Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Population growth, Agricultural Land use Change and Implication for Food Security in
Meghalaya Plateau, India
Rabi Narayan Behera, Research Scholar ([email protected])
and
D. K. Nayak, Professor ([email protected])
Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India
Abstract
The paper outlines regional population growth and its linkages with changes in agricultural landscape and
following implications for food security in Meghalaya. Traditionally the tribal people in the Northeast including
those in Meghalaya practiced Jhum (shifting cultivation) in the hill slopes as an important means of livelihood. With
relatively low density of population and long Jhum cycles, these communities could manage their livelihood. The
situation changed drastically over the years largely due to phenomenal increase in population in the wake of
substantive improvement in health infrastructure and declining mortality. This has made the traditional agricultural
practices unsustainable. Search for alternative livelihood became inevitable. The traditional practice of Jhum is no
more considered adequate to support a large number of people due to progressive decline in the Jhum cycle that had
debilitating effects on land quality. Land degradation, soil erosion, declining fertility and harvests have a cumulative
effect on the lives and livelihoods of the people. However the change has been felt by people as one of the copping
strategies of food insecurity. The study underscores the interconnectedness of population dynamics, changes in
agricultural landscape, local food systems and food security in hill area.
Key words: Jhum, cash crops, northeast India, Meghalaya plateau and food security
Page
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important goals of the millennium development goal is to ensure
freedom to all individuals from extreme poverty and hunger (UN, 2010:12). Hunger and food
security is the output of the nexus between available natural resources, population dynamics,
level of technology, individual access to resources and food over time and space. Mountains and
hills are often regarded as non-ecumene or negative areas and are ecologically more fragile than
fertile plains (Clarke, 1990: 1; Ramakrishnan, 2001: 47). In developing countries like India, the
tribals inhabiting poorly resource-endowed areas like degraded and the mountainous regions are
under-nourished or food insecure (Swaminathan, 2006). The population pressure has direct
impact on agricultural land use and forest. Unlike the plain areas, hilly areas in India have its
own limitation in adopting intensive agriculture under growing population pressure. Under such
a situation, the tribal people who are by and large confined to the hilly and mountainous tracts
generally unfavorable to intensive agriculture have been forced to adapt diverse coping
strategies1. Commercialization of agriculture is one of the most important coping strategies take
up by a section of the tribal people in rural Meghalaya. A substantial part of the agricultural
landscape in rural Meghalaya has changed to commercial cropping. This process is likely to be
intensified in years to come. Such a change may have its own repercussions. It may alter
availability of many traditional food stuff, ago-biodiversity, land relations, food habit, food
preference, consumption patterns and people’s trust, behavior, attitude towards food 2 . The
change raises questions on the capability of ensuring freedom to all individual from extreme
poverty, hunger and malnutrition as one of the most important millennium development goal (i.e.
the Goal No. 1). The present study limits itself to implications of increasing agricultural
1
“…every village’s first concern will be to grow own food crops, and cotton for its cloth. It should have
a reserve for its cattle, recreation and playground for adults and children. Then if there is more land
available, it will grow useful money crops, thus excluding ganja, tobacco, opium and the like” M. K.
Gandhi, 1947, India of my Dream, page no. 96.
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Page
Background
Northeast region of India- a predominantly hilly region is home to many tribes. Jhum4
system in recent past was the source of food, livelihood, the dominant land use practice and way
of life for all tribal groups in hills of northeastern India including Meghalaya (Mukherji,
1975:19; Borthakur, 1992: 137; Darlong, 2004: 12; Ramakrishnan, 1993:14, 45; Barik et al,
2004: 10; Rai, 1986: 36; Tiwari et al, 1995: 75; Hunter, 1879: 162; Marak, 2010: 230; Bhatt et
al, 2007: 267). The old age practice has undergone substantial changes and modification. At
present jhum is geographically limited to relatively isolated villages in forest areas (Fig. 4). In
some places, it has emerged as modified Jhum, particularly in places with no or sparse forest
cover. Locally Jhum cultivation in Khasi hills is known as rep shyrti (in the local dialect), and
the modified version is referred to as rep bun and rep pull5. Nevertheless area under any type of
Jhum has been declining since five decades (Fig. 1).This is largely due to phenomenal change of
hill demography.
Initially, the need to change from the Jhum system to cash crops has been felt by people
in some areas and consequently they traditionally cultivated some types of cash crops. The
change diffused to the farmers of other areas in varying degrees depending upon
cultural/regional factors. The traditional cash crop areas evolved on its own as a copping strategy
to changing situations in a given socio-cultural and agro-climatic conditions of particular
regions. Further, the adoption to different types of traditional cash crops varied across the plateau
depending upon bio-geophysical and human environment. For example the Ri War region 6
adopted areca nuts, beetle leaves and some indigenous tropical fruits (Shophi, Sholang, Soyong
etc.) including citrus in Cherapunjee, its adjacent areas, and in Garo hills; whereas broom grass
and bay leaves in comparatively less warm areas. These areas are mostly located in northern and
southern side of the central plateau. The elongated region between central plateau and southern
precipitous region is the best example of broom grass plantation. Turmeric has been adopted in
some parts of the Jaintia hills. Other traditional crops which have been adopted as cash crops in
the different parts of the plateau include ginger, banana, vegetable and spices. Thus the initial
adoption of cash crop was far more location specific. Traditionally the tribal people of the area
are familiar with the crop and acquired expertise over time as compared to non-traditional crops.
These evolving cash crop systems make use of traditional knowledge. For example, male famer
of traditional areca nuts plantation area (Ri War regions) have developed expertise to climb the
areca nut tree very easily for harvest and management, whereas the non-traditional areas of areca
nut often employ labor (skilled labor i.e. labor who can climb) during harvest. Generally the
labor supply is from outside the village. Secondly the use of ‘bamboo drip irrigation’ in
traditional vine plantation is one of the best examples of the use of traditional knowledge in the
traditional cash crop system. This irrigation system is unique to this part of the country. The
potato was another cash crop, which cultivation was introduced in higher elevated areas
particularly in upper Shillong area. It is a non-traditional cash crop and was introduced by Devid
Scott in 1830 during British raj. The potato farmers of the area has innovated the methods
‘making ridges-furrows’ over time to make optimum use of the available fragile hill resources.
This method has been evolved to cope with new changing situation in the area. Much later but
quite influential change was brought by the introduction of non-traditional cash crops in rural
2
commercilisation towards food security 3 in Meghalaya plateau. It supports a high proportion
(above 90%) of tribal people who traditionally practice subsistence farming of Jhum in
manageable slopes and settled cultivation mostly restricted to river valleys.
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Area in Hec.
Meghalaya. This type of commercialization was felt necessary by various institutions including
non-governmental
governmental organizations. It is externally superimposed by institution(s) like
governmental department, NGOs, companies and other agencies through their targeted plans,
schemes and programs. Tea, coffee,
coff rubber, strawberry are a few example
examples of this category of
cash crops. There
here are significant differences
difference between these two broad cash crop systems though
both are grown mainly for sale and usually for export rather than directly consumed by the farm
household. Much like traditional cash crops,
crops these non-traditional cash crops too diffused over
space determined by regional characteristics of the respective regions. For example rubber and
cashew nut plantation were carried out in low altitude areas and in the foot hills with relatively
high temperature. These areas are located mostly in Garo hills and in some areas of northern
undulating region (Ri Bhoi region) of Khasi hills.
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
1971
1978
1983
Meghalaya 76000
76000
53000
200809
20981
Page
The change includes single crop to multi-crop
multi crop production, subsistence to market oriented
crops as well as to non-food
food crops. The change in the Jhum system has resulted in significant
decline in area of all major staple food crops with a corresponding increase
incre
in acreage under
commercial crops. The change has been traced directly or indirectly by many researcher
(Nakane, 1961: 98; Rigg, 1987: 371, 380; Kar, 1982: 144, 145; Alamgir et al 1991: 124;
Borthakur, 1992:59; Sangama, 1995: 108, 98; Ramakrishnan, 1993: 29, 32; Fernandes et al,
2005: 156-157;
157; Fernandes and Pereira, 2005: 154; Choudhury, 2005
2005: 20, 24; Goldsmith,
2006:139; Department of Agriculture, GoM, 2006: 36; Directorate of Economics
Eco
& Statistics,
GoM, 2003: 28; Borah, 2010: 121
121-24;
24; Planning Department, GoM, 2009: 236, 116; Marak,
2010: 231; Sekar, 2010:171; McMichael, 2010: 609; RC NAEB, 2010: 22; Patnaik, 2012:11,
12). But these references have thinly covered the magnitude of the change and its food security
implication in general and particularly in the context of Meghalaya. This is may be due to
excessive engagement of the regional researcher with the issues like identities, conflicts,
insurgency, and migrations
ations have been set aside important issue like food security in the region
(Hussain, 2004: 4516). On the other hand, national level researches have also failed to address
the problem possibly due to lack of data for this part of the country in general and food security
implication
plication of commercial crops in particular
particular. The best examples are Report on the State of Food
Insecurity in Rural India and India State Hunger Index: Comparisons of Hunger Across States
3
Figure 1 Meghalaya: Area under Jhum and regional concentration
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
published by M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF, 2008) and International Food
Policy Research Institute, New Delhi and University of California respectively. These two
reports have not included the northeastern hilly region in their study because of above stated
reason. Thus, the more serious question that needs to be investigated in the present research
pertains to the issue of food security in the plateau. The changes to cash crop production can be
beneficial but could also mean increasing food insecurity due to changes from multi-crop
production to a single crop production. Consequently there are many new issues have been
emerged like marketability of their produce, fluctuation in demand and price, level of integration
of markets, level of infrastructure, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, land relation, quality
of food and food safety etc. The problem could be more acute for tribal people who have no
previous experience of cash crop cultivation and the problems associated with it. The study
acquires significance in this context.
Page
Choices of time periods and crops
Acreages of five subsistence crops, eight traditional cash crops and five non-traditional
cash crops have been selected based on the availability of data and its degree of importance in
tribal food8. As the area under Jhum is not regularly published in agricultural census, thus it has
been compiled from heterogeneous reports and publication like North Eastern Councils (NEC),
Task Force on Shifting Cultivation and other published sources. The study has used two
parameters to understand the land use change in the plateau. The first parameter used four
indices of land use change: macro land use change, relative land use change, the trend of the
change and regional pattern among seven standard land use categories. The second parameter
deals with changes under individual crops categories both within subsistence and cash crop.
Further cash crops are classified into two categories i.e. traditional cash crops and non-traditional
4
Methods and Materials
Study Area
Spatially, hills and forested tracts of India are the dwelling places of tribal groups in India
(Ahmad, 2002:122). Tribal communities of northeast India are living with relative isolation in
the distant hills (Datta, 2011: 120) and spatially remote areas. They are chronically food deficit
and it produces roughly half of its requirement (Hussain, 2004: 4515; Mohapatra, 2006: 15). The
region is a frontier zone of Indian federation, geopolitically vibrant, conflict prone, socioethnically diversified and relatively isolated from rest of India. Besides, the region is also
manifested with diverse agro-climatic manifestation, rapid demographic and socio-economic
transformation and change.
Three level of analysis have been done, i.e. the plateau as a whole to understand an
aggregate picture of major agricultural land use categories, followed by change within the
individual crop at regional level. The plateau is divided into three broad cultural regions on the
basis of its regional characteristics built upon broad socio-cultural and bio-physical setting.
Further at the level of crop regime, the entire plateau is classified into different food system7jhum food system and cash crop based food system. The first two levels are used to understand
the magnitude, trend and location of the land use change. On the other hand, the third level is use
as a ground for field work and accordingly the implications were drawn at the level of food
system. Field work has been conducted across different food systems. Two control group
villages have been selected from traditional crop regime and four focus group villages from both
traditional and non-traditional cash crop regime.
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Page
CHANGE IN POPULATION AND LAND USE
Population growth
Land use/cover changes analyses are fundamental to understand diverse societal,
economical and environmental problems of any area. The change in agricultural land use is
increasingly being recognized as an overriding factor of food security in general and in rural and
less accessible hilly areas of developing world in particular. Traditionally, hill tribal of northeast
India including the tribal of Meghalaya were mostly ‘locavore’10. But the demographic change
has transformed the agriculture and food system of the plateau.
The study finds population growth as the pivot of agricultural change in the plateau.
Population growth in northeastern region of India is much higher than the Indian national
average in the 20th century and became a factor for many problems, particularly after
independence (Bhattachayya, 2006: 55). Like the northeastern region, the plateau has also
experienced higher population growth than the national average in the last century (Fig. 1). The
population density of the region increased from 10 per square Km in 1872 to 132 in 2011 per
square Km. As the carrying capacity of the hill region is much lesser than fertile plain, the most
important repercussion of population growth in the plateau was on traditional agricultural
practices and food systems. Population growth has direct impacts on decline of Jhum cycle and
debilitating effect on soil erosion, land degradation, declining fertility and harvest. It has a
cumulative effect on the lives and livelihoods of the people particularly in relatively high
populated areas. Many researchers have agreed that the rapid population growth is solely
responsible for shorten in Jhum cycle (Das, 1979: 131; Bhowmic, 1986:12; Rai, Ibid: 33; Bora,
1986: 47; Agarwal, 1990:440: Ramakrishna, 1993: 14, 58; Bhatt et al: 2007: 263). Figure 4
shows clear relation between population growth and distribution of the concentration of Jhum in
major regions of the plateau. Besides, the other non-food needs11 have also multiplied over time.
Thus demographic pressure and newly emerged modern non-food needs (where the volume is
also controlled by the numbers of people) added an additional pressure on their traditional
agriculture directly and indirectly. But traditional agriculture failed 12 to provide food and the
modern need together. This period was responsible for evolution of new cash crop based food
system as a copping strategy of food security with changed demographic situation in the plateau.
Broom grass, ginger, betel nuts and vine, some spices and fruits which were there in the plateau
but were never cultivated commercially as it is cultivated today. For the best example is broom
grass was never cultivated neither in Khasi or Garo Hills. It was wildly growing in forest (Tiwari
et al, 2008: 50) and till today, it is classified as a forest product (Tiwari et al, 2008: 49;
Kharwanlang, 2010: 136) by district councils and local institutions, though long back it has
already been achieved the status of an important commercial crop in practice. Thus population
5
cash crops. Traditional crops, defines as the crops those have been cultivated by the people as
subsistence crops9 and recently commercialized for sale. On the other hand, non-traditional cash
crops are introduced recently and were never a part of traditional cultivation. The year 1973-74 is
used as the base year for many traditional crops (both subsistence and commercial) as well as for
macro land utilization. Rationale behind choosing the year as base year is availability of data at
the regional level. On the other hand, multiple base years has been used for non-commercial
crops, depending upon the successive penetration (rubber, cashew nut, coffee and tea are
introduced in 1957-58, 1962-63, 1962-63, 1997-88 respectively) of these crops into the region.
Besides that, the base year 1973 could not used for some of the traditional commercial crops like
ginger as the data are not available for the year.
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
pressure is one of the major factors that made jhum futile both economically and ecologically,
particularly in high population areas and areas with more accessibility. The recent changes in
agricultural land use and cropping patterns have brought fundamental changes in the agricultural
landscape and food systems as well. Because of this change in the traditional food system,
system the
hill people gradually became more and more de
dependent
pendent on import food. This import of staple
started around the end of eighteenth century from the adjacent plains13. At present imported rice
took over the place of traditional staple i.e. the millets. Most of the rice consumed by the hill
people is imported
ted from far Andhra and Punjab
Punjab-Haryana region14 of the country. Interesting to
note that, this part of India does not experiences green revolution and post
post-green revolution
stages15. As the environment does not allow for green revolution, northeastern states directly
jumped from subsistence to commercialization
commercialization.
3000000
35
2500000
60
2001
30
50
2000000
40
%
%
20
15
30
10
20
5
10
Meghalaya
India
0
1900
Population
25
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
1900
1981
1000000
1961
1941
Meghalaya
India
0
2020
1500000
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
500000
2020
1921
0
Year
Year
1901
1900
1950
2000
Census Year
Figure 2 Population growth and growth of population ddensity
Figure 3 Meghalaya:
Megh
Population trend
42
40
6%
1%
38
(%)
36
93%
34
Khasi hills
Jaintia hills
Garo hills
2001-2011
32
30
1991-2001
28
2001-2011
26
Garo Hills
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
MEGHALAYA
Fig 4 Population growth in Meghalaya (1991
(1991-2011) and Jhum concentration 2008-09
Page
6
Table 1 Population concentration (% to the total) and density (persions per Sq. Km.)
1981
1991
2001
2011
Region
Concen. Density Concen. Density Concen. Density Concen. Density
Garo Hills
37.91
62
37.69
82
37.52
106
37.22
135
Khasi Hills
50.38
64
49.89
85
49.58
110
49.53
141
Jaintia Hills
11.71
40
12.42
58
12.90
78
13.25
103
MEGHALAYA 100.00
60
100.00
79
100.00
103
100.00
132
Note: Concen.- concentration
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Land use
Aggregate and Regional
The macro land use patterns at state level (Table 2) shows substantial increase in net
sown area, area sown more than once, and total cropped area (NSA, ASMTO, TCA). Whereas,
other three categories like fallow land, area not available for cultivation and other uncultivable
land have registered declined. This gives positive impression i.e. substantial increases of net
sown area uplifted food security level in the state. But the regional pattern revealed that the
increase is not equal over space and limited to two regions only. NSA, ASMTO, TCA grew
significantly in Garo hills, moderately in Khasi hills and declined in Jaintia Hills (Table 5).
Further, the regional change of net sown area is highly varied over space. It is negative in Jaintia
hills, about 37% growth in Khasi hills and unprecedented growth in Garo hill regions (more than
four times of Khasi hills region). It is interesting to mention that though the aggregate fallow
land i.e. at the state level shows negative growth, whereas regionally it declined only in Garo
hills region and increased in substantially in Khasi hills region and Jaintia hills region. The
growth difference of fallow land between Khasi hills region and Jaintia hills regions is more than
three times. Forest land has also grown but the growth is remained debatable. Thus demographic
pressure in hill regions will increases agricultural commercialization in general and decrease the
acreage under food crops in particular.
Page
7
Table 2 Meghalaya: Macro Land use/cover Change, 1973-74 to 2010-11
Change
Absolute (hec.) Growth rate in %
Macro Land use types
Forests
123254
14.97
Area not available for cultivation
-71616
-23.16
Other uncultivated lands
-59216
-9.64
Fallow lands
-107099
-33.42
Area sown more than once
25023
86.43
Total cropped area
135337
66.82
Net area sown
110314
63.55
Total land utilization
155997
6.31
Source: 1Statistical Abstract of Meghalaya 1978, p. 80 and 2Land use Statistics in Meghalaya for the Year 2009-10
& 2010-11, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, GoM, Shillong.
Table 3 Meghalaya: Relative Land use Change (% change from total land utilization of the year)
Macro Land use types
1973-741
2010-112 Change
Forests
33.30
36.01
2.71
Area not available for cultivation 12.51
9.04
-3.47
Other uncultivated lands
24.84
21.11
-3.73
Fallow lands
12.97
8.12
-4.85
Area sown more than once
1.17
2.05
0.88
Total cropped area
8.20
12.86
4.66
Net area sown
7.02
10.81
3.78
Total land utilization
100
100
Notes and Sources: 1 Meghalaya Socio-Economic Review 2003, p. 27 and 2Land use Statistics in Meghalaya for the
Year 2009-10 & 2010-11, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, GoM, Shillong. Figures in the parenthesis
represent absolute land utilization in the respective category of the year.
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Table 4 Meghalaya: Trend of Land use/cover Change (growth in %)
Period
Forest
1973-74 to 1984-85
1984-85 to 1993-94
1993-94 to 2003-04
2003-04 to 2010-11
3.71
9.97
0.93
-0.12
Area not
available for
cultivation
-26.99
-0.6
-0.10
5.40
Other
uncultivable
Fallow
land
17.94
-11.17
-6.75
-7.51
-26.90
-3.44
1.31
-9.50
Net
sown
area
3.76
11.74
8.95
29.49
Area sown
more than
once
34.71
-4.44
25.18
15.70
Total
croppe
d area
16.54
1.04
11.48
27.07
Source
s and
Note:
Absolu
tes
figures are compiled from various volumes of Statistical abstracts published by Directorate of Economics, Statistics
and Evaluation, GOM, Shillong. Figures are not available for the year 1983-84.
Table 5 Meghalaya: Regional Patterns of Land use/cover Change (growth rate in %), 1973-74 to 2010-11
Land use types
Regions
Khasi Hills Jaintia Hills Garo Hills
Forest
1.49
105.83
10.80
Area not available for cultivation
-9.72
-76.95
-16.27
Other uncultivated lands other than fallow
-35.02
16.81
175.73
Fallow lands
333.09
88.24
-67.86
Net area sown
37.91
-20.96
151.94
Area sown more than once
53.19
-70.99
121.25
Total cropped area
40.16
-22.28
145.57
Total land utilization
-3.22
8.25
15.59
Source: As above table no 2
Page
8
Change within individual crops
As mentioned earlier macro land use shows that the acreages under NSA, ASMTO, TCA
grew in the entire state in general and in Garo hills region in particular. Further figure 5, 6 and 7
reveal that the growth are limited to commercial crops and the acreages under all the subsistence
crops declined irrespective of the regions. In aggregate (state level), except soybean the growth
of all the other subsistence crops including total food grains declined (appendix 1). The highest
declined registered in maize crops (around -70) and the lowest in rice crops (around -4). As far as
the subsistence crops are concern Jaintia hills is the worst sufferer followed by Khasi and Garo
hills regions (appendix 1). Moreover the areal concentrations of subsistence crops are also least
or close to least (in four cases out five cases), in Jaintia hills regions except soybean. After
analyzing both the parameters, it is confirmed that the agricultural landscape of the plateau is
changing. The change is from subsistence to cash crop, multi-cropping to mono-cropping, even
food crop to non-food crops in some places.
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
120000
60000
Rice
110000
1973-74
2010-11
100000
Maize
1973-74
2010-11
50000
90000
40000
70000
Hectares
Hectares
80000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
30000
10000
20000
10000
0
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Khasi Hills
Total
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Regions
Regions
Sweet potato
Millets
1973-74
2010-11
2500
1973-74
2010-11
4000
2000
Hectares
Hectares
3000
1500
2000
1000
1000
500
0
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Khasi Hills
Total
140000
Soyabean
1973-74
2010-11
1000
Garo Hills
Total
Total Food Grains
1973-74
2010-11
120000
800
100000
Hectares
Hectares
Jaintia Hills
Regions
Regions
600
400
80000
60000
40000
200
20000
0
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Regions
Garo Hills
Total
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Regions
Page
9
Figure 5 Meghalaya: Change of area under subsistence crops
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Areca nut
15000
14000
Citrus
10000
1973-74
2010-11
13000
1973-74
2010-11
9000
12000
8000
11000
7000
Hectares
Hectares
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
6000
5000
4000
5000
3000
4000
3000
2000
2000
1000
1000
0
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Khasi Hills
Regions
7000
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Regions
11000
Banana
6500
6000
Pine apple
1974-75
2010-11
10000
1973-74
2010-11
9000
5500
8000
5000
7000
4000
Hectares
Hectares
4500
3500
3000
2500
6000
5000
4000
2000
3000
1500
2000
1000
1000
500
0
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Khasi Hills
Regions
2000
Garo Hills
Total
Regions
10000
Turmeric
1973-74
2010-11
1800
1600
8000
1400
7000
1200
6000
1000
800
Ginger
9000
Hectares
Hectares
Jaintia Hills
5000
4000
600
3000
400
2000
200
1000
0
1985-86
2010-11
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Khasi Hills
Regions
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Regions
4500
Black pepper
900
Tapioca
3500
700
3000
Hectares
600
Hectares
1973-74
2010-11
4000
1959-60
2010-11
800
500
400
2500
2000
300
1500
200
1000
100
500
0
Negligible
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Regions
Garo Hills
Total
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Regions
Page
10
Figure 6 Meghalaya: Change of area under traditional commercial crops
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
5000
Potato
18000
Rubber
1957-58
2009-10
4500
1973-74
2010-11
16000
4000
14000
3500
Hectares
Hectares
12000
10000
8000
6000
3000
2500
2000
1500
4000
1000
2000
500
0
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Khasi Hills
9000
Cashew nut
Garo Hills
1997-98
2010-11
1600
1962-63
2010-11
7000
Total
Tea
1800
8000
1400
6000
1200
Hectares
Hectares
Jaintia Hills
Regions
Regions
5000
4000
1000
800
3000
600
2000
400
1000
200
0
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Khasi Hills
Regions
200
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Regions
Coffee
1962-63
2010-11
180
160
Hectares
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
Total
Regions
Page
IMPLICATIONS
Population growth in the plateau has declined area under fallow land but it has also
worked as major factors of erosion and decline of food crops. The population pressure is leading
to change and modification in traditional agricultural practices and switch on to cash crops
instead of growing food crops. The changes have major implications for food security of the
plateau largely in the context of its distinct socio-cultural setting, bio-physical environment, and
relative isolation. The implications include
1. Cash crop: Transforming hill agriculture: The demographic pressure has modified the
local agricultural practices in a great extent. The emergence of mono crops has eroded
traditional food crops (Table 5) and has also disturbed local biodiversity. Hardly there is
any food crop survived in non-traditional cash crop area as compared to Jhum food
11
Figure 7 Meghalaya: Change of area under non-traditional commercial crops
3.
4.
5.
6.
Page
2.
system. The broom and rubber food system is the example where no food crops
cultivated.
Emergence of new food system: There are drastic changes in food system in hills of
Meghalaya underpinned by the recent change in agriculture. Unlike before, presently the
local food production failed to meet the local requirement and consequently the
dependency on external food imports is in rise. The gradual fall of availability of local
rice in the hills reveal the increasing dependency with growing population (Fig. 8 and
Table 6). Most of the staple (like rice, fish, egg, pulses, meat) are imported from far
main-land India. Food systems are gradually becoming complex as food miles are rising
over time (Fig. 9).
Impact on consumption pattern: There is a change in sources of food (Table 8) and
food basket (Fig.7) and it varies across food systems. This has many implications on local
food consumption pattern (Table 9). Proportion of local food 16 has declined and the
consequent rise of non local food in daily household food consumption. Hence it will
affect the tribal food and nutrition security.
Source and safety: Small grocery shop, meat and vegetable shops are opened and
accessibility to market food stuff has increased in some cash crops areas. The role of food
transport has been increased tremendously. But there are hardly much improvement of
road conditions and means of transport. The new issues like question of food safety,
quality control, adulteration and freshness of market food (particularly perishable
products) are become very important in these areas. But unfortunately neither the modern
administration nor the grass root level traditional institution have any quality control
mechanism to check the quality and food safety aspects of imported food.
The kitchen garden: space between housing units: Kitchen garden, pigs and chickens
rearing are traditionally part of food system of rural Meghalaya. It influenced the
household nutrition and food security. But it is found that these traditional practices are
no more in practice or modified particularly in highly populated areas or in compact
settlement. The best example is the Nongtalang village which turns into a compact
settlement due to significant increase of numbers of household from around 20 in 1960 to
around 400 in 2012. At present hardly there are any space between housing units and its
leads to absence of kitchen garden. Secondly, there are no domesticated animal in the
village because of mainly three reasons like lack of space, to keep the village clean and
not to disturb neighbor. Commercialization of traditional fruits and the areca nut took
over the space of kitchen garden in broom food system (Khaid village in Khasi Hills) and
areca nut food system (Chengkompara village, Garo hills) respectively. On the other
hand the kitchen gardens are big and full of many vegetable and other edible in dispersed
settlement of Jhum areas.
The Price Game: Unlike the rest of India, neither the local government nor the central
government has any control over the price of many of the cash crops of the hills. As the
nature and characteristics of agricultural products of hills are different from plain, hill
tribal failed to avail the provision of minimum support price. Now the poor farmers are
trapped by middle man, elites section of the community and politicians. Internally they
control the price, demand and market of cash crops. Recently price of many cash crops
fall drastically. Particularly the price of areca nut and broom grass which are widely
grown in the plateau. According to the farmers this is due to the declining demand of
areca nut due to recent ban on tobacco products in many states. Suddenly the price of
12
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
broom grass fall in the state from Rs. 70.00 / 80.00 per kg to Rs. 10.00 /12.00 per kg.
This fall of the price was just one year before the state legislative elections. Now the poor
farmers are victim of political economy. Moreover the hill state of Meghalaya witnessed
the maximum rise in prices of essential items as compared to not only other northern
states but also in the entire country17.
7. Class, clan and the poor: The level of vulnerability of poor and marginal section18 of the
community has multiplied over time and space. Some commercial crops have changed
the traditional land relation in some extent. The gap between poor and reach has
increased significantly in cash crops growing areas and traditional communitarian ethos
of equity is in slide.
8. Ecological implications: Both short and long term ecological implications of commercial
crops are far reaching. According to Bhatt et al this type of cultivation, in its traditional
form conserve agro-biodiversity, particularly germplasm of native crop varieties,
represents an effective form of land use, a way of optimum utilization of space,
controlling weeds, soil-borne pathogens, crops diseases, required low external input and
ensure food security to farm household (Bhatt et al, 2007: 267). In the words of
Ramakrishnan:
In the ultimate analysis, mixed cropping maximizes production, minimizes
losses, provides a wide food resources base for the tribal society by providing
cereals, legumes, vegetables and even fiber and at the same time ensures leisure
by effectively spreading out labour all the year round (Ramakrishnan, 1993: 42).
Thus there may be a need revisit the relevance of Gandihian idea on land use, particularly
in the context of developing country as far as the food security is concern.
Page
13
Table 5 Agricultural Bio-diversity in different food system (types of food crops available)
Food systems
Regions
Cereals
Tubers Vegetables Leafy
Spices/
vegetables oil seed
Jhum
Khasi hills
3 types
6 types 11 types
6 types
6 types
(Mawryniaw)
region
Jhum
Garo hills
3 types
5 types 13 types
8 types
7 types
(Jongchetpara)
region
Broom
Khasi hills
No
1types No
2 types
No
(Khaid)
region
Areca nut
Khasi hills
No
1 type
No
No
No
(Nongtalang)
region
Areca nut
Garo hills
1 types
2 types 4 types
2 types
2 types
(Chengkompara) region
Rubber
Khasi hills
No
No
No
No
No
(Machokgre)
region
Source: Field work, 2012
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
320
308.43 (1991)
300
297.59 (1971)
Gram / Day
280
260
256.58 (2081)
240
220
211.49 (2001)
200
190.41 (2011)
180
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
Figure 8 Meghalaya: Per capital Gross Availability of Locally Produced Rice
Table 6 Meghalaya: Per capita Gross Availability (PGA) of Rice, 2001
Regions
PGA/Annum PGA/Day
District
(in Kg)*
(in gram)*
Khasi hills East Khasi Hills
15.67
43
West Khasi Hills
Ri-Bhoi
Jaintia hills
Garo hills
Jaintia Hills
45.404
124.39
154.458
423.17
86.062
235.8
South Garo Hills
104.872
287.32
West Garo Hills
113.665
311.41
200.621
549.64
77.212
211.54
East Garo Hills
Meghalaya (aggregate)
Page
14
Table 7 Price of Areca nut
Size of Areca nut
Price
2011
2012
Big
1800
1000
Midium
1500
600
Small
1200
400
Source: Field work in Nongtalang, 2012
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Figure 9 Food Systems in two different agricultural practices
Page
15
Figure 7 Food Baskets (from upper left) in Jhum; broom and rubber food system respectively.
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
Table 8 Food sources in different food systems
Sample
Cereals
Tubers
Vegetables
villages
Jhum food
Own
Own
Own prod
system
prod
prod
Broom food
PDS
Market
Market
system
and
Market
Areca nut
PDS
Market
Market
food system
and
Market
Rubber food
Market
Market
Market
system
Source: Field work, 2012
Leafy
vegetables
Own prod,
gathering
Gathering
Meat
Gathering
Market
Market
Market
Market
Market
Hunt.
Market
Market
Spices/
oil seed
Own prod
Market
Pulses and oil
seed
Animal
products
Reg
Rare
Rare
Rare
Rice
Reg
Del
Del
Del
Wheat
Nev
Occ
Occ
Occ
Colocasia
Del
Som
Som
Rare
S. potato
Reg
Rare
Occ
Occ
Tapioca
Reg
Rare
Rare
Rare
Yam
Reg
Rare
Rare
Occ
Potato
Rare
Reg
Del
Del
Red
Nev
Reg
Reg
Reg
Gram
Nev
Occ
Rare
Rare
Soyabean
Som
Rare
Rare
Rare
Sesamum
Reg
Rare
Occ
Rare
Wild
meat
Pork
Beaf
Som
Rare
Rare
Nev
Occ
Occ
Som
Occ
Reg
Nev
Som
Som
Chicken
(L)
Chicken
(F)
Egg (L)
Occ
Occ
Rare
Rare
Rare
Rare
Som
Som
Som
Som
Rare
Rare
Egg(F)
Rare
Som
Som
Som
Fish (L)
Som
Rare
Rare
Occ
Fish(F)
Rare
Occ
Som
Som
Milk
Nev
Nev
Nev
Rare
Note: Nev-Never; Rare-Rarely; Occ-Occasionally; Som-sometimes; Reg-regularly; Del-Daily
Page
Tubers
Maize
16
Table 9 Food consumptions patterns in different food systems
Food system
Item
Jhum
Broom
Areca
Rubber
nut
Cereals
Millets
Reg
Nev
Nev
Nev
Page
References
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Page
Appendix 1 Meghalaya: Growth rate of subsistence crops 1973-74 to 2010-11
Crops
Region
Rate (%)
Khasi Hills
-39.74
Jaintia Hills
-34.04
Rice
Garo Hills
31.26
-3.89
TOTAL
Khasi Hills
-18.81
Jaintia Hills
-92.74
Maize
Garo Hills
17.55
-69.87
TOTAL
Khasi Hills
-68.34
Jaintia Hills
-63.18
Millet
Garo Hills
92.94
-15.65
TOTAL
Khasi Hills
-23.8
0.56
Sweet Potato Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
26.16
-10.13
TOTAL
18
Appendix
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
1240
103.98
280
258.14
-35.76
-33.31
34.83
-2.76
Appendix 2 Meghalaya: Regional growth of traditional commercial crops, 1973, 74 to 2010-11
Crops
Region
Rate (%)
Areca nut
Khasi Hills
25.68
Jaintia Hills
67.91
Garo Hills
2028.18
TOTAL
142.47
Citrus
Khasi Hills
41.89
Jaintia Hills
42.38
Garo Hills
80.00
TOTAL
51.84
Turmeric
Khasi Hills
364.15
Jaintia Hills
32.78
Garo Hills
12.80
38.21
TOTAL
Ginger
Khasi Hills
52.57
Jaintia Hills
245.74
Garo Hills
27.67
TOTAL
34.75
Banana
Khasi Hills
101.16
Jaintia Hills
-24.95
Garo Hills
220.96
TOTAL
132.31
Pine apple
Khasi Hills
29.94
Jaintia Hills
-84.32
Garo Hills
153.68
60.71
TOTAL
Tapioca
Khasi Hills
8.88
Jaintia Hills
NA
Garo Hills
243.26
118.28
TOTAL
Black pepper Khasi Hills
102650.00
Jaintia Hills
NA
Garo Hills
TOTAL
NA: Negligible
Appendix 3 Meghalaya: Regional growth of non-traditional commercial crops
Crops
Region
Rate (%)
Potato
Khasi Hills
23119.70
Jaintia Hills
-82.47
Garo Hills
12.00
TOTAL
4.54
Rubber
Khasi Hills
23119.70
Jaintia Hills
NA
Garo Hills
15688.77
19
Total Food
Grain
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
TOTAL
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
TOTAL
Page
Soyabeans
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
TOTAL
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
TOTAL
Tea
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
TOTAL
Coffee
Khasi Hills
Jaintia Hills
Garo Hills
TOTAL
Note: Different base year has
section.
Cashew nut
20931.47
NA
NA
13415.63
10197.62
227.57
869.73
469.70
23650.00
1042.01
been used for different non-traditional cash crops. For detail see material and method
End note
Page
The other copping strategies which have been adopted Meghalaya plateau includes stone quarry, small scale
unregulated mining, migration to proximate urban spaces and others.
2
On a bright spring morning, I went to Wahkhen village of Khasi Hills to celebrate Shad-Lyngdoh-Raid-Wahkhen
(Shad-Lyngdoh-Raid-Wahkhen is a spring festival of Wahkhen village, East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya. The
village is located around 50 km south of the state capital Shillong. It is occupied by about 350 Khasi households and
unlike to the general state scenario most of them are following Niam-Tynrai religion (indigenous religious believe of
Khasi tribe). The festival is geographically limited to the village only) with two of my local friends- Soni Bareh and
Hiam Rambai. The village is situated in rugged hilly terrain and the agriculture of the village has totally transformed
from Jhum to Broom grass plantation, including the most parts of Pynursula (Pynursula region of Meghalaya is
located south of Shillong just above the War region. The detail about various vernacular cultural region of
Meghalaya is delineated by many scholars like Nakane (1961), p. 20, 96; Soumen Sen (1985), p.17, 18 and Hamlet
Bareh, (1985), p. 10) region of Meghalaya. Once upon a time, Jhum cultivation was the mainstay of livelihood and
food security for the tribal people of region including the village. Today, a new agricultural landscape has evolved
i.e. miles broom grass plantation in the cost of traditional Jhum cultivation in the village in particular and in
Meghalaya in general. We reached the village around four hour of journey from Shillong (the state capital),
including two hours of walking. The journey was tied some because of walking around two hour on the hill slope
and all of us were hungry. Our host (Kong) could sense our hunger correctly and was hurriedly trying to wind up the
preparation of lunch. I show through the concealment of the door curtain, Kong (the term ‘Kong’ is widely used
among Khasi community of Meghalaya to address female member) was peeling up skin of raw tomatoes for salad
and then, I told her not to peeling up (as we are so hungry). She answered me ‘these days, vegetable are coming
from outside of our village and use of pesticide is very common in purchased vegetable and with skin it is unhealthy,
there is a need of peel the tomatoes’.
3
Food security is defined in The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2010. According to the report, “Food security
exists when all people, at all times, physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that
meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Household food security is the
application of this concept to the family level, with individuals within household as the focus of concern” FAO,
WFP, 2010, p.8).
4
The term Jhum denotes a regional form of shifting cultivation practice in northeast India. This is also known as
Swidden agriculture.
5
B. K. Tiwari (2003) has mentioned these changes as innovations in Jhum cultivation, for details see his article
‘Innovation in Shifting Cultivation, Land use and Land Cover Change in Higher Elevations of Meghalaya, India’.
6
Re-War region is a vernacular cultural region of the plateau. This has been mentioned by Naken as ‘War’ and by
Tiwari et al as ‘south precipitous region’ (Naken, 1961: 96; Tiwari et al 2008: 84).
20
1
Session 15-07 The relevance of population for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
7
Page
21
Food systems are a set of dynamic interactions between and within the biogeophysical and human environments
that result in the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food (GECAFS, 2005, p. 9;
Gregory et al, 2005, p. 2141).
8
Millet, maize and rice are the three important cereals used by the people of the area. Traditionally neither pulses
are cultivated nor consumed in the plateau. Moreover the area under pulses and wheat are negligible. Soybean and
sweet potato are also traditionally consumed by the people. Besides these crops, there are many other subsistence
crops cultivated but data are not available. Department of Agriculture, GoM (2006) has mentioned the principal food
crops of the state p. 18; also see Planning Department, GoM (2009), p. 238.
9
Often the principal aim of production is for the use of the producers and their kinship groups. For details see
Fellmann et al (1985), p.240.
10
The New American Dictionary defined the term (locavore) as a local resident who tries to eat only food grown or
produced within a 100 miles radius. But here we used the term to describe a situation where people mostly grow
their own required food and hardly depend on others or on import.
11
These emerging modern needs were one of the important outcomes of ongoing social transformation in tribal
societies. Spread of Christianity and consequent spread of modern education by missionary has brought significant
transformation among the tribal societies of Northeast India.
12
It has been reported by elderly people of many villages visited by the researcher that as land is limited initially
they were forced reduced Jhum cycle. But this act of reduction in jhum cycle could not sustain for long time, only
after few years they found crops failed and family go hungry. So they were in search of some alternative agriculture.
13
According to Lamin the import of rice to the hills of Meghalaya from plains of Assam and Sylhet started as early
as 1784 (Lamin, 1995: 81).
14
Therese are non-traditional rice growing areas but presently leading rice importing states in the coumtry mainly
due to green revolution.
15
North-western and southern states have experienced four subsequent stages of agricultural development in India;
see India Vision 2020, Planning Commission, 2002: 32.
16
Food produced, processed and distributed within a particular geographic boundary that consumers associate with
their own community, (Martinez et al, 2010, p.51).
17
According to consumer price index released by Ministry of Labor, Government of India revealed that consumers
in Meghalaya were the worst affected by soaring prices of consumer goods in the 2011-12 financial year. The news
was published in The Shillong Times, May 24, 2012.
18
The land is not equally distributed among tribal. According to census 2001 about 80% of the farmers are marginal
(0.05-1.00 ha.) and small farmers (1.00-2.00 ha.). According to NHFS, about 66% of rural household does not have
ownership of agricultural land. Thirdly the proportion of agricultural labor is highest in Meghalaya among the all
tribal dominated northeastern states. Lastly land distribution is sharply on clans lines.