contrast..
Split complementary color scheme
Examples
The split complementary scheme is a variation of the standard complementary
scheme. It uses a color and the two colors adjacent to its complementary. This
provides high contrast without the strong tension of the complementary scheme.
Use a single warm color against a range of cool colors to put an emphasis on the
warm color (red versus blues and blue-greens, or orange versus blues and blueviolets
Triadic color scheme
Examples
The triadic color scheme uses three colors equally spaced around the color wheel.
This scheme is popular among artists because it offers strong visual contrast while
retaining balance, and color richness. The triadic scheme is not as contrasting as
the complementary scheme, but it looks more balanced and harmonious. One color
should be used in larger amounts than others. If the colors look gaudy, try to
subdue them
Tetradic (double complementary) color schemes
Examples
The tetradic (double complementary) scheme is the richest of all the schemes
because it uses four colors arranged into two complementary color pairs. This
scheme is hard to harmonize; if all four colors are used in equal amounts, the
scheme may look unbalanced, so you should choose a color to be dominant or
subdue the colors. If the scheme looks unbalanced, try to subdue one or more
colors. Avoid using pure colors in equal amounts
35
Color theory does not analyze tints, shades, and tones
Color theory analyzes only the relationships of pure colors; it does not take color
lightness and saturation into account. While your color scheme can use any tints,
shades, and tones, color theory pays attention only to the hue component.
Answer these questions:
1- How many kinds of classic color schemes? Write them out.
2- Which kinds of schemes is the most popular now? Explain how is it the
most popular kind of scheme?
Task 3:
Color Meaning
Red
Red is the color of fire and blood, It has very high visibility, which is why stop
signs, stoplights, and fire equipment are usually painted red. In heraldry, red is
used to indicate courage. It is a color found in many national flags.
Red brings text and images to the foreground. Use it as an accent color to
stimulate people to make quick decisions; it is a perfect color for 'Buy Now' or
'Click Here' buttons on Internet banners and websites. In advertising, red is often
used to evoke erotic feelings (red lips, red nails, red-light districts, etc). Red is
widely used to indicate danger (high voltage signs, traffic lights). This color is also
commonly associated with energy, so you can use it when promoting energy
drinks, games, cars, items related to sports and high physical activity.
Light red represents joy, passion, sensitivity, and love.
Pink signifies romance, love, and friendship. It denotes feminine qualities and
passiveness.
Dark red is associated with willpower, anger, leadership, courage, longing,
Brown
suggests
stability
and
denotes
masculine
qualities.
Orange
Orange combines the energy of red and the happiness of yellow. To the human
eye, orange is a very hot color, so it gives the sensation of heat. Nevertheless,
orange is not as aggressive as red.. It is highly accepted among young people.
Orange is associated with healthy food and stimulates appetite. In heraldry, orange
is symbolic of strength and endurance.
You can use it to catch attention and highlight the most important elements of your
design. Orange is very effective for promoting food products and toys.
Dark orange can mean deceit and distrust.
36
Red-orange corresponds to desire, passion, pleasure, domination, aggression, and
thirst for action.
Gold evokes the feeling of prestige. The meaning of gold is illumination, wisdom,
and wealth. Gold often symbolizes high quality.
Yellow
Yellow is the color of sunshine. Yellow produces a warming effect, arouses
cheerfulness, stimulates mental activity, and generates muscle energy. Yellow is
often associated with food. Bright, pure yellow is an attention getter, which is the
reason taxicabs are painted this color. When overused, yellow may have a
disturbing effect; it is known that babies cry more in yellow rooms. Yellow is seen
before other colors when placed against black; this combination is often used to
issue a warning. In heraldry, yellow indicates honor and loyalty. Later the
meaning of yellow was connected with cowardice.
You can choose yellow to promote children's products and items related to leisure
and to highlight the most important elements of your design. Men usually perceive
yellow as a very lighthearted, 'childish' color, so it is not recommended to use
yellow when selling prestigious, expensive products to men – nobody will buy a
yellow business suit or a yellow Mercedes. Yellow is an unstable and spontaneous
color, so avoid using yellow if you want to suggest stability and safety. Light
yellow tends to disappear into white, so it usually needs a dark color to highlight
it. Shades of yellow are visually unappealing because they loose cheerfulness and
become dingy.
Dull (dingy) yellow represents caution, decay, sickness, and jealousy.
Light yellow is associated with intellect, freshness, and joy.
Green
Green is the color of nature, fertility. Green has great healing power. It is the most
restful color for the human eye; it can improve vision. Green suggests stability and
endurance. Sometimes green denotes lack of experience; for example, a
'greenhorn' is a novice. In heraldry, green indicates growth and hope. Green, as
opposed to red, means safety; it is the color of free passage in road traffic.
Use green to indicate safety when advertising drugs and medical products. Green
is directly related to nature, so you can use it to promote 'green' products. Dull,
darker green is commonly associated with money, the financial world, and
banking
Dark
green
is
associated
with
ambition
and
jealousy.
Yellow-green
can
indicate
sickness,
cowardice,
and
jealousy.
Aqua
is
associated
with
emotional
healing
and
protection.
Olive green is the traditional color of peace.
37
Blue
Blue is the color of the sky and sea. Blue is considered beneficial to the mind and
body, produces a calming effect. Blue is strongly associated with tranquility and
calmness. In heraldry, blue is used to symbolize piety and sincerity.
You can use blue to promote products and services related to cleanliness (water
purification filters,), air and sky (airlines, airports, air conditioners), water and sea
(, mineral water). As opposed to emotionally warm colors like red, orange, and
yellow; blue is linked to consciousness and intellect. Use blue to suggest precision
when promoting high-tech products. Blue is a masculine color; according to
studies, it is highly accepted among males.
Avoid using blue when promoting food and cooking, because blue suppresses
appetite. When used together with warm colors like yellow or red, blue can create
high-impact, vibrant designs; for example, blue-yellow-red is a perfect color
scheme for a superhero.
Light blue is associated with health, healing, tranquility, understanding, and
softness.
Dark blue represents knowledge, power, integrity, and seriousness.
Purple
Purple combines the stability of blue and the energy of red. Purple is associated
with royalty. It symbolizes power, nobility, luxury, and ambition. , mystery and
magic.
According to surveys, almost 75 percent of pre-adolescent children prefer purple
to all other colors. Purple is a very rare color in nature; some people consider it to
be artificial.
Light purple is a good choice for a feminine design. You can use bright purple
when promoting children's products because this evokes romantic and nostalgic
feelings.
Dark purple evokes gloom and sad feelings. It can cause frustration.
Read the text carefully and fill the table below:
Color
Red
Meaning
High visibility
Examples
Stop sign,
Task 3:
Fill the gaps with the words below:
38
gray
safety
symbol
bright
authority
perspective
purity
fear
angels
black
White is associated with light, goodness, innocence, purity, virginity. and
cleanliness. As opposed to_____(1), white usually has a positive connotation.
White can represent a successful beginning. In heraldry, white depicts faith and
(2)________.
In advertising, white is associated with coolness and cleanliness because it's the
color of snow. You can use white to suggest simplicity in high-tech products.
White is an appropriate color for charitable organizations; ____(3)are usually
imagined wearing white clothes. White is associated with hospitals, doctors, and
sterility, so you can use white to suggest ____(4) when promoting medical
products. White is often associated with low weight, low-fat food, and dairy
products.
Black is a mysterious color associated with ____(5) and the unknown (black
holes). It usually has a negative connotation (blacklist, black humor, 'black death').
Black denotes strength and____(6) ; it is considered to be a very formal, elegant,
and prestigious color (black tie, black Mercedes). In heraldry, black is the ____(7)
of grief.
Black gives the feeling of ____(8)and depth, but a black background diminishes
readability. A black suit or dress can make you look thinner. When designing for a
gallery of art or photography, you can use a black or ____(9) background to make
the other colors stand out. Black contrasts well with _____(10) colors. Combined
with red or orange – other very powerful colors – black gives a very aggressive
color scheme.
1
5
6
4
U
Task 4
:Based on the text, make cross puzzle about colors.
Across
3
B
1- the color associated with food and autumn.(6)
2- The color of purity(5)
Down
3- the color of love(4)
2
4- the color associated with safety(4)
Up
5- having some tinge of sky color , of either series may pass into red or white, but
not into the opposing color.(4)
Incline
6- the color of happiness (6)
39
ILLUMINATION AND SHADING
 Illumination (lighting) model: determine the color of a surface point by
simulating some light attributes.
 Shading model: applies the illumination models at a set of points and colors
the whole image
Task 1: Summarize the text below
ILLUMINATION (LIGHTING) MODEL:
To model the interaction of light with surfaces to determine the final color &
brightness of the surface. There are two kinds of illumniations:
 Global illumination
 Local illumination
Global Illumination models: take into account the
interaction of light from all the surfaces in the
scene. (will cover under the Radiosity section)
Local illumination: Only consider the light, the
observer position, and the object material properties
THREE COMPONENTS OF ILLUMINATION MODEL
Diffuse
The diffuse component of the Phong model represents reflections that are not
directional in nature. Each surface has a diffuse reflectance characteristic that
determines how much light is reflected off the surface. The amount of light
reflected is independent of the direction that the surface is being viewed from
since surfaces that reflect diffusely reflect in all directions equally. The intensity
of the diffuse reflection varies only with the cosine of the angle between the
surface normal and light source.
Specular
The diffuse component of the Phong model is used to characterize reflections that
are highly directional. Examples of this would be bright highlights on a shiny
object. Similar to diffuse reflections, each surface has a specular reflection
coefficient that determines how much light is reflected off the surface. The
intensity of a specular reflection is also proportional to the cosine of the angle
40
between the view direction and the direction the light is reflected in. In addition,
there is a specular exponent that determines how quickly the specular highlight
drops off as the view angle moves away from the reflection angle.
Ambient
The ambient component of the Phong model is added to take into account light
generated from inter-object reflections. In real environments surfaces that are not
directly lit are not completely dark. Light generated by reflections off other diffuse
and specular surfaces serves to illuminate these areas. To model this, Phong uses a
constant ambient illumination term that when multiplied by the ambient
reflectivity of the surface, gives the ambient component of illumination.
Task 2:
Shading can be broken into about 5 basic tones from blacks, to dark grays, to
middle grays, lights, and whites. Label the shade tones for 4 portraits below:
Task 3: reading
SHADING MODELS FOR POLYGONS
 Constant Shading (flat shading)
 Compute illumination at any one point on the surface. Use face or
one normal from a pair of edges. Good for far away light and
viewer or if facets approximate surface well.
 Per-Pixel Shading
 Compute illumination at every point on the surface.
 Interpolated Shading
 Compute illumination at vertices and interpolate color
Constant Shading
41
Flat shading is lighting technique used in 3D computer graphics. It shades each
polygon of an object based on the angle between the polygon's surface normal and
the direction of the light source, their respective colors and the intensity of the
light source. It is usually used for high speed rendering where more advanced
shading techniques are too computationally expensive.
The disadvantage of flat shading is that it gives low-polygon models a faceted
look. Sometimes this look can be advantageous though, such as in modeling boxy
objects. Artists sometimes use flat shading to look at the polygons of a solid model
they are creating. More advanced and realistic lighting and shading techniques
include
Un-lit
flat shading
Gouraud shading
Phong shading
Polygon Mesh Shading
•
•
Shading each polygonal facet individually will not generate an illusion of
smooth curved surface
Reason: polygons will have different colors along the boundary,
unfortunately, human perception helps to even accentuate the discontinuity:
mach band effect
Smooth Shading ( Interpolated shading)
• Need to have per-vertex normals
• Gouraud Shading
– Interpolate color across triangles
– Fast, supported by most of the graphics accelerator cards
• Phong Shading
– Interpolate normals across triangles
– More accurate, but slow. Not widely supported by hardware
42
Gouraud shading is a method used in computer graphics to simulate the differing
effects of light and colour across the surface of an object. In practice, Gouraud
shading is used to achieve smooth lighting on low-polygon surfaces without the
heavy computational requirements of calculating lighting for each pixel. The
technique was first presented by Henri Gouraud in 1971.
The basic principle behind the method is to calculate the surface normals at the
vertices of polygons in a 3D computer model. These normals are then averaged for
all the polygons that meet at each point. Lighting computations are then performed
to produce colour intensities at vertices. The lighting calculation used by Gouraud
was based on the Lambertian diffuse lighting model.
These colour values are then interpolated along the edges of the polygons. To
complete the shading, the image is filled by lines drawn across the image that
interpolate between the previously calculated edge intensities.
Gouraud shading is much less processor intensive than Phong shading, but does
not calculate all desirable lighting effects as accurately. For instance, the white
shiny spot on the surface of an apple (called a specular highlight) is highly
dependent on the normal within that spot. If a model's vertices are not within that
spot, their colors are blended across it, making it disappear altogether. This
problem is made more obvious when the light source is relocated, moving the
highlight across a vertex. Using Gouraud shading, the specular highlight will
appear mysteriously and grow in intensity as the light moves toward a position of
reflexion from the observer across the vertex. The desired result would be to see
the highlight move smoothly rather than fade out and in between vertices.
Despite the drawbacks, Gouraud shading is much superior to flat shading which
requires significantly less processing than Gouraud, but gives low-polygon models
a sharp, faceted look.
The term Phong shading is used indiscriminately to describe both an illumination
model and an interpolatioon method in 3D computer graphics.
In 3D graphics, a technique developed by Phong Bui-Tuong in the mid-1970s that
computes a shaded surface based on the color and illumination at each pixel.
Phong shading is more realistic than Gouraud shading, but requires more
computation. It does not produce shadows or reflections. The surface normals at
43
the triangle's points are used to compute a surface normal for each pixel, which in
turn creates a more accurate RGB value for each pixel
A- Answer these questions
1- What flat shading? Gouraud shading? Phong shading?
2- Compare the different features between flat shading , Gouraud shading and
Phong shading?
Make questions based on the answers following;
1- on the angle between the polygon's surface normal and the direction of the
light source.
2- that it gives low-polygon models a faceted look
3- yes, they include Gouraud shading and Phong shading.
4- to achieve smooth lighting on low-polygon surfaces
5- to calculate the surface normals at the vertices of polygons in a 3D
computer model
6- by lines drawn across the image
7- no, Phong shading is more realistic than Gouraud shading
---oOo--Reference
1- Computer Graphics,Principle and practice- Foley, Van Dam, Feirner
Hughers – Addison Wesley Publishing company
2- Computer Graphics, Nguyen Duc Cuong, Hoang Duc Hai, NXB Giao duc
3- Internet
www.futuretech.blinkenlights.nl/gouraud.html
http://freespace.virgin.net/hugo.elias/graphics/x_polygo.htm
http://www.graphics.cornell.edu/online/tutorial/vase/
http://www.indezine.com/articles/colortheory.html
http://www.color-wheel-pro.com/color-meaning.html
44
TOÅNG LIEÂN ÑOAØN LAO ÑOÄNG VIEÄT NAM
TRÖÔØNG ÑAÏI HOÏC TOÂN ÑÖÙC THAÉNG
PHOØNG THCN & DN
READING
FOR
fashion design
Compiled by: ThS.
ÑOÃ THÒ HOA QUYEÂN
Internal publishing
- HCMC, June 2010-
45
Styles and silhoutte
Task 1
These are some neckline design variations, match these word with pictures and
definition beside
1. Ring neck
2. Henley
3. Decollete
4. Draped neck
5. Drawstring
6. Halter neck
7. Cross muffler
collar
8. Off-shoulder
neck
9. Plunging
10.
Scalloped
neck
a- A necknline with sharp V shape cut into a
round neck
b- A neckline with the shoulders bared
c- A design with a scalloped edge that forms a
continuous wave-shape pattern
d- A color that gets its name from its shawl
collar that crosses at the points and look like
a muffler
e- An open-front buttoned crew neck. Usually
with two or three button
f- A round neck without the rib knit
g- A neckline with a drape ( a loose pleat or sag
that lays naturally)
h- A type of neckline that is drawn tight with a
string
i- A strapless neckline with a deep scoop
j- A neckline where the cloth wraps around
from the body or hangs from a strap around
the neck. The back is bared
46
Task 2
Fill out the blank with the words below
a- geometric
b- shoulder c- cycles
combining
f- silhoutte
g- contour h- real
d- proportions
e-
i- interior
Silhoutte is the outside line or shape of a garment, which we ignore all __(!)
line when observing. Each fashion era presents a characteristic ___(2) that
demonstrates the style of given period in time: the length of the skirt, the width
of the __(3), the fit of the waisline and so on.
Silhoutte can obsecute the ___(4) dimensions of the body or emphasise
pleasing ___(5) of the body and create a sense of harmony. Female fashions
usually incorporate curved shapes to accentuate the more rounded feminine
___(6). Angular shapes sit more comfortably on the more angular shape of
physique. In general, men’s styles are slower to change than women’s, but
fashion ___(7) still exist in menswear. Typically, fashion silhouttes move from
one extreme graudally to the other.
Silhouttes can be thought of as basic ___(8) shapes. See if you can create
some new silhouttes by ___(9) different geometric shapes such as squares,
cicles, triangles and rectangles.
Task 3:
The basic shape/silhouttes of each garment are details created by the lines of
the style. Style lines may be created by seams, tucks, appliques, pleats, rows of
buttons, lapels and wall waistbands and hem-lines. The four basic line
directions are horizontal, vertical, diagonal and curved.
Understanding the relationship between the lines of a garment and the shape of
your body will help you create flattering illusions.The eye looks in the
direction of lines: horizontal lines make you look across; vertical lines make
you look up and down. For example, observe how different a figure can look
just by how a jacket is worn. When the jacket is worn open, it crates two
vertical lines that make you look up and down the body. When the jacket is
closed, your eye follows the horizontal hemline across the body-especially if
the jacket and skirt are different colors.
Diagonal lines go across your body at an angle. The more vertical a diagonal
line is, the taller and slimmer you will look. The more horizontal the angle is,
the wider you will look.
Curved lines are very feminine and may enhance figures and faces. They
emphasize the the natural body shape.
Answer the question
1- How can you use line in clothing design to create optical illusion?
47
2- How can you use line in design to make your shoulder shorten than it really
is? Or to make you look taller than you are?
Reading 2:
Following are some examples of optical illusions that can occur with various
types of sewing pattern and fabrics
A “narrowing” effect occurs with princess or A-lines making one appear to be
slimmer. Sleeveless, short or cap sleeves or tight sleeves call attention to, and
display the arms. If you have heavy upper arms or are self conscious about
extra thin arms, find patterns that won’t draw immediate attention to the arms.
Solid colors, vertical lines and narrow V-lines will highten a body contrasting
colors in tops and skirts as well as big bold prints, will shorten it.
Raglan and dogman sleeves will narrow the shoulder while wide collars and
padded shoulders give the illusion wider shoulders.
A fabric that clings to the body can give a skeletal impression on too-thin
boday parts. However, around bulges, the clinging fabric can create cruel ,
framing shadows. A more loosely woven fabric will be kinder to the thin or
thick areas.
Madarin, turtleneck or scarf-tied collars, chokers and fussy necklines can
shorten an already short neck, but be beneficial to the long one
A jabot, splashy or bold prints, round and low necklines, or long ties on a scarf
make busts look larger. Hips will seem to increase in girth with tight or full
skirts and with trimmed skirts. The A-lines or princess style skirts will create a
more slimming appearance.
Figures appear rounder and fuller in double breasted jackets and blouses, in
large prints and plaids and full skirts.
Waist seem to expand with wide or conspicuous belts or buckles or with bulky
or stiff fabrics. Dresses with several rows of elastic sewn at the waistline will
appear to thicken the waist and shorten your height, while semi-fitted dresses
with V-line designs and A-line skirt will give a thinner and taller appearance.
It takes a cool head to pass up a gorgeous fabric or attractive pattern by
allowing past experiences to come to mind and realize that similar choices had
proven disppointing. Not all fabrics and paterns are suited to every body type,
therefore it is up to each one of us to determine what will work for our
particular body type. With the wide variety of fabrics and patterns available,
there will be a very large selection to choose from, even though we are making
a conscious decision to eliminate those few that really won’t work for us.
Read the text and fill out the table below
No.
Body type
Should
Shouldn’t
48
Garment and accessories
Ever wanted to spice up your wardrobe but haven’t had the funds to do so?
The perfect accessory can add an alternative to the spicing up of your outfit. A
sparkle here, a handbag and a pair of gorgeous shoes for those pretty little feet
of yours will make your look complete.
But there is one simple rule that do not over-accessorise, you will end up
looking like and overdressed Chrismas tree. Choose one or two bold piece and
keep the rest to a minimum.
Every girl needs a handbag to pile all the ever-important things like the lip
balm, the cell-phone and the wallet. Not only is the handbag a practical
accessory it can also be a stylish one and comes one and comes in an array of
shapes and sizes and colours and fabrics. Choose a clutch or an over the
shoulder bag for the glam look or a funky retro satchel for a more casual look.
Shoes glorious shoes, everybody needs them
everybody wants them and everybody must have
them!! People say that you can tell a lot about
someone by looking at their shoes, so why not make
it your goal to impress. But the rules are simple: be
practical don’t wear your six inch stilettos to the
beach, and don’t I repeat do not wear jandals to a
cocktail party. These rules are obvious but others are not. When choosing your
shoes decide whether they will be the key accessory out of your outfit. This
season shoes are bright, very high and strappy or with pointy toes.
If you want your shoes to stand out choose bold colours, ones with ribbons,
heels, sparkles, gems, pointy toes whatever your foot desires but keep the rest
of the outfit simple. If you add to much colour, ribbons, sparkles or gems to the
rest of your outfit it will draw attention away from your gorgeous footwear and
may also scare people away, let the shoes speak for themselves. If you’re
showing your toes give your toenails a nice coat of polish to finish them off.
Diamonds are a girls best friend? Well, sometimes, jewellery
is the next key accessory for your look. Long dangly earrings
are really popular now and look great with your hair pulled to
the side or up in a pony tail or bun. A simple pendant can
look ultra classy, go Sarah Jessica Parker and wear two or
three pendants at once or try a colourful beaded necklace for a
bohemium or beach bum look. Make sure you have fun with
jewellery you don’t need to spend a lot of money to enjoy it; match it to your
outfit, wear bold jewellery to make a statement or make your own to be totally
individual and unique.
49
Belts can really funk up a drab outfit. Wide belts look great with jeans and
can be really slimming. Be adventurous and loop a scarf through the belt
holes of your pants, this is a cheap alternative to the belt and can be chopped
and changed to suit every outfit. Copy the skatey look and use chains for a
belt or even borrow grandma’s shawl and tie it around your waist.
The accessory isn’t limited to handbags, shoes, jewellery or belts. Add a flower
to your hair, some styly nail polish, a cuff or a head scarf and voila! Instant
transformation. The accessory is a necessity, a simple addition to your outfit
can totally change your look.
Read the text above and fill out the chart
Accessories
Match with
Should
Shouldn’t
Task 2
Fill out the blank with the given words
sequins
accessories
embellished
outfit
simple
complement
crystals
The first step in selecting the best shoes is choosing shoes that _________ your
clothing, rather than ones that compete with your __________.
For that reason, I always recommend pairing busier shoes with ______ outfits,
and wearing simple shoes with clothing that features a lot of prints,
embellishments or dynamic __________. It can be tricky to find shoes that
complement your clothing, without dominating or being overpowered by it, but
the reality is, it's a simple balancing act.



When you look in the mirror, does one element of your outfit stand out
more than the others?
Is your outfit too chaotic? i.e. Are the sequins on your shoes competing
with the ____________ on your dress?
Do your shoes and clothing blend together too much? i.e. Does your
black turtleneck, black pants and black booties all look like one long body
suit?
50
If you answered "yes" to any of the above questions, then the quickest way to
pull together a cohesive look is to simply try on another pair of shoes, and ask
yourself the questions again.
My first rule when it comes to shopping for evening shoes is a very simple
one: only the shoes or the dress should be overly_________.
If you're wearing a dress that's covered in _____, fringe, or other eye-grabbing
details, then nothing will set it off more than a pair of simply dynamic shoes.
But a pair of shimmery, glistening, over the top evening shoes will really add
punch to basic evening dress.
---oOo--References
1-Tieng Anh cho lĩnh vực may mac- Nguyen Thanh Yen, NXB Tong hop
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh
2- internet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collar_(clothing)#Terminology
http://www.ehow.com/how_5302536_use-optical-illusion-look-thinner.html
http://www.girlposse.com/talk_talk_talk/clothing_0804.html
("Clothing Can Create an Optical Illusion - Good or Bad!"
(c) Copyright 2004, Sarah J. Doyle. All Rights Reserved.)
http://hollyoyler.wordpress.com/2010/02/17/flatter-your-figure/
http://www.joyofclothes.com/style-advice/magazine-articles/stylearticles/design-lines.asphttp://www.nzgirl.co.nz/articles/3334( accessories are
necessity)
http://shoes.about.com/od/shoe_tips_advice/ss/shoes_clothing_3.htm
51