Specialist Certification Program
The Endurance Events
Training Design for the
Endurance Events
Specific Expansion of Training Theory Principles


Overload. Overload is a key concept in the development of all training programs. Key principles
associated with overload are the following.
o
The Overload Principle. The Overload Principle states that if adaptation is desired from
training, the training stimulus must be greater than that which the body is accustomed
to. Increases in fitness levels must be preceded by overload. Of course overload should
not be achieved indiscriminately, but through a planned, progressive process.
o
The Principle of Reversibility. The Principle of Reversibility states that if the training
stimulus falls below that which the body is accustomed, a negative adaptation occurs
and fitness is lost.
o
The Principle of Rest and Recovery Inclusion. The Principle of Rest and Recovery
Inclusion states that rest and recovery opportunity is necessary to the adaptive process,
and that these must be included in the training program in a planned fashion. The
inclusion of rest and recovery should not be left to chance, and a skilled coach knows
how to rest certain body systems while training others so that time spent in nontraining
status is minimized. In its simplest form, all training design is balancing overload and
rest and recovery.
The Principle of Adaptation. Producing adaptation is the goal of every training program The
Principle of Adaptation states that the body will adapt to any stresses placed upon it in a
manner that will enable it to better handle subsequent stress of the same type. The adaptation
process exhibits the following two characteristics.
o
The Principle of Specificity. The Principle of Specificity states that adaptation is specific
to the stress or stimulus placed upon the body. The body will adapt in a manner that
enables it to better cope with similar stress in the future, but the ability to deal with
differing stresses remains unchanged or may diminish. For this reason, it is crucial that
the training stimulus send a clear message to the body as to what type of adaptation is
desired. If stimuli serve conflicting messages, positive adaptation will occur by chance
only. Conflicting stimuli seem to create maladaptation when sent within a timeframe of
approximately 24 hours. This implies that when conflicting stimuli must be sent, they
are best grouped in separate workout sessions, in accordance with this timeframe.
o
Adaptation Time Frames. Adaptation Time Frames have a great effect on how we
design training. When the body is repeatedly subjected to stimuli of the same type,
adaptation is essentially complete within 21-28 days. After this time, adaptation is
minimal. This seems to imply changes in the training stimulus should occur periodically
in accordance with these time frames. Normally these changes take the form of periodic
shifts in training parameters. This is also the basis for the typical month long training
cycles we see in many successful training programs.
Training Parameters


Volume
o
Volume. Volume is total the amount of training done over a period of time. Volume is
typically easily measured and quantified.
o
Plotting Training Volumes. Consistent accomplishment of certain training volumes is
required for high performances at any level, and establishment of these volumes should
be an immediate goal. Temporary suppression of training intensities at the onset of
training assists in achieving these volumes. Excessive training time devoted to
progressive volume increases usually results in limited progress, because it necessarily
delays the needed progression of intensity, since simultaneous volume and intensity
increases are risky. This is a generalized observation which might not be applicable to
very developmental populations.
Intensity
o
Intensity. Intensity is the difficulty and degree of demand of training done. The
measurement and quantification of intensity varies greatly throughout the training
program, as certain types of training are easily quantifiable, while evaluation of others is
very subjective.
o
Plotting Training Intensities. In the developmental stages of training the systematic
progression of intensity is necessary to achieve competition specific training stimuli and
prepare the athlete for competition. For this reason, intensity increases should be the
primary source of overload. Decreasing training volumes, as well as creative
manipulation of set, repetition, and recoveries in training to permit the accomplishment
of these intensity increases is a critical part of training design. This is a generalized
observation, as at certain times there may be periods of constant volume maintenance
while intensity increases, or we may find volume decreasing while intensity remains
constant. During the competitive season, in order to maintain training specificity and
prevent injury, the aggregate intensity should remain high, and volumes are usually
fluctuated to complicate the training effect.

Density. Density refers to the training frequency of a particular training component or modality.
The manipulation of density is often useful when designing loading/unloading schemes.
Variance in Training

Variety. Variety is a necessary characteristic of training. Planned variances in training should be
employed throughout the course of the training program. Variety should be found in training to
some degree at all times, but at no time should variance be so great that the correct execution
of the activities is sacrificed. Variety is a characteristic of effective training for several reasons.

o
Increased Training Complexity. Variety enhances adaptation by increasing the
complexity of the training stimulus. This forces the body to adapt in different ways,
making it inherently better at adaptation.
o
Injury Prevention. Variety in the training program also helps to prevent injuries, by
avoiding consistent repetitive stresses to the musculoskeletal system.
Individualization of Training. The individualization of training is necessary, as no particular level
of training stimulus is effective for all athletes. Each athlete needs a certain level of training
stress sufficient to foster adaptation, yet not so excessive as to hinder adaptation and invite
injury. Training of lower intensity is safe for groups, but training of higher intensity must be
individualized.
General Planning Considerations

Macrocyle Planning Considerations
o
Period Distribution. In designing the macrocycle, much consideration should be given
to the proportional length of the preparation, competition, and transition periods.
Ideally, the preparation period will be as long as the competition period, but this is often
dictated to us. Generally speaking, a transition period of 4-6 weeks consisting of
diminished and informal training is recommended at the completion of the final
macrocycle of the annual plan.
o
Phase Distribution. Much consideration should be given to the proportional length of
the general and specific prep phases. Normally the preparation period should be divided
equally between the general and specific prep phases. Athletes with advanced training
ages may not require as much relative time in general preparatory activities.
o
Single and Multiple Periodizaton.
Most macrocycles use single or double
periodizational models. Single models feature one peaking (planned very high
performance) period per year, while double models feature two peaking periods per
year. Normally the preparation for the second peak involves a return to activities done
earlier in the training year. If competition will continue uninterrupted, or will be
interrupted only briefly after the completion of the first peaking period, it is unwise to
return to general preparatory activities. A return to specific preparatory activities will
maintain intensity at a level that will keep the athlete safely prepared for the intensity
of competition.
o
Peaking. The peaking process can take many forms. Most training programs keep
aggregate intensities high during the peaking period, in concert with the intense
demands of competition. While the idea of resting the athlete may be appealing,
dramatic decreases in intensity result in staleness and prepare the athlete poorly for
competition. Many programs decrease the volume or density of some or all training
activities during peaking. This may increase the rest component and enhance the
peaking effect.
o
Macrocycle Training Progressions. Over the course of the macrocycle, certain
characteristics of training changes as follows:
o

General to Specific. Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle,
training should progress from general activities to specific activities. The general
activities should serve to address some prerequisite for specific training. If some
general training activity is not addressing some prerequisite for specific training,
it could likely be eliminated from the program.

Simple to Complex. Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle,
training should progress from simple activities to complex activities. This is
consistent with the intensity increases we wish to produce, and the specificity of
complex activities.

Capacity to Power. Generally speaking, over the course of the macrocycle,
training should progress from capacity development to power development.
This means that we should develop the ability to perform large amounts of work
(capacity), before developing the ability to perform sustained efforts (power).
The use of intermittent work of any type is useful in the early stages of training
to develop capacity and prepare the athlete to exhibit power over longer
timeframes.
Competition Placement. It should be noted here that in an annual plan, the second
macrocycle should contain the main competitions of the year. For endurance running
events, this is primarily because of the prevailing theory that endurance runners can
reach and maintain only one aerobic peak a year
o

The Large Training Cycle. The concept of a large training cycle, whether it is the annual
plan or a macrocycle is an important principle that must be understood. It is critical to
have biological continuity, or a single direction, in the development of physiological
parameters in the phase, the mesocycle, and the microcycle. A microcycle cannot be an
independent unit in the training process. The theory of the large cycle will ensure the
necessary conditions for a long-term adaptation of the endurance runner’s physiology
ability to handle specific, intensive, maximal performances.
Mesocyle Planning Considerations
o
Mesocycle Purposes. Mesocycles are important to construct into a periodized training
plan because their significance lies in their objective to develop relatively permanent
changes in performance capacities. Once the thematic objective of the mesocycle has
been met by the athlete, the mesocycle ends and another one begins.
o
Mesocycle Length. Most mesocycles are 4 weeks in length, but some may extend as
long as 6 weeks. Each mesocycle should include one extended planned rest and
recovery opportunity, and possibly more for longer mesocycles.
o
Thematic Training. Each mesocycle should be designed with some theme to address
specific needs. It should fit logically into some progression toward a goal.
o
Rest and Recovery. Each mesocycle should have a period of time, usually one
microcycle, consisting of reduced training demand that functions as a rest and recovery
opportunity.
o
Mesocycle Construction. Most mesocycle arrangements are of a block or rotational
theme.

Block Schemes. Block schemes are constructed of several mesocycles, each of
which has a particular theme. The themes are logically sequenced with correct
training sequences and training prerequisites in order. The chosen theme does
not exclusively identify the types of training done, but identifies the mesocycle’s
primary goals and commonalities of the various training types.

Rotational Schemes.
Rotational schemes contain mesocycles that are
composed of themed microcycles. These themes reoccur in each mesocycle,
usually in the same sequence. Themes are continually addressed in a way
appropriate to that particular point in the macrocycle.

o

Combination Schemes. Some programs combine elements of block and
rotational schemes, or use different schemes at various points in the training
plan.
Bleeding Phases. Bleeding phases are short periods of time that are used to make
smooth transitions between mesocycles when the themes of these mesocycles greatly
differ. The training in these periods can be used to introduce different training activities
and concepts.
Microcycle Planning Considerations
o
Gross Planning Concerns. There are two major concerns design of the microcycle.

Compatible Training. The effective construction of each individual session is a
critical concern. Compatible Training describes the combination of training
activities that enhance each other when combined in a session, effectively
increasing the effectiveness of the session. The grouping of certain training
activities within a session, and the exclusion of others, results from a philosophy
of compatible training.

Complimentary Training. The combination and sequencing of individual training
sessions within the microcycle to enhance the training effect is another critical
concern. Complimentary Training describes training sessions which, when
sequenced in a certain way, enhance the training effect. The sequencing of
certain types of sessions in a particular order, such as the traditional hard-easy
model for example, results from a philosophy of complimentary training.
o
Rest and Recovery Inclusion. Another part of microcycle training design is including
rest and recovery. Throughout a well constructed microcycle, various body systems are
rested while alternative ones are being trained. In this way, further rest is provided,
while inactivity is minimized. Each microcycle should include one extended planned rest
and recovery opportunity. More might be needed in difficult microcycles. Most
microcycles also include a secondary rest opportunity. These usually take the form of a
day off from training or an easier training session.
o
Microcycle Features

Changing Load Structure. The structure (relative volume of the intensity) of the
load demand changes during the cycle.
o

Differing Session Loads. The load degree differs from one training session to
the next, alternating between lower and higher loads according to the athlete’s
load tolerance and ability to recover.

Differing Session Tasks. The training sessions have different main tasks that use
either special or general training exercises.

Training Load Increases. The training load rises for as long as is necessary to
meet the objectives of the training phase.

Two Peak Sessions. A normal one-week microcycle will have two peak sessions.
The most common microcycle involves six or seven days of training, with peak
days followed by regeneration days. One of the peak days may or may not be a
competition.
Variety in the Microcycle. An important component in microcycle design is variety. The
coach should have several different workouts that address the same training objective.
It is also important to vary the timing of each component within the microcycle, on an
individual athlete basis, in order to find the most effective workout sequence for each
athlete.
Two Peak Microcycles with a Race on the Weekend (Freeman 1989)
An Advanced Microcycle Showing Greater Intensity (Freeman 1989)

Session Planning Considerations
o
Stages of the Session

The Introduction. In the introduction, the goals of the session are explained.

The Preparation. In the preparation, the athlete does the warm up that is
required for the session.

The Core. In the core, the main objectives of the day’s session are achieved.
The units must be administered in the proper developmental order and with the
desired load.

The Conclusion. In the conclusion, the proper cool down is done and an
explanation of the take-home points is completed.
o
Warmups. Planning the warmup is an important part of session design. The warmup
should be specific to the demands of the day’s activities and should progress to
intensities near those entailed in the session, and should feature high amplitudes of
movements. Typical warm-ups last from 15-45 minutes in length, depending on the level
of the athlete.
o
Cooldown. Some cooldown activity should be planned to ease the transition of the
body to a calm state. Cooldowns also serve to accelerate the removal of metabolic
byproducts. This is often a good opportunity to include specialized training units due to
the generally fatigued state the body is likely to be experiencing at this time.
o
Sequencing Training Units. Consideration should be given to the training order of the
units. After warmup, technical components should come next, followed by speed/power
components, followed by strength and endurance components. All of these types of
work need not be present in a session.
o
Pedagogical Soundness. The session should be sound from a pedagogical standpoint. It
should sequence skills in a logical learning order, and provide an environment that is
appropriate for learning at any point in the macrocycle.
o
Monitoring Power Output. In administering the training program, the coach should
constantly monitor the athlete’s intensities and power output levels during work. When
some work intensity has been designated, this intensity should not drop significantly
over the course of a repetition, set, or session. The coach should manipulate rest
intervals, distances, sets, repetitions, and exercise choices to achieve the desired
volume of work without compromising the desired intensities.
o
Rest and Recovery Inclusion. Rest and recovery inclusion is important during the
session. In addition to specific prescribed rest intervals during running workouts and
other units, periodic brief rest periods between units can enhance the quality of work.
Sports Science Testing to Determine Profiles

Max VO2

vVO2

Max Lactate

Lactate Threshold

Aerobic Threshold

Fractional Utilization of LT & AT based on vVO2 Max
Specific Event Demand during Racing

Aerobic Demand (VO2 Max)

Anaerobic Demand (Neuromuscular)

Combined Zone Aerobic & Anaerobic Energy Demand

Race Specific Aerobic Energy

Race Specific Anaerobic Energy

Anaerobic Reserve
Race Specific Energies and Event Profiling

ATP Regeneration. ATP molecules are regenerated using energy from catabolizing consumed
nutrients available to the contracting muscle cells. The energy potential in these nutrients is
measured in kilocalories (KCAL).

Substrate. There are three substrates that are consumed for fuel by humans. They are
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Of the three, fats have the greatest energy potential per gram
at approximately 9 KCAL/gram. Carbohydrates and proteins are considerably less energy-rich at
approximately 4 KCAL/gram respectively. Because of the ring design of the carbohydrate
molecule, and because it has the same hydrogen to oxygen ratio as water, it is the quickest toaction of the three nutrients. Fats and proteins must proceed through multiple steps in the
utilization process. Thus, using either nutrient is a slower to-action potential because of the
extra steps, along with additional enzymes to make it happen.

Energy Requirement. Any activity will have an energy requirement, thus nutrients will be
needed to supply energy. Physiologists have calculated the energy requirements to perform all
of the track and field events at maximum effort. Carbohydrate, fat, and protein catabolism all
contribute to the energy supply needed in the endurance events through various steps and
pathways. The body uses protein for cells and other structures that are necessary for life and
only under very serious conditions will protein be used as a fuel. Protein monomers are the 20
amino acids a human body requires and there is little mechanism for storing these amino acids.

Storage. The human body is able to store quantities of both carbohydrates and fat to be used as
metabolic fuel. As expected there is a greater amount of fat stored in the body than
carbohydrate (Figure 2) which reflects our evolutionary lifestyle.
Carbohydrates
Grams Stored Kilocalories Stored
Liver glycogen
110g
451 KCAL
Muscle glycogen
500g
2050 KCAL
Glucose in body fluids
15 g
62 KCAL
Total
625 g
2563 KCAL
Fat
Grams stored
Kilocalories stored
Subcutaneous and visceral 7800g
73320 KCAL
Intramuscular
161g
1513 KCAL
Total
7961g
74833 KCAL
Body Stores of Fuels and Energy. These estimates are based on an average body weight of 145
pounds and 13% body fat (Wilmore and Costill 2004)

Oxygen Deficit. The levels of increased acidity caused by exceeding the lactate threshold result
in oxygen deficit (debt). Oxygen debt is defined as the amount of additional oxygen required by
muscle tissue to oxidize disassociated lactic acid, while regenerating both depleted ATP and PCr
(creatine phosphate) molecules following vigorous exercise.

Calculating Oxygen Deficit. Because oxygen needs and oxygen supply differ during the
transition from rest to exercise, the body incurs an oxygen deficit even with low levels of
exercise. The oxygen deficit is calculated as the difference between the oxygen required for a
given rate of work (steady state) and the oxygen actually consumed. Despite insufficient
oxygen, skeletal muscles still generate the needed ATP through anaerobic pathways.

EPOC. During the initial minutes of recovery, even though the muscles are no longer actively
working, oxygen demand does not immediately decrease. Instead, oxygen consumption remains
elevated temporarily. This consumption, which exceeds that usually required when at rest, is
now known more commonly as: excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).

The EPOC Curve. The EPOC curve has two distinct components, an initial fast component
(alactacid) and a secondary slow component (lactacid) According to classical theory, the fast
component of the deficit curve represents the oxygen required to regenerate ATP and PCr used
during exercise. The slow component of the curve is thought to result from the removal of
accumulated lactate from the tissues. Later studies have shown this to be true, but too
simplistic. Essentially, the EPOC theory does not account for oxygen borrowed from myoglobin
and hemoglobin and high body temperatures which utilize more oxygen to maintain.
Oxygen deficit and the EPOC theory curve (Hill 1924)

Oxygen Deficit Specificity. The oxygen deficit levels will be specific to each individual’s
physiology (genome and fitness), coupled with the demands of the race distance. Low demand
aerobic activities have a short oxygen deficit recovery of less than 20 minutes; while some very
high demand anaerobic activities may need a 24 hour recover.

Event Specific Energies. Endurance events are characterized by having both an aerobic and
anaerobic energy system contribution to the regeneration of ATP molecules during maximum
effort. The contribution of each system is chiefly dictated by the duration of the race. Longer
endurance races have a greater aerobic energy system contribution than shorter races do.

Aerobic and Anaerobic Contributions. Each endurance event will demand a certain level of
aerobic energy contribution. The energy demand that cannot be met by the aerobic system
must be met with the anaerobic energy system. The level of intensity incurs work above the
lactate threshold and will accumulate varying levels of disassociated lactic acid, thus increasing
the acidity of active muscle tissue.
Event
800 Meters
1600 Meters
3200 Meters
5000 Meters
10,000 Meters
Duration
Aerobic
2 min
4 min
10 min
15 min
30 min
50%
70%
87%
92%
95%
KCAL
used
45
100
249
372
700
Anaerobic
Glycolytic
44%
28%
13%
8%
5%
KCAL
used
40
42
36
32
30
Anaerobic
Alactic
6%
2%
<1%
<1%
<1%
KCAL
used
5
3
1
1
1
Total
KCAL
90
145
286
405
730
Aerobic and Anaerobic Contribution in Endurance Events at Maximum Effort
(Astrand 2003, Noakes 2004, Chapman 2004)
Event
800 Meters
1500 Meters
3000 Meters
5000 Meters
10,000 Meters
% VO2 Max
120-136%
110-112%
100-102%
97-100%
92%
Fractional Percentage of VO2 Max Needed for Maximum Effort in Each Event
Phase Specific Training Concerns

Preparatory Phase. During this phase the emphasis is placed on laying a foundation for the
subsequent development of competitive speeds. In the case of endurance running events, the
development of long lasting aerobic strength is critical. Aerobic threshold improvement, lactate
[anaerobic] threshold improvement, and VO2 Max improvement all involve many structural
changes. Also an improved cardiovascular and pulmonary system, increases in substrate storage
and usage, and long lasting oxidative enzymatic changes occur during this time. These
developments in most cases are chronic [long term], and take a long time to bring about
sufficient or significant changes.

Precompetitive Phase. For endurance training, it is imperative that these long-term aerobic
changes continue to be the emphasis. The aim of this phase needs to also include acquiring the
capacity to perform at race energy levels near those needed for the competitive season. This
development entails an emphasis in VO2 max since most of the racing in track and field by
endurance runners is tied in closely to running at speeds above or below this energy delivery
level during racing season. It is also necessary to begin to develop anaerobic endurance,
efficiency, and capacity during the pre-competitive phase.

Competition Phase. For the endurance runner, this phase should emphasize all those
adaptations needed to perform at full race capacity. Optimal development of the anaerobic
system, relative to the needs of racing, is critical at this time. Proper volume and intensity
relationships should be a major concern. Peaking for the important competitions is the main
focus of this phase.
Differences in Males & Females

VO2 Max Maturity Differences. Females reach their peak VO2 Max in their early teens, while
males reach their peak around 20 years of age. Increased cardiac output development differs
due to the earlier maturation of females.

Heart Size Differences. Heart size is smaller in female than males. This affects cardiac output.

VO2 Max Differences. The average VO2 Max value for females is 8-12% lower than that of males;
however females are capable of experiencing the same relative increases in VO2 Max as males do.

Anthropometric Differences. Females have less body length than males do. This means more
speed and power in males, but higher angular velocity in females.

Bodyweight Differences. Body weights in females are on average 20-25% less than males.

Muscle Mass. Body Mass Ratio Differences. Muscle mass/body mass ratio is 51.5% in males
and 39.9% in females on average. This affects contractile forces and VO2 Max values.

Average Body Fat Ratio. Average body fat ratios are 4-8% in males, 9-15% in females.

Bone Differences. Average organismal bone mass is less in females than males.

Center of Mass Location Differences. Females’ Centers of Mass are 6% lower than that of
males.

Blood Component Differences. Hemoglobin levels in Males average are 15.8 gm., while in
Females hemoglobin levels average 13.9 gm. (10% difference).
Peaking

The Peaking Process. During the competitive phase of endurance training there is a dedicated
period of time which is best described as the peaking period (a.k.a. tapering period or
sharpening period) leading to a single or multiple peak racing performance by the athlete. The
goal is to make the peak performance racing sequence the statistically best performances of the
macrocycle. An approximate 2-3% performance improvement is (approximately) the most that
can be expected in endurance events from training strategy that is directly attributable to the
components of the peaking period.

Training During Peaking. In the peak performance period, training is best characterized by high
intensity work, but the total volume of training is reduced, so that athletes are rested for
important competitions. The main training emphasis is on components specific to the athlete’s
best endurance event. The training components generally focus on maintaining the high levels
of speed, power, and endurance, while further developing skill and tactics.

Psychological Peaking. Peaking is as much a psychological state as it is a physical one. The
athlete should show an intense emotional arousal during this time. This attitude will be crucial
to the athlete’s capacity to tolerate various degrees of frustration which occur before, during
and after competition.

The Aerobic Peak. The aerobic peak occurs once per year and is structurally based. The aerobic
system’s oxidative enzymes, and structural components, must be stimulated once every three
days (72 hours) to remain elevated. This may be the answer to the question regarding the
ability shown for the longer distance event athletes, with less anaerobic demand to meet, to
hold their fitness longer. It also may give us the answer to why it is possible to have multiple
anaerobic peaks, as long as there is just one aerobic peak in an annual plan. Despite what the
endurance coach and athlete may desire, the human genome has the ability to only form one
long aerobic peak once annually.

The Anaerobic Peak. The anaerobic peak can occur many times per year and is biochemically
based. Key physical adaptations occurring from anaerobic training is the increase in the volume
and activity of the anaerobic enzymes, and their substrate availability. The reason for this
seemingly short-term peak could lie in the fact that glycolytic enzymes will remain elevated for
up to two weeks while unloading during the peaking phase. However, by stimulating the
anaerobic system with capacity work, in the form of repetition runs every three days, multiple
anaerobic peaks can be maintained over an extended period of time.

VO2 Max. Another physiological parameter of endurance training to examine is the progressive
VO2 max values that are achieved through systematic aerobic capacity training done at date pace.
This value increases moderately for a time as a response to training during the preparatory
phases, and then increases dramatically as a response to further specific aerobic capacity
training during the competition phases at date pace.

Factors Influencing a Peak Performance

o
High Working Potential
o
Quick Rate of Recovery
o
Accomplished Technical Skills
o
Overcompensation
o
Unloading
o
Recovery
o
Motivation, Arousal, and Relaxation skills
o
Neuromuscular Freshness
Planning the Peaking Period
o
Training Methodology Changes

Switch from efficiency work to capacity work

Change from interval runs to repetition runs
o


Decrease in total volume throughout the workout plan

Conceptually moving from the precompetitive training phase to the
competitive training phase.
Adjustment of the Training Load. During the peaking period, there should be a marked
decrease in overall training volume to 50-70% of previous levels. Training intensity is
elevated to higher levels than before the peaking period. Higher training frequencies
seem to be necessary to avoid detraining in the highly trained endurance athletes;
however, training-induced adaptations can be readily maintained with very low training
frequencies in moderately trained endurance athletes. These adjustments are
summarized below.

Slightly increased training intensity

Reduced overall training volume to 50-70% of previous levels

Maintained training frequency at about 80% of pre-peak period number
Physiological Changes During the Peaking Period
o
Cortisol Production Decreases
o
Testosterone Secretion Increases
o
Testosterone/Cortisol Ratio Increases
o
Erythrocyte Volume Increases
o
Hemoglobin Concentration Increases
o
Hematocrit Percentage Increases
o
Erythropoietic Tendency Increases
o
Complete Maturation of Erythrocytes Increases
o
Total Oxygen Carrying Capacity (Per ml. Blood) Increases
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