KHASI MYTHS: AN INTERPRETATIVE STUDY
(Abstract)
SCHOLAR: BARRYLIA MESHA WOLFLANG
SUPERVISOR: PROF. B. L. SWEK
Khasi Culture and Folkloristics offer wide scope for research. These areas deal
with rich cultural heritage of the Khasis. After preliminary study of these two areas, I
decided to take up an indepth study on Khasi Myth and the topic of my thesis is
entitled: - Khasi Myths: An hiterpretative Study.
Organisation:- The Thesis has been organised into five chapters as follows:-
CHAPTER - 1 : MYTH - AN INTRODUCTION
This chapter is introductory in nature, where the meaning and types of myths
is defined. From the various references it was observed that the term, "myth" is
derived from the Greek word, "mythos". which means, "word, speech, story". It is
usually regarded to be an unrehable definition, which leads one to the perception that
myth is a fictitious narrative and something related to the extra-ordinary world. Later
on, myths were regarded sacred oral narratives explaining how the earth and man
came to be in the present form. Folklorists like Leadi (1972) states ihat myths try to
explain matters in 'the science of a pre-scientific age'. For example, myths try to
explain the creation of man, animals, landmarks and try to explain why certain
animals has its characteristics, why or how certain natural phenomena came to be,
how and why rituals and ceremonies began and why they continue. It appears
therefore, that "myth" goes far beyond the word, "fictitious".
It is also found that, "myths" are narratives which attempts to generalise and
explain different phenomena of nature and society. Besides, they give accounts of
gods, demons, rites, superstitions and beliefs of the people. Edmonson (1971)
observes that myths resemble etiological tales because 'they attest to the wide ranging
curiosity of even primitive men and
satisfy it with explanations of the origin of the
universe. ... animals, wild and cultivated plants, people .... their inventions and their
customs". Generally, the typical etiological taie answers the questions 'why' and the
typical myth answers the questions, 'whence' and this indicates the basis of something
on the validity of a custom. But what makes an etiological tale different from myth is
the fact that the former has an entertaining quality while the latter is considered to be
a living reality and deals with the beliefs, cultural traits and rituals of the people
Myths have many forms and themes. Some of the most important themes
include creation of the world, birth of gods and divine beings, death and the after life,
rebirth of the world . For example, there are the Creation Myth which is also known
as 'cosmogonic myth', which explains the origin of the world, the creation of man and
the birth of gods and goddesses. They also describe the modes of creation such as
creation from a cosmic egg, as found in the Pacific parts of Europe and Southern
Asia. Creation from a metamorphosis of embryonic forms within the earth or water,
creation due to the activity of divine beings such as earth - divers who dive the
primordial waters which is found in North - American Indian myth as well as the
Finno - Ugric tribes in northern Eurasia or due to the sexual union of world parents as
found in the Egyptian mj^hs.
There are also the Explanatory Myth which, explain natural processes or
events. For example, such myths tell how the leopard got its spots, how the dog got its
fiir, how rivers, lakes and oCeans are formed and so on. Handoo (1985) also observe
that aetiological myths and religious myths are very common in India.
Besides the above, there are also myths of time and eternity, myths of culture
heroes, celestial gods, kings and ascetics, myths of providence and destiny
In this thesis, the Khasi myths that will be deaU upon have been delimited to
only the creation and religious myths of the Khasis such as the myth of a
Sohpetbneng, the myth of u Dieng'iei, ka Krem Lamet Latang and the Dainthlen
and attempts will be made to examine the deep thought embedded in them.
CHAPTER - n: KA DORBAR BLEI AND KHASI MYTH
The word Dorbar literally means "conference, council, congress, legislative
council". The term Ka Dorbar Blei literally means "Divine Council". It is the council
in which ka Hukum or the Divine Decree allots certain powers to man as weJJ as to
the other creatures in the world. Traditionally, the Khasis believe that after the
creation of the world, four Dorbar Blei was held which are closely associated with
the Khasi myths It is believed to be a council where God convenes and listens to the
plea of u laiphew jingthaw and gives His decisions The concept of Dorbar Blei
have not been discussed at length by Khasi authors except D T Laloo (1978) and
R S Lyngdoh (1992) who have tned to provide a detailed account of ka Dorbar
Blei.
The first council is the council of Ki Khadhynriew Trep or Sixteen huts who
are believed to be the fore - fathers of the Khasis This Dorbar is held in God's
prompt response to the request of ka Mei Ramew for wise, honest and capable rulers
to rule the world It is here that the myth of u Sohpetbneng comes in where u
HynAiew Trep or Seven Huts were empowered to govern over the other creatures
This is similar to the Chnstian concept that man is to rule over the universe, to be
fruitful and multiply and to have domimon over every hvmg things that hve on earth
Eventually peace and harmony prevailed and so the Khasis term this penod as Ka
Aiom Ksiar (The Golden Era) or Sotti Juk (The Age of Innocence)
As the entire umverse flounshed, the Divme Decree convaied the second
Dorbar Blei, so as to bestow certam powers to u Hyniliew-Trep and to the other
creatures The animals were bestowed with more strength while u Hynniew - Trep
were provided with language and mtellect The peaceful co-existence between God
and man, man and animals did not last long because imquity sprouted out in the form
of u Diengiei thereby, leadmg the world into darkness Meanwhile, a thanksgiving
dance of all the creatures was held and it is said that the sun and the moon being sister
and brother were dended for dancing together The sun, being ashamed of the
arrogant attitude fled away to a cave, knovm as Krem Lamet Latang Attempts were
made to bnng back light, and so a third Dorbar Blei was held where a mediator was
chosen to bnng back the Sun Tradition says that after many attempts, a cock was
chosen by u Hynfliew - Trep to bnng back the hght His attempts succeeded and so
the cock occupies an important position m the Khasi religion in which man reads the
signs and symbols on the cock's entrails m order to know God's will
The fourth Dorbar Blei is ka Dorbar Laiphew Mrad (the council of all
animals) in which the vanous creatures were given their names, empowered, provided
with rulers and where their shares were distributed Traditon says that a market place
known as Ka lew Luri Lura was cilso selected for the vanous creatures Later on,
chaos ruled over man's heart especially after the dog was lii-treated by other ammals
for selling ka tungrymbai The dog's revenge on the vanous creatures became a base
of ka ksaw ka kpong (hterally meaning 'to accompbsh something good and to pray
for good fortune and prospenty') Since thai, ka ksaw ka kpong becomes one of the
religious ceremonies all over the Khasi and Jaifltia Hills to remind of the vengeance of
the dog It is performed m order to cast off the oppression of the demon and to bnng
about a lasting governance This ceremony also reminds that tyranny and oppression
cannot stand on the way to or have a place before virtue and truth and any village,
clan, raid (admimstrative unit) and hima (state) can observe ka ksaw ka kpong
CHAPTER- ffl: THE GOLDEN AGE
This chapter deals with the myth of u Sohpetbneng and the thought that lies
embedded m it This myth explains the goiesis of tfie Khasi race Just as the Hebrews
bebeve that life began at the garden of Eden, so also the Khasis regard u
Sohpetbnmg as the sacred place where hfe begaa Accordmg to the Khasi concept of
creation, Ka Jingkieng Ksiar (The Goldsi Ladder) at Sohpetbneng Peak was the
ladder of hfe throu^ which the progemtors of the Khasis could ascend and descend
daily This ladder forms a connectng link between man and God As the term,
"Sohpetbneng" itself means, "the navel of heaven", it implies that this forms the
centre through which the progemtors of the Khasis known as u Hynniewtrep began
their journey mto this world
Interpretations of B L Swer (1995), M G Lyngdoh (1982), H O Mawne
(1991) show that u Sohpetbneng explains the close relationship between God and
man It signifies the age of peace and n^teousness, the days when only the Creator
was worshipped and when God's guidance was very important at every moment For
this reason, the Khasis refer to the age of u Sohpetbneng as the "Golden Age"
Another mteresting aspect of this myth is Ka Jingkieng Ksiar or the "Golden
Ladder", which became the means through which u Hynniewtrep made his route to
earth and vice versa. Perhaps the word 'ksiar' (gold) is agglutmated to the word
jingtaeng in order to explain the value of the relationship between God and man
which IS as precious as gold It is the covenant which bmds man and God upon the
foundation of truth, righteousness and oneness According to S S Sawian (1994)
u Sohpetbneng and ka Jingkieng Ksiar are not stnctly associated with the Golden
Age alone but they also reflects the spiritual attachment which bmds man with God
till the present day He believes that u Hynniewtrep should bndge across to God
through the Spmtual Golden ladder whose chains include of worship, prayer and
invocation It therefore demands that man should walk along with God everyday, he
should seek God's guidance and strengthen his ka Jingkieng Ksiar or spiritual
attachment m every endeavour
The myth of u Sohpetbneng also speaks about the snapping away of Ka
Jingkieng Ksiar which H O Mawne (1991) says has caused a chasm It is here that
the distinction between God and man, the Creator and His creation, the divme and the
human is reflected Though the chasm occurs yet u Sohpetbneng stands to remmd
mankind of his allegiance to Ciod that he should uphold the covenant and forever
follow the tenets of tip - briew tip - blei (knowmg - man, and knowmg God), ka tip
kur tip - kha (knovwng and respectmg one's matemal paternal relations) and kamai
la ka Hok (to earn nghteousness)
The Khasis regards u Sohpetbneng with reverence and so members of Ka
Seng Khasi undertake a pilgnmage to this peak every year usually dunng the month
of February It is learned that there is no specific reason why the pdgnmage takes
place at this time of the year However, it was thought of that this is the nght month
for the occasion because the weather during this time of the year is quite pleasant and
also because it is an off season for the cultivators The purpose for holdmg the
pilgrimage is to seek God's gmdance and pray for the well bemg of u Hynniewtrep in
every hearth and home, for peace and prosperity m the land of u Hynniewtrep and
also worldwide Invocation is also made for good health both m body and mmd, nch
harvesting of crops, understanding ancient wisdom and attaining modem knowledge
CHAPTER - IV: POST GOLDEN AGE
This chapter is divided mto three sections as follows Section I: U Diengiei And Khasi Thought
Like the myth of u Sohpetbneng, u Diengiei too has a meaning of its own
The purport of this myth is to explain the dark age which occured after the age of u
Sohpetbneng U Dieng'iei vwth its wide spreading branches symbohses the reign of
evil which covers the symbohc sunlight of God's goodness It actually stands for the
transgression of man and shows that he has to abide by the three basic tenets of ka tip
- briew tip - blei, tip - kur tip - kha and kamai ia ka hok This myth illustrates the
impact of the symbohc overcast that became so great leaving the entire creation m a
chaotic state of mmd
The myth of u Diengiei is also the story of man who walks m his own will and
feels that he can live by himself But because of his own way wardness, H O Mawne
(1981) says u Hynniewtrep Hynniewskum gropes m the dark as he has missed that
peace, comfort and consolation which only his Maker can give He suffer both an
inward and outward loneliness and m every direction he turns, he discerns that the
world is meanmgless, vain and fertile But according to Soso Tham (1976), the
darkness which befall man was due to his own action Most mterpretations show that
ka pap onginated from man's heart which is wicked and deceitful This reminds us of
what the Bible (Jeremaiah 17 9) speaks about the heart of man "The heart is deceitful
about all thmgs and desperately wicked, who can know it"?" Dwellmg upon this
subject, Soso Tham finds that there is no other deep murky pool which is as fearful
and dark as the human heart This poet has even recounted the evils of the human
heart which leads man to the love of wealth and power and thus man is no less
compared to Mammon m John Milton's Paradise Lost Therefore, the heavenly bliss
began to fade away thus leading to the fall of the Golden Age
Accordmg to my observations, there are two factors which play a vital role in
the growth and fall of u Diengiei The two factors are - u Khia (the tiger) and ka
Phreit (a small bird) The myth narrates that the tiger licked the tree whenever man
tned to cut it dovwi The tiger is therefore taken as a symbol of evil, which entices
man so that ka pap will reign, supreme Moreover, the tiger does not want the tree to
fall and wanted u Diengiei to remain, so that he could live freely on earth On the
other hand, ka Phreit is regarded as a divme messenger which reveals to the society
the way to get nd of the evil tree She is also considered mystenous for she sends a
message that man should destroy u Diengiei. Ka Phreit is also a remmder that
nghteousness has not yet disappeared from man but contmues to speak m his heart in
order to revive mankind and lift him up from ka pap
According to H O Mawne (1981) the myth of u Dieng'iei also speaks of the
"Age of Transition", a stage of change from the evil to humility, self- dommeermg to
repentance and darkness to light This tiansition occurs because man still has a
conscience which makes him realise that he has moved too far from God He comes to
his senses after he has undergone a long spell of spiritual crisis. So if u Diengiei
sjonbolises man in all his weaknesses and faults, it also symbolises man with his
strong will power and determination to fi^t evil.
In conclusion, the myth of u Diengiei reflects the true character of man and
the greatness of God. At the first instance, it reflects the fault of man for he has turned
away from God and forsakes his position as a precious Creature of God. He commits
ka pap but later realises that he has to turn his face to God who is his Nongbuh
Nongthaw (Creator). Lastly, it is through bitter experiences which motivate man to
draw himself once again to God.
Section II: Ka Krem Lamet Latang And Khasi Thought
This myth reflects the disappearance of ka hok during the dance festival of the,
living creatures. Hence, it can be considered allegorical of the darkness which over shadowed man after the sun had fled away.
It is observed that the word Krem literally means "cave" while 'La comes
from the word sla which means "leaf". In "Lamet" the word 'met' means "solid" or
big size while 'tang'- in "Latang" means "sacred". Hence, Krem Lamet Latang
literally means Lamet Latang cave. This cave is believed to be the place where the
sun flees during the dance festival of the various creatures after being ridiculed for
dancing with her brother, the moon.
The age of ka Krem Lamet Latang is usually described as die "Age of
Gloom" because darkness has crept in due to the fact that man has fallen into 'Ka siar
ka laitkylla' meaning, 'treachery and violation of sacrificial custom'. This results a
torn life, society and home. How much so shall it effect mankind when man himself
put forward his 'ka siar' against his Maker. Furthermore, 'ka siar' leads to 'ka
Laitkylla', which the Khasis say that ill intention towards others may in turn rebound
to the transgressor himself What is seen in this niyth is that man has by passed God
and so disaster rebounds upon man because God too turns awayfi-omhim, which later
brings about 'ka phai lyndet u Blei* which literally means that 'God has turned His
back on man'. Therefore, the darkness which occurs in this age is not because the sun
has fled away but because ka pap has altered humanity and so darkness reigns over
light.
The myth of ka Krem Lamet Latang not only depicts darkness and ka pap
which leaves man in a confused state of mind, but it also explains that the chasm has
widened even further. Man finds himself in a dilemma as to what is ri^t and wrong.
This has left him in dread because evil has totally controlled him. Later man realises
that it is his own responsibility again to bring back the simfi-omthe symbolic cave
and he needs no intercessor or debator or any kind of mediator. It is here, that. Mawrie
(1981) says that the doctrine of atonement comes in where there has to be a
compensation for a previous error. Man has to stand in a manly manner and on his
own volition he has to go to his Maker. The compraisation of ka pap is summed up in
the phrase, "Ka leng rangbah u briew bad ka ap jutang u Blei", which literally
means. "Man to stand as a 'man' and God waits upon whether man abides with the
covenant or not". Therefore, atonement is possible only when man knows how to
reconciliate with God. The myth of ka Krem Lamet Latang thus aivisages the
conception that when man comprdiaids to uphold the principle of "Ka Teng
rangbah", God too wall not turn away from him and so," ka phai lyndet u Blei", v^ll
never occur.
God's love is once again reflected in the myth of ka Krem Lamet Latang for
he showed man the cock as the most suitable represoitative to intercede with God.
The appearance of the cock as mediator has enabled man to know and understand
God's wall. Through divine consultation of the egg and through the signs of the cock's
entrails, man is able to understand and receive the commands of God. It should be
understood therefore, that the cock is simply a mediatbr who helps restore the
relationship between God and man. Since man is unable to encounter his Creator
physically, as in the days of u Sohpetbneng, the cock becomes an instrument through
which man can speak to God through the various signs that are reflected in the
divination. In conclusion therefore, the cock is a humble creature and a messenger of
God which helps man in his quest for truth also a medium to discover the wishes of
God which so far has been accepted by the Khasis in general and upheld zealously by
convicted Khasi non-converts in particular.
Section - III: Dainthlen And Khasi Thought
This section deals with the Khasi concept of u thlen. Although it is difficuh
to explain the physical features of u thien, yet the Khasis believe that it exists as an
evil spirit which has engulfed the life and existence of u Hynniewtrep
Hynniewskum. Despite the fact that it is regarded as a fierce and greedy spirit, yet it
still forms part of the Khasi folk belief till the present day.
From the various interpretations it is observed that u thlen is an evil spirit
which is reared by some clans in the Khasi Hills. Traditionally, it is believed that this
evil spirit attaches itself to property and wealth. The worship of such spirits slowly
dwindled the belief and faith in God. The effect caused by u thlen is tremendous
because it also involves the killing of another fellow human being. At the same time,
Swer (1995) says u thlen symbolises evil thoughts that ruled the hearts of man. It
exists even today in the form of greed, heartlessness and material gains. This resuhs
therefore, in the decline of human values and brings about a society which is fast
degrading and not keeping with the basic Khasi tenet of tip-briew tip-blei.
So, besides the traditional belief, u thlen also symbolises evil in the form of
personal gain and meddle over wealth in addition to destroying his fellow human
being. The desire of wealth gives birth to evil like theft, treachery and taking away
precious lives. This means that a person who is greedy of weahh is no less compared
to u thlen.
CHAPTER- V: CONCLUSION
Like any other traditions in the world, the Khasis too have their own creation
myths which relate how the world began and how U Hynniewtrep Hynniewskum
came to settle on earth. To the Khasis God is the Supreme Planner and Creator and in
reality, the Khasi religion is monotheistic.
It is also observed that the myths that have been dealt with, also relate to the
close relationship of God and man, the fail of the Golden Age, an age where only
peace and harmony exists. It also reflects upon the fall of man and at the same time
how he fights to win over evil. This is clearly depicted in the myth of U Diengiei. The
myth of Ka Krem Lamet Latang also reflect upon man as God's creature who takes
the initiative to win over evil. This myth also shows how man is able to bridge the gap
which existed between God and man after the day of U Diengiei. The appearance of
the cock becomes an instrument through which man can speak to God through
divination.
Khasi myths are also found to be allegorical in nature, for within them is
embedded a second thought and meaning. For example, the myth of Ka Krem Lamet
Latang also reflects the power of humility and himibleness. Besides reflecting the
Khasi belief in evil spirits like u thien, it is also found that this creature symbolizes
envy, greed and jealously among mankind which is prevalent till today. This results in
the decline of normal values and the basic meaning of Katip-briew,tip-BIel.
In conclusion, the myths that have been dealt with are mythological stories of
the genesis of the Khasis, they reflect the cultural traits and beUefs of the people,
besides being allegorical in nature.
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(Shillong : Seven Huts
Enterprise,
Khongdup, D. S.
-
1994)
Ha Ki Sngi U Syiem, (Shillong: 1985).
Laubach, David C. -
Introduction To Folklore, (New Jersey:
Hayden Book Company Inc., 1980)
Longchar, A Wati
The Tribal Religious Traditions In North
East India, (Assam: Assam Printing Worths
(P) Ltd., First Edition, 1991)
Lowry, Shriley Park
Familiar Mysteries, The Truth In Myth, (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1992)
Lyngdoh, M.P.R.
The Festivals In The History And Culture of
Khasis, (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House, Pvt. Ltd, 1991).
MacdoneW, A. A.
Vedic Mythology, (Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1974).
Malngiang, P.
Aspects of the Khasi Philosophy, (Shillong:
Seven Huts Enterprise, 1991)
Mawrie, Barnes L.
The Khasis And Their Natural Environnnent,
(Shillong: Vendrame Institute Publications,
2001)
Miri, Sujata
Khasi World View: A Conceptual Exploration, (Chandigarh: Centre for Research In
Rural And Industrial Development, 1988)
Religion And Society of North East India,
(New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., 1980)
Mital. N.
World Famous Mythologies, (Delhi: Pustak
Mahal, 1997)
The Missionary Among The Khasis, (New
Natarajan, Nalini
Delhi: Sterling Publishers private Limited,
1977)
Nongrum, Mattsing -
Ki Dak Ki Shin U Sohpetbneng, 2001.
Nongsiej, T.
Khasi Cultural Theology, (Delhi: Indian
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge),
2002.
Puthenpurakal, J.
Impact of Christianity on North East India,
(Shillong : Vendrame Institute Publications,
1996)
Sen, N. C. Shadap -
The Origin and Eariy History of The Khasi Synteng People, (Calcutta : Firma KLM
Private Limited, 1981)
Folklore In North East India, (New Delhi
Sen, Soumen
Omsons Publications, 1993).
.
-
Religion In North East India, (New Delhi
Uppal Publishing House, 1993).
Seng Khasi ShispahSnem 1899-1999. - Ka Thup Buh JIngkynmaw
(Shillong : Seng Khasi, 2000).
Simon, Ulrich
Atonement From Holocaust to Paradise,
(Cambridge : James Clake and co, 1987).
Snaitang, O. L.
Christianity And Social Change In North
East India, (Calcutta : Fima KLM Private
Limited. 1993).
Srivastava, Sahab Lai
Folk Culture And Oral Tradition, (New
Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1974).
Khasi Poetry Origin and Development,
Sten, H.W.
(New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 1990).
Syngkhong Kyntiew Ri Silver Jubilee Souvenir, 1988.
Synrem , H. Keliam (Ed), -
Lyngkhuh Snem Ba Shiphew 1982
1992, Seng Khasi Mawlai, 1992.
,
-
Revivalism In Khasi Society. (New
Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private
Limited, 1992)
Thomas. P.
Epics. Myths and Legends of India.
(Bombay: D. B Taraporevala Sons &
Co., 1961).
Weigel, James
Mythology, (New Delhi: Kalyam
Publishers, 1993)
William, Thomas Rhys
Cultural Anthropology, (New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, Englewood cliffs, 1990
DICTIONARIES/ENCYCLOPAEDIAS/ GLOSSARY
Abraham, Jacob
A Handbook of Literary Terms, (New
Delhi: Kalyani Publications, 1990)
Abrams, M.H.
A Glossary of Literary Terms, (New
Delhi: Macmillan India Limited,
Third Edition, 1971).
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Baldick, Chris
Literary Terms, (New York : Oxford
University Press, 1990).
Bareh, H,M.
Encyclopaedia of North - East India,
Volume IV, Meghalaya (New Delhi:
Mittal Publications, First Edition,
2001).
Bars, E.
Khasi - English Dictionary,
(Shillong : Don Bosco Press, 1973).
Canney, Maurice A.
An Encyclopaedia of Religions,
(Delhi: Nag Publishers, 1976).
Cavendish, Richard (Ed), -
Mythology An Illustrated
Encyclopaedia. (London : Little
Brown And Company, 1993).
Chambers Concise 20"' Century
Davidson, G.W. et. at.,
Dictionary, (New Delhi: Allied
Publishers, Limited, 1996).
Doriand's Pocket Medical Dictionary, (New Delhi: Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 1995).
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Volume 12, (USA, 1974).
Fowler, Roger (Ed),
A Dictionary of Modem Critical
Terms, (London and Boston :
10
Rontledge And Kegan Paul Ltd.,
1973).
Goring, Rosemary
Dictionary of Beliefs And Religions,
(Wordsworth : London Editions Ltd.,
1995).
Hornby, A.S.
Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1989).
Leach, Maria (Ed),
Standanj Dictionary of Folklore,
Mythology And
Legends, (London : New English
Library, 1972).
teeming, David
A Dictionary of Creation Myths, (New
and Leeming, Margaret
York: Oxford University Press,
1994).
A Dictionary of Philosophy,
Rosenthal, M. and Yudin, P. -
(Moscow: Progress Publishers,
1967).
Dictionary of Literary Terms, (USA :
Shaw, Henry
Mc. Graw - Hill Book Company,
1972).
The New Oxford Encyclopaedia Dictionary, (Oxford : Bay Books Pvt.
Ltd., Sydney and Oxford University Press, 1976).
The World Book Encyclopaedia, Volume 13, (USA : Field Enterprises
Educational Corporation, 1972).
11
Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Volume II, (USA G&C
MerriamCo, 1966).
Others :
Eastern Panorama, Volume X, No. 6, April, 2002.
Khasi Studies, Volume VI. No. 2, 1992.
Journal of North - East India Council For Social Science Research,
1999.
Shillong Times, Volume LVIII No. 170, Febmary, 2003.
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