Relationship of Enlightenment to the
Cultural M a n d a t e f o r a Biblical View
of Education
William F. Cox, Jr.
Regent University
The benchmark of success for many Christian
schools and for Christian education, in general, is in their
very act of comparing
to the standards of institutions seen as antithetical to
of the degree to which
Christian education has lost sight of its own identity and
etical influences over
Christian education is that of Enlightenment-style
thinking. After an analysis of this dilemma vis-a-vis the
cultural mandate, a list of highly distinctive educational
goals inherent to Christian living are recommended.
INTRODUCTION
Christians, and Christian educators in particular, have recently fairly
manism for the threat that it is.
have been well critiqued and
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replaced by ideas as articulated, for instance, in Schaeffer's A Chri
Manifesto (198 1). Equally well discredited are the humanistically orien
values-free, and valuesclarification approaches that were once a seri
threat to Christian education (McGraw, 1976). Indeed, educatio
institutions noted for intellectual excellence are by nature relativ
impervious to the intellectually mushy and vacuous qualities of hu
as well as the self-refuting thinking of the modernists. Those strong
intellect llkewise rightly discern bankruptcy in the antithetical postrnod
beliefs that debunk human reason and the possibility of truth even exist1
(Veith, 1994).
But not all brands of humanistic thinking have been success
quarantined from Christian education. In particular, secular philos
that tend to glorifjr the intellect and that promote rigorous aca
thinking often have a ready audience among some Christian educators.
fact, skills of ratiocination that lead to exposure of ungodly worldvi
and philosophies are at the same time themselves a potential means tow
ungodly thinking. The natural appeal of scholastically orie
philosophies is that they share with Christian education the cultivation
supreme gift from God to humans, i.e., the intellect.
Despite their diversities, practically all the world-views menti
above would lay claim to one or more dimensions of intellectualism.
common trait of intellectual aggrandizement is captured here under
general rubric of Enlightenrnent-type thinking. Given the intellectu
seductive and seemingly compatible nature of Enlightenrnent-type th
with Christian education, its potential for influence is well worthy
discussion. The Enlightenment and the Christian scholarly classics ar
fact, generally recognized as America's two primary, yet mutu
antagonistic, intellectual traditions (Kloppenberg, 1995, p. 28).
The following perspectives characterize Enlightenment thi
promotion of individual autonomy over traditional community, favs
secularized reason over inherited authority, disconnecting of nature
supernatural world-view, the rise of methodical and institutiona
criticism, the favoring of science as not only technique but a p
epistemological method, and the establishment of a democratic ethos
Journal of Research on Christian Educa
ff, 1995, p. 8). Characterized somewhat more broadly, the
011, 1995, p. 88). It is essentially the affirmation of the role of critical
ective, however, what is to be avoided is the spirit or the motivation
d Enlightenment thinking that makes both natural reason preeminent
d God irrelevant (Henry, 1986, p. 39).
Ascendancy of human reason typical of the Enlightenment is not a
phenomenodt started in the time period of Genesis 3. Humanity
substituted human reason for divine revelation all the way back to The
knowledge was the superior of the two, it was too late. Human
e and now, to the exclusion of eternity, on the transcendence of
over spiritual values, and the glorification of American democracy
the neglect of God's holy nation (cf. 1 Peter 2:9).
CULTURAL MANDATE
Before addressing the claim introduced above that Christian
education reflects Enlightenment-typethinking, that other dimension of the
title, i.e., the Cultural Mandate, needs to be clarified. As a general rule, the
Cultural Mandate is the label given to the focus of the Matthew 28: 18-20
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dominion over His creation to bring it into conformity to His will. Variou
commentators elaborate the cultural-mandate concept through reference
other Scriptures like being salt and light to the world (e.g., Matthew 5:
16) and to the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-3 7). The gene
interpretation of this mandate by Enlightenment-swayed Christians is
it has no higher reach than that the world should be made a better place
which to live. In this way, the mandate focuses primarily on the n
order of things as opposed to a primarily spiritual orientation.
amenability of fitting biblical principles to the question of what makes
good society and a good life makes this short-sighted goal deceptiv
credible to many Christians.
Obviously, some perspective on what makes for the good life
important to understanding the cultural mandate. Enlightenment apostl
through critical reasoning from natural scientific methods and
debunking biblical revelation, have every hope-that the good life
attainable through their humanistic, epistemological approach.
educational terms, science, human reason, pragmatic morality, individ
autonomy from external authorities, and the democratic process are
central ideals to be taught and revered according to these apostles.
influenced by this Enlightenment perspective, Christian education natura
guages success via these central ideals. Accordingly, for Enlightenmen
influenced Christian educators, when these central ideals have been attain
so also has the cultural mandate as the following account illustrates.
Once upon a recent time, there was an afternoon, graduati
reception at a Christian high school. The headmaster proclaimed to
informal gathering of the current graduates the notable accomplishments
recent alumni. He boasted of a number of high achievers including o
former valedictorian who had gone on to an Ivy League school and
about to graduate, again, with high academic honors. The headrnaste
protege even would soon be employed by a Fortune 500 company to di
a new research program. The headmaster could not resist making the p
that his Christian school was exactly what Chnst~aneducation was all ab
To have a higher percentage of graduates who acquired college degrees an
rose to prestigious positions than did the public schools was, for h
Journal of Research on Christian Education
the Cultural Mandate
II
many Christians, the hallmark of excellent Christian education and,
viously, was so honored by God.
It seemed good to the headmaster that Christians should devote
ernselves to building or rebuilding a Christian America. After all, America
to be in the favored position of being a nation explicitly called by
. For instance, Christopher Columbus wrote in his diary that he was
ely led to bring the Gospel to the heathens. Early presidents and
refathers widely spoke about God's call and providential leading of the
ted States. Currently, many public and private endeavors open with
r to God and the coinage proclaims a trust in Him. Beyond the
patriotic impulse that citizens have for their country, C h r i b n s
dily, perhaps because of the above foundational assumptions, make
storation of Christian America a high priority.
However, some of the youthful listeners to the conversation were
ubled by the headmaster's comments. They too were alumni of that
stian school, even of the same general time period as the valedictorian.
ike that valedictorian, they had recently completed a church-sponsored
to South America. While these students were on this volunteer trip
re each one had to raise hislher own financial support, several hundred
genous people had accepted the Lord as Savior. While there, these
golunteers were also able to erect the outer shell of a church building in
ch the new believers could worship God.
Not at all in a haughty, proud, or arrogant way, these young alumni
were wondering where their mission trip fit into the scheme of importance
luded to by their headmaster. While the headmaster was filly aware of
s trip and its results of eternal consequence, obviously it was not part of
what he envisioned as a notable result of Christian education. (End of a
The above example is a typical representation of how Christians
sometimes think about the purpose of Christian education. That is,
Christian education often focuses on the goal of equipping Christians for
"ng
a positive impact on society supposedly for the glory of God but as
+judgedby secular standards (cf. Bright, 1953). The rationale for this
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Spring 2000, Vol.9, No. I
12
of Genesis 1:26,28 and the Matthew 28: 18-20 message regarding m
disciples of all peoples.
Scriptural foundations notwithstanding, the thesis of this pap
that Christian education, in general, and education for the cul
mandate, in particular, is negatively influenced by Enlightenmentthinking as typified by the headmaster.
ENLIGHTENMENT-INFLUENCED CHRISTIAN EDUCATTO
Any suggestion that Christian education is infused
Enlightenment ideas is sure to arouse disagreement if not defensi
andlor closed-minded rejection on the part of those invested in Chri
education. Hopefilly, the facts speak for themselves.
As a starting point, recall the headmaster's position in
graduation-ceremony example. The headmaster's proclam
emphasized the Enlightenment orientation of success in the k r a l
for the material good of the individual student as well as for the g
good of society. The implication was that as graduates from Chri
schools succeed in making valuable contributions to society, Chri
education will be vindicated as the superior approach to education.
additional assumption would seem to be that as Christian ed
vindicated and therefore validated, so too will Christianity be vali
thus more unbelievers will be led to enter into Christianity.
Manifest Purpose of Christian Education
A number of accounts about the purpose of Christian edu
emphasize an Enlightenmentdriven, material-success-in-the natural-w
the love of learning, the transmission of the culture onto th
generation, and the development of the students' intellectual capa
social sensitivities, and social responsibilities. Kroll (1991) li
Journal of Research on Christian Educa
lopment for comfortable lifestyles rather than for developing
st-like character for evangelizing the world.
While most other spokesmen for Christian education do not
an and secular education, too many fail to capture the real difference
the two kinds of education, particularly in terms of their pragmatic
1 life, positively contributing to society, and convincing others of the
Significantly, two segments of the Bible that stand as the epitome
us' teachings to His disciples. In sum, Christian education is, by and
e, a reflection of the Enlightenment view of the cultural mandate!
The upshot of this kind of thinking is what could be called a
&'ring 2000, VoI.9, No. 1
their biblical foundations by an almost pathetic yearning to
academically respectable. The effects of this competitive process are
Johnson (1995) notes: Christianity and Christian education have becom
"a spiritualized version of enlightenment rationalism in which natu
science has claimed sole authority to describe reality, progress has cla
the role of God, and social reform has claimed the status of salvation
52). Willard (1998, p. 214) claims that Christians "are dominated by
essentially Enlightenment values that rule American culture: pursuit
happiness, unrestricted freedom of choice, disdain of authority.
prosperity gospels, the gospels of liberation, and the comfortable sense o
'what life is all about' that fills the minds of most devout Christians in
circles are the result."
Enlightenment-style Motivations
The need to demonstrate to the world the superiority of thinki
Christianly may be motivated by the pride of wanting to be right and ev
be admired by the non-believing, if not also, the believing world. Thi
tendency to want to prove to the world that Christians can be excellent
education may also reveal a defensiveness regarding the inadequacy
Christianity-obviously not a biblical response. That this sense
insecurity exists is verified through recent articles that consequently u
Christian educators/scholars to operate unabashedly from a Chri
perspective (Marsden, 1997; Plantinga, 1984). Biblical injunctions
developing the Christian mind (e.g., Romans 12:1-2; Timothy 2:
include the goal of proving its correctness to the world in order to
personally right or because God is incapable of defending His truths.
An even more basic issue relates to the priority that the Wor
God places on making the world a better place in which to live. Th
Scripture suggests that social improvement is not to be a primary, dire
targeted goal but instead a by-product of pursuing higher priority goals-e
being in personal obedience to the Lord (cf. 1 Corinthians 6: 1-6) and 1
by the spirit (Galatians 5: 16). In other words, actions such as being
and light (Matthew 5: 13-14), emulating the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:
and doing justly and loving mercy (Micah 6:8) are not done because
Journal of Research on Christian Education
iety's needs but because God commands it (cf. Hauerwas & Willimon,
As already mentioned, the primary or high-placed motivation to
onstrate the superiority of Christian thinking is that Christians too
kingdom was not of this world (John 18:36) and His methods were not
world's (Isaiah 55:8-9). Scripture even warns against attempting
well-intentioned educational effort be it a program of Christian
s, a biblical-principle approach, a character-formation emphasis, or
Another dangerous predicament for Christians in giving
ral-mind answers to spiritually based questions is the subtle reframing
ns from a natural-mind perspective. That is, society's need for
eaningfbl answers is framed by its own natural-mind orientation to what
But since the world doesn't even admit to its ultimate need
orinthians 2:14; 2 Corinthians 4:4), to answer the world solely
rding to its perceived need is to risk putting the focus in the wrong
. Additionally, the very nature of the question about the relevance of
this current scientific age (cf. Bush, 1991) automatically frames
way Christians should answer. That is, questions framed from a
ralistic orientation invariably call for temporal, Enlightenment-oriented
Whenever Christians use the methods of the world instead of
ods, they already will have lost (Thomas & Dobson, 1999).
as Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels is reported to have
Spring 2000, Vo1.9, No. I
16
said, "Even if we lose, we shall win, for our ideals will have penetrat
hearts of our enemies" (cited in McGrath, 1995, p. 170). Thus
Christian education, the natural world wins as soon as Christians focu
natural methods more intently or to the exclusion of spiritual methods.
Enlightenment Summary
In summary, the Enlightenment orientation has contaminated
major distinctives of biblical truths. First, it has made the preeminen
the natural world the content focus for Christian education Succes
thereby defined via the noble goal of achieving the good societ
conceived in natural, materialistic terms. Second, the metho
convincing people of the truth of the Gospel is equally Enlighte
oriented. All the while that God says that it is the heart that has to
regenerated a s an internal-to-external dynamic, Christians
Christianeducation efforts regularly make the mistake of trying to ref0
only external behaviors. And further, the natural cause-and-e
paradigm prevails instead of the more powefil and biblically recornmen
spiritual cause-and-effect paradigm such as that implied in Matthew 6
Scriptures addressing this issue make God the ultimate cause of ch
which may in large part be related to the obedience of His people (
Chronicles 7: 14).
CULTURAL MANDATE REALITIES
Contrary to Enlightenment-oriented thinking, Christians are
primarily responsible to improve the world but to reflect Chris
participate in adding citizens to God's kingdom, and to disciple the
kingdomcitizenship responsibilities (Bright, 1953). In agreement
Chesterton's (1910) claim that the "Christian ideal has not been tried
found wanting, it has been found difficult and left untried" (p. 48),
position stated herein is that Christians leave it untried by reinte
Christianity to their own ends. Sadly, most observers (cf. Barna,
Christians and non-Christians alike, would conclude, by the action
stians, that God's holy nation does not even exist even though it should
easily distinguished (cf. Exodus 33: 16b).
The relationship of all of the above to Christian education should
obvious. If the primary focus of all Christian endeavors is that of a
rsonal and obedient relationship with God through His son Jesus Christ
d a self-sacrificing, interpersonal relationship with others, then
ation should be devoted to enabling this perspective. As these
Ionships mature, the body will naturally become one with Christ just
He was one with the Father. Then the world will be most apt to believe
17:21) moreso than by way of all the best academic efforts to so
nvince. Fruit, not works, is the key (Galatians 5:22-26). Then no
risy or duplicity of Christian "talk" versus Christian "waik" will
and thus no comparative excuse will be needed for the unbeliever .to
inue actively rejecting Christ.
To summarize, it is not at all circular to say that when the distinctives
f Christian education are lost, Christian education loses its
istinctiveness. The key issue is to reclaim Christian distinctives for
ucation. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the matter is to focus on
purpose of Christian education. As Jellma (1951) has so cogently
ressed, "Education is by a kingdom and for citizenship in that kingdom"
. 122). Crucial to this concern, Enlightenment-style thinking claims that
rld. Specifically, Christians are to be educated to be citizens of God's
In Exodus 19:6, God tells the Israelites to be His Holy Nation.
ently this was God's plan even earlier since His people, starting with
and Eve, were to bring His ways to the whole earth and to all peoples.
The historical response to this holy nationhood call was sporadic
liance fiom both an individual as well as a national perspective (cf.
f'Testament,the Israelites too often emulated the heathens and even became
18
Cox
their subjects instead of their mentors. Most tragically, when Jesus came in
human form to lead His people into a fuller realization of kingdom
citizenship, they rejected Him. With the grafting in of the Gentiles, the
Holy-Nation command was again repeated (1 Peter 2:9).
A major purpose for holy-nation status is to demonstrate the life of
Christ to others for both sanctification and salvation purposes. Yet
contemporary research shows a relatively unsuccessfbl record in this
regard. Christians are generally as frequent in their practice of immoral
and dysfbnctional behaviors (e.g., divorce) as non-Christians (cf. Bama,
1993). Further, Christians are often perceived as hypocrites regarding what
they say versus what they believe. Christians are to be educated to be
citizens of God's Kingdom first and then qualified, rather automatically, to
fbnction in the cultures of this world (Willard, 1998). Yet the evidence
suggests that Christians are not being successfully educated to live
consistent with the expectations of holy nation citizenship.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
In spite of the warning not to emulate the secular world, Christians
can learn a lesson from it. Consider, for instance, the purpose behind the
civiceducation curriculum, CIVITAS (Latin for the infrastructure and
values of an organized community), which is currently being distributed by
the National Council for the Social Studies.
The purpose of CIVITAS is no less than to formulate a
coherent and defensible conception of citizenship. . . . The genius
of CXVITAS is that it deliberately seeks to define the meaning of
citizenship in American democracy and outlines the civic values,
the civic knowledge, and the civic skill that American citizens need
to possess in order to live up to the ideals of democratic
constitutional government. (Butts, 1993, p. 33 1)
Christians should be about the same business in terms of
Journal of Research on Christian Education
und in God's word. The Beatitudes (Matthew 5-7) and the love chapter
orinthians 13:1-7) epitomize these citizenship requirements.
An expectation shared by both the secular nation and the holy
attainment of national goals. The successfU1 accomplishment of
. As Jesus demonstrated (John 8:28-29), God's work gets done by
is (cf. Romans 12). Thus education for character formation is needed
Love. Christian education without charityxhristlike love--is
lly flawed. Possession of all knowledge and the ability to fathom all
steries is incomplete, no matter how academically admirable, unless
Sermon on the Mount. Christian education can hardly be called
-,Christianwithout a prime focus on the ethical standards that Jesus gave to
::,Hisdisciples (cf. Willard, 1998). A summary of these expectations--the
: Beatitudes and accompanying Similitudes-are often called the Christian
ing 2000, Vo1.9,No. 1
Manifesto or Christian Magna Carta. These teachings of Jesus a
considered the capstone ethical standards to which all Christians are
d o r m (Hamson, 1987). While at times they are couched in hype
they are attainable only at a great price and not without the power o
Holy Spirit. Even so, such teachings as do not resist an evil person, go
extra mile, do not be angry with your brother, rejoice in persecution, lo
your enemies, and be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect all stand
great need of understanding and cultivation within the Christia
community. More than the exception, they should be the norm. In fact
the Beatitudes indicate, those who hunger for this kind of righteousness
blessed-yet
little is known about how to instill both the hunger and
action. Regrettably, after some 2,000 years Christian educators ar
basically unable to give sound, tested advice in this regard! This does n
bode well for those responsible for teaching, as Matthew 5:19, 5:46 an
James 3:1 warn.
History. All history revolves around the Church and it
predecessor, Old Testament Israel; Christian education should be focus
accordingly. History is both a description and an interpretation of the p
which was started (Genesis 1:1), is guided (Acts 17:26), and will
concluded by God (Acts 1:7). The study of history should start at the t
of Adam and Eve and move forward to the development of nations and
interaction of nations throughout time (cf Hall, 1975; Marshall & Manu
1977; Sauer, 1994). Such a study of the history of God's holy nati
should be at least of the same priority as the history of worlhl
geographical units.
Human nature. Clearly the most important issue in life relat
submission and obedience to God. The study of human nature fiom
dynamic obviously is essential for Christian education. Moreover, the s
of human nature should be closely linked to the study of history. After
it is the interaction of God and mankind that actually determines
unfolding of history (Acts 17:28). Thus, human nature should be stu
primarily fiom an orientation of how and why individuals historically
(e.g., Ruth) or did not (e.g., King Saul) fit into God's ways and th
consequences that resulted fiom personal decisions. Lessons fiom this type
study of human nature could have eternal as well as practical
ficance rather than having only theoretical import (Menninger, 1973;
Bible study. By definition, education that is Christian has to be
biblically (Haycock, 1993). To properly understand mankind, not
mention all of life, one has to have a good understanding of God and His
rightly to study His word to show themselves approved by God
y 2:15). Further, if the Word of God is the guidebook for all of
omans 15:4; 2 Timothy 3: 16), then it needs to be interp;eted
ctly (2 'Timothy 2:14). Obviously, to be a proper citizen of the
dom calls for the possession of hermeneutic and exegetical skills
sary for correctly interpreting the Word of God (Whitney, 1994).
Apologetics. Christian education should equip students to be able
give a ready, reasonable defense of the Gospel in order to make and build
eat Commission (Matthew 28:18-20) charges Christians to add new
ilities in communication. Rhetoric, logic, persuasive but gentle speech
er skills, need to be mastered to fblfill this charge. While one would not
elittle communication skills typically thought important, one must
cognize that any skill that contributes to eternal things ultimately is far
re important to master.
Spiritual warfare. Disciples of Christ need to be thoroughly
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Spring 2000, El.9,No. 1
cox
understood. Even the angels tread cautiously in this matter,
demonstrated in both Jude 9 and Daniel 10.
Performing arts. The Bible clearly implies that Christians need
be able to worship God excellently. The highest purpose for the perfo
arts thus would be to praise and bring glory to God. This includes dan
(Psalms 149:3), song (Psalms 30:4, 147:1), and instrumental worship
(Psalms 985; 150:3-5). In fact, God actually sings and dances over Hi
people (Zephaniah 3: 17). Each person should be skilled in one or more o
these areas, but not just for self-pleasure or public entertainment (c
Erickson, 1989; Wilson, 1989).
Language arts. Certainly, Christian education must develop sk
in the use of words, including The Word (Byrne, 1977; Percy, 1980). N
only is language the prime medium of idea transmission, it is the prima
instrument by which spiritual power is exerted (cf. Matthew 17:20
Literacy in the spoken and written word is essential for the proper exerci
of temporal and spiritual responsibility. Accordingly, Jesus, as the Word
God (John 1:1, 14), is known by abiding in Him and, by extension,
Word (John 15:7). This is known when one is literate.
In the true meaning of literacy, language-art skills must go beyond
such mechanics as sequencing and decoding. Instead, communicative
competencies of reading, writing, and speaking coupled with wisdom and
thinking skills are the rightful hallmarks of literacy attainment. Throu
literacy the Gospel message is presented in an orderly and cogent manne
Christians can even think God's thoughts after Him and read His love lette
to them when they are literate.
Languages. The commandment to take the Gospel to all peop
(Matthew 28: 18-20) has direct relevance for Christian education. Among
other things, Christians need to learn languages of various people groups
whom they plan to induct into the nation of God. Until one knows which
target group he or she will evangelize, one may find a solid grounding i
foundational language like Latin would be the best way to prepare to lea
a specific language in the future. Furthermore, a knowledge of Greek an
Hebrew to gain a better understanding of biblical texts (Rushdoony, 198
would be invaluable to those preparing to be citizens of God's Kingdom.
Journal ofResearch on Christian Education
.'.
Obviously, one can hardly separate some of these goals. For
are others for His Kingdom.
Stewardship. Since God calls Christians to be good stewards (e.g.,
le of the talents, Matthew 25: 15-30), Christian education must teach
nts to be good managers of God's resources for His glory (Blue, 1991;
alachi 3:8-12; Luke 11:42) and giving and would orient students to a
sibling brothers and sisters, then personal resources need to be shared
members of His holy nation (cf. Acts 2:45). Furthermore, one's
ources-time, truth, talent, and even the soul and body, as well as
ial resources that God has entrusted to each person. The interaction
ble of the shrewd manager (Luke 16) is a lesson worthy of study in its
Social studies. A distinctive of Christianity, and thus of Christian
do unto you (Matthew 7: 12); looking after orphans and widows in
ew 5:31-32); rejoicing in persecution because one is a Christian
ew 5:12); turning the other cheek, going the extra mile (Matthew
9-42); not resisting an evil person (Matthew 5:39); loving and praying
atthew 5: 14); and counting all trials as joy (James 1 :2-3).
While apologetics and other skills are essential for good
24
communication, the persuasive power of these skills ultimately is rooted '
the character of the persuader. For an argument to be convincing,
demeanor and character of the persuader must be in agreement with
message. These "social study" tenets make the messenger and the mess
uniquely compatible and thus highly persuasive and unselfishly authent
Discipleship. The essence of being a Christian, and thus the
of Christian education, is that of being a disciple of Christ. This cat
includes practices that have come to be known as spiritual disciplin
(Foster, 1988; Willard, 1988). They include two categories of expressi
active expressions such as prayer, and abstinence expressions such
chastity. A thorough knowledge and masterful practice of these
essential to kingdom living. Like all the other areas above, such abiliti
typically come by way of education and training.
life principles (cf. Robertson, 1982). By walking too closely to the wor
ways of relativism and consequence-free living, Christians have lost si
of many of the principles that govern life. Some of these "first principle
that are broader than those mentioned above in social studies include
following: forgiveness heals but unforgiveness keeps the offender and
recipient of the offense in bondage (Matthew 6: 14- 15; Matthew 18:2 1John 20:23); dying to self brings life (John 11:50; 12:25); God uses S
to discipline His people (1 Corinthians 5 5 ; 2 Corinthians 12:7); people
not really change others-He does (Proverbs 2 1:1); and normat
Christianity is a life of suffering (Romans 8: 17; Philippians 3: 10).
principles were once a part of the common core of understanding of
people; they need to be fully reclaimed.
CONCLUSION
Citizenship qualities as exemplified in Scripture-the Sermon
the Mount and the 1 Corinthians love chapter---are central to bein
hctional member of the Body of Christ. These qualities are inherent
Journal of Research on Christian Education
oting self or humanistic ways.
example, the cultural mandate is often conceived from an
ent-type orientation-Christians try to change the world for good
e same natural methods that non-Christians use. Yet, the Bible
Christians to die to self and imitate the service and self-sacrificing
ys of Jesus. This, however, is not usually the prime characteristic of the
stians walk obediently before the Lord, their power to effect change is
irnized (cf. Matthew 6:33; James 5: 16).
The point emphasized herein is not that intellectual and scholarly
uits by Christians are wrong. The point is that these pursuits have
sing immorality in the culture. But the metaphor has a larger field of
to draw non-believers like moths to a flame. Interestingly, the salt and
metaphor occurs in the context of the Beatitudes and related teachings
are quite opposite (e.g., rejoice in persecution) to the typically
ension of demonstratingthe interpersonal nature of Christ in Christians
ssing content that No11 (1987) speaks o f "Institutions of Christian
The qualities recommended here as high priority goals for
Spring 2000, Vo1.9,No. 1
catalogued. Second, curriculum/teaching recommendations regarding ho
to promote these qualities in individuals need to be identified and match
to the qualities. The latter effort is fraught with all kinds of researc
implications. Answers to the issue of how to form Christian character a
most likely to be found in systematic and extensive curriculum/teachi
research efforts.
Regrettably, the Body of Christ and particularly Christia
educators are notably lacking regarding how to optimize the developm
of a distinctive Christian character (e.g., Sermon on the Mount teachin
in children. The type of educational practice commended by Rev. J
Witherspoon regarding how to teach his very young child submission
parental authority (Hall, 1975, pp. 233-234) could perhaps serve as
pattern-I call it the Witherspoon paradigm-for character formatio
prescriptions.
It is unpleasant to claim that the Enlightenment affects Christi
education. But, the general absence of preparation for Kingdo
citizenship and, instead, the prevalence of a materialistic world-view in
Christian education bear testimony to this claim. Will Christians continu
in Chesterton's observation and leave Christianity untried just because it i
difficult or perhaps because it seemingly excites no academi
respectability, or will it be tried as the Bible commands?
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WilliamE Cox, J K ,Ph. D., rs professor and associate dean of education
the School of Eiiucation at Regent U n i v e r s i ~He has published a numb
of articles in the areas of educational policy andphilosophy His partic
lar interests are twofold: to enable educational choice without govern
ment control and topromote the development of Christian citizenship.
currently has a book manuscript addressing the inappropriateness of
government control of education.
Note: The author thanks Psyche Taylor, Gloria Ross, and Penny Wiehe
for typing the manuscript, Julian Bhebhe for library research assistance,
Chris Johnson for thoughtfil comments, and the provocative Christi
school alumni. An earlier draft of this paper was presented at the Octo
ber 1997 Minds and Souls Conference at Geneva College, PA.
Journal of Research on Christran Education