The advantages and disadvantages of keeping captive-bred and
wild-caught exotic pets
By Zoe Demery, PhD
[email protected]
In the past few years, keeping exotic animals as pets has become much more popular, as a
range of species is now available and, with technological advances, the means for keeping
them has become easier. There are several ethical issues involved with keeping exotic
pets, not least of which is how to meet their complex health and welfare needs in our
homes. Nevertheless, if these needs are met, exotic pet keeping can in fact benefit many,
at the ecological, societal, and individual level.
What are exotic pets?
Exotic pets are any species not originally from the country where they are kept as pets.
These aren’t just unusual animals, like corn snakes, or capuchin monkeys, but they also
include: different aquarium fish like goldfish; various rodents, such as hamsters or guinea
pigs; and birds, like budgies or canaries. Some say exotic pets are basically anything that
is not a dog, cat, or horse, i.e. any species not domesticated. However, it is hard to
distinguish between species that are 'wild' and those that are “domesticated”, as there are
several animals somewhere in between the two (Bays, Lightfoot, & Mayer, 2006; Tynes,
2010). Although cats are thought of as domesticated, there are many cats that are feral.
Let’s consider two contrasting examples: the pet dog
and the pet parrot. For thousands of years, we have
been selectively breeding dogs, so much so that
today these animals look, think, and behave very
differently from their wild ancestors. Whereas
parrots have been kept as pets in the UK for only the
last couple of hundred years, until relatively recently
many were still being imported from their native
countries. This means captive parrots behave much
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like their wild counterparts, with most of their instincts, such as those geared towards
avoiding predators, very much at the forefront of their minds (Demery, 2013).
Where does the APBC stand on keeping exotic pets?
The APBC is primarily concerned with counselling
owners about their pets’ behaviour problems,
which also includes promoting the psychological
well being of exotic species in captivity. There are
a variety of avenues for acquiring an exotic animal
as a pet, both legal and illegal, which impacts
upon the individual, the species, the environment,
and the local community. Nonetheless, the APBC
believes that once in captivity, by whatever route, every pet has a right to the best
possible welfare and understanding. APBC members are here to listen to your concerns in
a completely confidential and non-judgemental manner. Their aim is to help you and your
pet.
Where do exotic pets come from?
The key to success for keeping an exotic animal as a pet is to consider not only the
environment they’re kept in, but also their individual temperament, species, where they
came from, and how they found their way to you, the pet owner (‘caregiver’). Exotic pets
have usually either been caught directly from the wild and then imported to the country
of purchase, or they are bred in captivity.
While more and more exotic pets are coming from
captive-bred sources, the UK in 2010 for instance
imported over 36,500 CITES reptiles, 42% of which
were wild-caught or kept in very large fenced-in areas,
known as “ranches” (de Volder, 2013). There are
international treaties in place to regulate world trade
of threatened species, such as CITES (the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). Movements are
underway to further address any legal gaps in conservation, disease control, and animal
welfare (Engler & Parry-Jones, 2007).
“Captive-bred” animals can in fact come from a wide range of sources (Diamond, 2002).
Two terms coined of late are “captive-farmed” and “captive-hatched” pets (Enge, 2005).
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The latter is generally where wild-caught animals, such as lizards or snakes, have lain eggs
after capture, then their offspring are raised in captivity. When an animal has been bred
on a “farm”, generally this is in its native country, but it is born into captivity. Caregivers
(pet owners) should be aware that with endangered species like sturgeon fish, deliberate
mislabelling on occasion has occurred in an attempt to get around export regulations on
CITES-listed species – i.e. “farmed” sturgeons could in fact be wild-caught (Pikitch,
Doukakis, Lauck, Chakrabarty, & Erickson, 2005).
Captive-bred exotic pets are increasingly being bred in their country of purchase,
including various birds like zebra finches and many reptiles like leopard geckos (Praud &
Moutou, 2010). They may still be traded between countries, such as between the UK and
the USA. These animals tend to come from smaller-scale breeders, as opposed to farms,
but actual numbers and the conditions in each source vary greatly.
Are concerns about wild-caught exotic pets justified?
Regardless of the individual animal or species, concerns have been raised about collecting
animals from the wild. The practice for some exotic pet species is known to have had an
impact not only upon the biodiversity of that particular species, but also on other species
living in the same habitat and those that depend upon them. Tropical reef fish are often
caught by first stunning them with cyanide (Rubec et al., 2001). This can also kill nontarget fish, shellfish, and larvae, thus causing knock-on effects for entire food chains.
Another practice with similar effects involves blasting coral reefs with dynamite, but
nowadays many locals can actually make more money from hand-capture (Raymundo,
Maypa, Gomez, & Cadiz, 2007). This limits the effects on the wider habitat at large.
Wild-caught pets can sometimes further impact on the natural environment of the country
they are being transported to (Genovesi, Carnevali, Alonzi, & Scalera, 2012). The house
finch is found in the wild throughout North America, coming
originally from the release of caged birds back in the 1940s. It is
responsible for damaging several native fruit trees, as well as
various crops (Temple, 1992). However, the ecological impact of
the pet trade is not limited to exotic pets – the domestic cat has
had a detrimental effect on flora and fauna the world over. Native animals caught from
the wild local to the caregiver may make more appropriate pets. If early settlers to
Australia took to keeping the local feline equivalent, a marsupial called a quoll, instead of
importing the cat, many now extinct native species may still be alive today. While the
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keeping of cats is now highly regulated in
Australia, the quoll is reported to be easy
to keep, not very demanding on caregivers’
time and rarely stressed in captivity, as
well as being without the cat’s adverse
effects on the local environment (Oakwood
& Hopwood, 2014).
If certain exotic species are caught sustainably, their pet trade can actually help conserve
threatened habitats. This is in the economic interest of an otherwise poor local
community. Exotic bird trade brings great economic stability as the sole trade for
hundreds of impoverished communities in Amazonian South America (Gonzalez, 2003).
Moreover, zoo conservation projects are essential to preserving numerous endangered
species. Wild-caught animals can widen the gene pool of these captive zoo groups (Snyder,
Derrickson, & Beissinger, 1996). Some species, such as the crested gecko, have even been
saved from near extinction by the pet trade and captive breeders (Bauer, Jackman,
Sadlier, & Whitaker, 2012).
From an individual animal’s perspective, the stress that they go through during capture
and transport to their new country can affect their health to varying degrees, depending
on the species, how long the whole process is and the methods used (Smith et al., 2009).
Iguanas are very sensitive to environment changes and find most forms of transport
stressful, whereas wild-caught tarantula spiders are known to breed not long after arriving
in their country of purchase (De Vosjoli, Donoghue, Klingenberg, & Blair, 2012; S. A.
Schultz & Schultz, 2009). Wild-caught individuals can sometimes find it hard to adjust to
their new environment. If their needs are not met, they can exhibit behaviour problems,
on occasion, even years after they have arrived with their caregivers (Bays et al., 2006).
They are used to foraging or hunting in a very different way and often with very different
prey or food types from what they’re given in captivity. With certain species, such as
nectar-feeding lorikeet parrots, it can take a lot of effort and anxiety for both caregiver
and pet to get the animal used to a more captive-appropriate food (McDonald, 2003).
Then, again, other individuals adapt remarkably well to their new captive environment.
Exotic pets can further be greatly educational, both raising public awareness of the
creatures and their native habitats, as well as enabling us to study them in greater detail
(Companion Animal Welfare Council, 2003).
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Are captive-bred sources all they’re cracked up to be?
Farming exotic animals in their native country has a number of positive effects. A lower
strain is put on the natural environment; it aids conservation of the species, and the local
community benefits financially. Yet, captive breeding does not remove all of the ethical
concerns with wild-caught animals. Those that are bred in their native country still
experience the same transport stress, and some believe that farm breeders tend to have
lower welfare standards than smaller-scale breeders (Tlusty, 2002). Then, again, breeding
in the country of purchase does not necessarily avoid all of these issues. In the UK alone,
there are many wholesale breeders that turnover numbers at a similar level to farms (de
Volder, 2013). No matter the size and location of the breeder, conditions vary greatly with
the facilities, resources, and knowledge available.
Exotic pets bred in their country of purchase, like sugar gliders, are often only one or two
generations removed from their wild-caught ancestors (Sobie, 2010). Such exotic pets can
sometimes be more expensive than pets bought directly from their country of origin, as
the breeders have invested more in each individual in terms of time, care and veterinary
bills. So, it could be argued that they are generally better acclimatised, parasite-free, and
a lot more is known about their background (Bays et al., 2006). Care must nonetheless
always be taken when choosing a breeder, to ensure the animals are kept in the highest
standards possible.
How do you choose your pet?
As with any pet, when thinking about getting an exotic
pet, you will have to decide whether it is appropriate.
This will depend on the individual’s welfare and the
ideas discussed above. The rarity of the species may be
important and you could consider the environment and
local community both in terms of where it came from
and where you will be caring for it. You could think about whether that specific individual
would suit captivity given its history. You should ask searching questions, such as: how
long the pet could live; how big it could grow; whether it would be easy and affordable to
keep; if it is dangerous in any way; whether it could easily become ill, or make others ill;
and what specialised veterinary care there is in your local area. Unfortunately, the
expertise for providing such answers is often only sought from the seller once the pet has
been bought (Schuppli & Fraser, 2000). Advice should also be sought in advance through
species clubs and vets.
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Exotic pets often have complex needs, such as with
nutrition, housing, temperature, exercise, and social
factors. These needs do not become easier when
certain pets can sometimes outlive their caregivers,
such as with various tortoise or parrot species. You
should consider whether you can and, specifically,
how you will provide for the exotic pet within
captivity throughout its lifetime.
At a minimum, the UK Farm Animal Welfare Council recommends anyone who cares for
any animal should meet the “Five Freedoms”, which are:
 Freedom from thirst, hunger, or malnutrition;
 Freedom from discomfort;
 Freedom from pain, injury and disease;
 Freedom to express normal behaviour;
 Freedom from fear and distress.
How these freedoms can be met varies between species. Many are poorly understood in
the scientific literature, making their suitability for captivity difficult to know. Wild
prairie dogs have been extensively studied, but almost exclusively above ground (Flath &
Paulick, 1979). As they live much of their lives in large communities in complex
underground burrows, spanning hundreds of miles, there are still many parts of their lives
that are unknown. There are other species that we know more about, but we are still
uncertain about how well they adapt to captivity. The common marmoset also lives in
complex social groups and is known to range up to 5 hectares (Hubrecht, 1985). Creating
these natural environments in captivity is challenging (Keeble, 2003).
Then, again, the Companion Animal Welfare Council has reported that meeting the needs
of a small, hardy reptile is often much easier than many breeds of dogs (Companion
Animal Welfare Council, 2003). You don’t need to worry
about leaving your royal python by itself while you go out
to work all day, but you would with your border collie, and
the collie requires much more daily exercise than the
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python. At a basic level at least, it is useful to think about whether the pet is normally
predator or prey. In the wild, it is unlikely that a rabbit would choose to co-habit with
humans, as they are potential predators in the rabbit’s eyes (McBride, 2009). So, how can
we best address this issue? Wherever a pet rabbit spends its days, we should carefully
consider the design and the number of available hides and shelters (e.g. drain-pipes).
These same hides could also act as look-out spots as long as the rabbit could climb on top
of them. Any interaction with your rabbit should be built up gradually to grow their
confidence around humans and handling. You could first quietly sit next to their cage/run
and scatter some treats nearby.
We should also consider the impact upon the community in which the exotic pet resides. It
can be a hugely positive one for the whole community, as we have already considered in
terms of education. On the other hand, exotic pets can be carriers of diseases that are
transmittable to other animals and to people (Jones et al., 2008). African pygmy
hedgehogs have become popular exotic pets of late; yet, if no sensible preventative
measures are taken, they are known to carry both rabies and salmonella (Riley & Chomel,
2005). You are also faced with the concern about whether your pet could be a danger to
others in other ways like bites, especially if your animal is large, such as a Burmese python
(Reed, 2005).
Once these considerations have been made and
planned for, keeping an exotic pet can be an
extraordinarily rewarding and eye-opening experience.
Pet keeping remains one of the closest forms of
human-animal interaction in Western society. Given a
hypothetical choice of whom to be stranded with on a
deserted island, 54% of people in an USA survey said
they would prefer their pet to another human
(Avanzino, 1996). Pets have been shown to have a huge
impact on the recovery of hospital patients, including
exotic pets like bearded dragons (Bernard, 1988).
How can we maintain psychological well being in captivity?
Many exotic pet species can now survive and breed very well in captivity, behaving
amenably towards us humans and choosing to actively interact with the artificial
environment around them. However, some of these same species are particularly prone to
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Web: www.apbc.org.uk
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developing behaviour problems in
captivity (Meehan, Garner, & Mench,
2003). Parrots are hugely intelligent and
sociable animals; but, if we leave them
alone for several hours without much to
keep them busy, they sometimes resort
to plucking out their own feathers in an
attempt to cope with their feelings of
isolation and stress (van Zeeland et al.,
2009).
The key for any pet caregiver is to keep an eye on their pet’s psychological well being.
Not all natural behaviours are desirable, but pets should be given the opportunity to
express as many of them as possible (Honess & Marin, 2006). Your ferret eyeing up your
bird table in the garden is a completely natural, but not desirable behaviour. Its predatory
focus could be redirected onto an appropriate outlet like a Ping-Pong ball on a string,
while access to the windows overlooking the bird table could be obstructed with heavy
ornaments (Bulloch & Tynes, 2010).
What constitutes natural behaviour not only for the species, but also for the pet’s age and
sex, is a subject of much scientific debate (Bays et al., 2006). Animal welfare science is an
exciting field that has expanded vastly recently. New, sophisticated techniques for
properly assessing different animals' psychological well-being are being developed all the
time (Salmeto et al., 2011). This again emphasises how important it is for expert advice to
be sought before and during care of an exotic pet.
Caregivers can enrich their pets’ environment with things for them to do to prevent them
from feeling boredom, fear, and aggression, all of which can lead to problem behaviours.
Providing choice for your pet is essential, such as different forms of soils to dig into,
different obstacles to hide behind, or different locations in which to forage. Enrichment
should be targeted at the particular species and individual, then assessed carefully for
success (Honess & Wolfensohn, 2010). A hamster ball may well provide exercise, but if it
collides with a lot of furniture, or is in the presence of other animals that the hamster
would think of as predators (like dogs), the ball will have a detrimental effect on the
hamster’s psychological well-being.
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Environmental enrichment is not the only
answer for preventing behaviour problems
in exotic pets. Different species have
evolved different sensory, anatomical, and
psychological adaptations for learning
about the world around them (Demery,
Chappell, & Martin, 2011). In other words,
no matter what environment an animal finds itself in, it wants to find out more about it
(Chappell, Demery, Arriola-Rios, & Sloman, 2012). You can take advantage of this and
provide your pet with all sorts of new things and actions to learn. Snakes use their tongues
to “taste” the air and explore their
environment, thus gaining knowledge
about novel things nearby (Chiszar,
Carter, Knight, Simonsen, & Taylor,
1976). If you have a snake, you could
consider a range of branches,
substrates, hidey-holes, pools, and rocks
– do ensure that they are safe and suitable for your particular species first (Hellmuth,
Augustine, Watkins, & Hope, 2012). Also, keep in mind that snakes use territorial markers
around their home; and, if these disappear with things being changed round, they can
become stressed. So, only change one small thing every few weeks or so.
Working through species-specific, reward-based training programmes can be hugely
enjoyable for both you and your pet. They provide alternative outlets for stress and
frustration, build up confidence and trust, and help alleviate the unavoidable stresses
found in captivity, such as regular veterinary check-ups (Young & Cipreste, 2004).
Providing exploration opportunities and training can also increase an animal's problemsolving skills (Auersperg, Kacelnik, & Bayern, 2013). The training approach taken should be
adapted to the individual pet's nature and circumstances. For example, clicker-training
may not be appropriate to a fennec fox that is sensitive to certain noises.
Extensive research and careful planning are needed to ensure the specific physical and
behavioural needs are met for any exotic pet species. Whether you are thinking about
becoming an exotic pet caregiver, or are one already, seek expert advice from your local
exotic vet. They will be able to refer you to an appropriate APBC member. They can then
assess your particular situation and provide objective, up-to-date information on how best
Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors, PO BOX 46, Worcester, WR8 9YS, UK.
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to keep your exotic pet and help resolve any behaviour issues you’re both experiencing.
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to Elaine Henley and Danielle Middleton-Beck for their valuable comments on
early drafts of this article and for the use of their photographs.
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Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors, PO BOX 46, Worcester, WR8 9YS, UK.
Web: www.apbc.org.uk
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel: 01386 751151
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Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors, PO BOX 46, Worcester, WR8 9YS, UK.
Web: www.apbc.org.uk
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel: 01386 751151