Proceedings.book Page 571 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Fruit Fly Research and Development in PNG
S. Sar,* S. Balagawi,* A Mararuai* and D. Putulan*
Abstract
Many cultivated and natural fruits play an important role both in food security and in meeting nutritional
requirements in households throughout PNG. Fruit fly species of the family Tephritidae account for significant
preharvest and postharvest food losses, and a reduction of these losses will improve food availability at
household levels. The Papua New Guinea Fruit Fly Project (PNGFFP) has confirmed over 200 species of fruit
fly. Species of economic importance are melon fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae), banana fruit fly (B. musae) mango
fly (B. frauenfeldi), Asian papaya fruit fly (B. papayae), B. bryoniae, B. moluccensis, B. stringifinis,
B. atrisetosa, B. decipiens, B. neohumeralis, B. trivialis and B. umbrosa. The destructive exotic species
B. papayae was first sighted in the border provinces in 1992, has spread eastwards and is established on the
mainland, the highlands and in Central Province. The host range, percentage losses and seasonal abundance
have been determined for some of these important species. Fruit bagging and protein bait trails have achieved
effective control, reducing damage from up to 98% to 0%.
FRUIT fly species of the family Tephritidae are now
recognised as the major pests of fruits and vegetables
in tropical and subtropical areas, including PNG. They
cause serious field losses and prevent PNG from
exporting fruits and vegetables because of their quarantine importance. Their effect on agriculture is therefore far-reaching and warrants systematic research.
Although fruit fly research has intensified in recent
years, there are still enormous gaps in our knowledge
of their taxonomy, faunistics and biology. Drew
(1989) reported 180 fruit fly species in PNG, 12 of
which were of economic importance. Dori et al. (1993)
provided a status of fruit fly in PNG and confirmed 12
species of economic importance. Recent surveys
suggest there are more fruit fly species in PNG than
previously reported.
Due to the agricultural and quarantine importance of
fruit fly, the PNG Fruit Fly Project (funded by the
Food and Agriculture Organization, the Australian
Agency for International Development, the United
Nations Development Programme, the South Pacific
Commission Regional Fruit Fly Project and the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
Fruit Fly Project) was initiated to address the fruit fly
problem in PNG. A thorough understanding of fruit fly
will enable the development of appropriate and effective control strategies to reduce field losses and the
development of quarantine treatment regimes of fruits
for export.
Materials and Survey Methods
Trapping
Modified Steiner traps (Bateman et al. 1978) were
used to catch adult males of different fruit fly species.
Each site had a pair of traps: one baited with Cue lure
and the other with methyl eugenol. Each trap was
baited with about 3 millilitres (mL) of a mixture of
80% attractant and 20% malathion (50% effective concentration) by volume in a cotton wick. Trapped flies
* Regional Fruit Fly Project, Bubia Research Station,
National Agricultural Research Institute, PO Box 1639,
Lae 411, Morobe Province, PNG.
Email: [email protected]
571
Proceedings.book Page 572 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
were collected every week or every two weeks. Traps
not only serve to obtain scientific data but also act as
monitoring systems for the invasion of exotic species.
Agricultural Experiment Station (LAES), Keravat,
and on Averrhoa carambola (five corner) at Laloki
Research Station. The sprays were applied weekly to
every third row for more than 12 weeks. Damage
assessment was carried out by sampling 100 fruits per
week each from treated and untreated plots before the
bait was applied, and then keeping the fruits in separate plastic containers (as in the host survey) for a
period of 5–7 days to determine fruit fly infestation.
Host surveys
Host surveys were carried out by incubating fruits in
enclosed containers with a screen to allow ventilation
and a layer of sawdust to mimic the soil in which pupation usually occurs prior to the emergence of the adult.
Fruit fly species not attracted to chemical lures can be
recorded only through fruit surveys. Important data
recorded are the fruit species, stage of maturity, pest
species and percentage infestation on fruit.
Results and Discussion
PNG has the largest number of economically important species of fruit fly in the Asia–Pacific region.
Table 1 shows the species of fruit fly trapped by the
PNG Fruit Fly Project. The trapping revealed the invasion of the Asian papaya fruit fly (Bactrocera
papayae), which is a threat not only to fruit crops but
also to forests.
Field control trials
Bait spray made up of 50 mL Mauri’s Pinnacle
Protein Insect Lure and 4 mL of 50% (effective concentration) malathion per litre of water were tested on
guava at Bubia Research Station and at the Lowlands
Table 1. Fruit fly species caught in traps from August 1997 to May 2000.
Genus
Subgenus
List of species
Bactrocera
Afrodacus
hypomelaina, ochracea
Bactrocera
Bactrocera
abdolonginqua, abdonigella, abundans, aemula, alyxiae, ampla, anfracta,
angustifasciata, anthracina, assita, aterrima, atramentata, atriliniellata, aurantiaca,
bancroftii, breviaculeus, brevistriata, bryoniae,a cheesmanae, cinnamea,
circamusae, confluens, consectorata, contigua, curreyi, curvifera, dapsiles, dyscrita,
endiandrae, enochra, frauenfeldi,a froggatti,a fuliginus, fulvicauda, furfurosa,
furvescens, furvilineata, incostans, indecora, ismayi, kelaena, lampabilis, latissima,
lineata, mayi, mimulus, moluccensis,a morobiensis, morula, musae (sp. A), musae,a
neocheesmanae, neohumeralis,a neonigrita, nigella, nigrescens, nigrescentis,
oblineata, ochromarginis, papayae,a paramusae, pepisalae, phaea, propedistincta,
pseudodistincta, quadrata, recurrens, redunca, repanda, resima, retrorsa, rhabdota,
robertsi, seguyi, sp nr breviaculeus, thistletoni, tinomiscii, trifaria, trivialis,a tryoni,
umbrosa,a unistriata, ustulata, vulgaris
Bactrocera
Heminotodacus
dissidens
Bactrocera
Papuodacus
neopallescentis
Bactrocera
Polestomimetes
fusculata, visenda
Bactrocera
Sinodacus
abdopallescens, angusticostata, buvittata, paulula, strigifinis,a surrufula,
triangularis, univittata
Bactrocera
Zeugodacus
amoena, anchitrichota, chorista, cucurbitae,a curta, daula, macrovittata, reflexa,
sandaracina, trichota
Dacus
Callantra
axanus, axanus (dark), impar, longicornis, mayi (D), melanohumeralis
Dacus
Dacus
badius, bellulus, concolor
Dacus
Didacus
dissimilis
Dacus
Semicallantra
aquilus, memnonius
aMajor
pest species
572
Proceedings.book Page 573 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Figures 1–3 indicate the seasonal abundance of
some major pest species in different areas showing
that losses vary with area. The peaks are correlated
with rainfall and host fruit abundance. Such information helps us to grow crops at times of low fruit fly
population density to avoid heavy field losses.
Host fruit surveys conducted between August 1997
and May 2000 suggest that the mango fly (B. frauenfeldi), melon fly (B. cucurbitae), banana fruit fly
(B. musae) and B. trivialis are the major pest species;
the other eight species cause lesser fruit losses. Mango
fly seems to be the most virulent species; contrary to
its name, it is a more serious pest of guava and A. carambola than of mango. In A. carambola and some
other fruits and vegetables, damage by fruit fly can be
as high as 98–100%. The amount of damage may also
differ in different varieties of the same plant species.
Less susceptible varieties can be grown as a control
strategy. Table 2 shows percentage infestation by fruit
fly on some important fruits and vegetables in PNG.
More than one species of fruit fly can infest the same
fruit species, and infestation in PNG can therefore can
be extremely high (e.g. B. frauenfeldi and B. trivialis
on Vietnam white guava). Fruit fly species that currently cause relatively little damage in PNG may
become more more damaging as horticulture expands.
Table 3 shows all the pest species and their host
ranges. The Asian fruit fly B. papayae has a very wide
host range in its native region but is not yet recorded on
many fruits in PNG. The greatest fear, however, is that
it might at some stage infest coffee as coffee is a
known host of B. papayae.
(a) B. frauenfeldi
(b) B. cucurbitae
1000
No. of flies
10
50
800
600
400
200
Month
May 99
June 99
Apr 99
Mar 99
Feb 99
Jan 99
Dec 98
Oct 98
Aug 98
June 99
Apr 99
May 99
Mar 99
Feb 99
Jan 99
Dec 98
Nov 98
Oct 98
Aug 98
Sept 98
Nov 98
0
0
Sept 98
No. of flies
150
Month
(a) B. frauenfeldi
(b) B. cucurbitae
2500
400
2000
300
Month
Month
Figure 2. Seasonal abundance of fruit flies on carambola, Keravat, East New Britain Province, PNG:
(a) Bactrocera frauenfeldi; (b) Bactrocera cucurbitae.
573
Oct 99
Aug 99
June 99
Apr 99
0
Oct 99
Aug 99
June 99
Apr 99
Jan 99
Nov 98
Sept 98
July 98
0
100
Jan 99
500
200
Nov 98
1000
Sept 98
1500
July 98
No. of flies
No. of flies
Figure 1. Seasonal abundance of fruit flies on carambola, Laloki, Central Province, PNG:
(a) Bactrocera frauenfeldi; (b) Bactrocera cucurbitae.
Proceedings.book Page 574 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Feb 99
Apr 99
June 99
Aug 99
Oct 99
Feb 99
Apr 99
June 99
Aug 99
Oct 99
Dec 98
Oct 98
Aug 98
June 98
Apr 98
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Feb 98
No. of flies
(a) B. frauenfeldi
Month
(b) B. cucurbitae
10
No. of flies
8
6
4
2
Dec 98
Oct 98
Aug 98
June 98
Apr 98
Feb 98
0
Month
Figure 3. Seasonal abundance of fruit flies on carambola, Bubia, Morobe Province, PNG:
(a) Bactrocera frauenfeldi; (b) Bactrocera cucurbitae.
Control strategies
bananas. In fact, Malaysia exports bananas to Japan
using this control strategy as a quarantine treatment.
The last option, which is new to PNG but was first
developed in 1952, is the use of protein bait spray to
attract and kill fruit fly. The protein bait has a natural
attractant mixed with a very minute amount of insecticide that kills the fruit flies that feed on the protein.
Unlike insecticide cover sprays, the protein bait is
environmentally friendly and does not affect nontarget
organisms, including consumers. The cost of
importing the protein bait spray is a problem, but
efforts are being made to produce the protein locally
from waste brewery yeast. Figure 4 shows the effect of
protein bait spray on mango fruit fly on carambola in
Central Province. The amount of infestation or
damage dropped from about 98% to 1%. Spraying
began in week 4 after fruiting, and ended in week 8
after fruiting.
Fruit fly is a serious pest that needs to be controlled to
avoid fruit crop losses. The most feasible control
methods for PNG are bagging of fruits, growing
resistant varieties, practising crop hygiene, harvesting
at less susceptible stages and applying protein bait
spray. Bagging involves covering the fruit to create a
physical barrier (as is done traditionally with bananas)
or wrapping smaller fruits with old newspaper bags.
The only disadvantage is the labour intensiveness in
large orchards. Growing resistant varieties is a highly
recommended method, although very few fruits fall
within this category. Crop hygiene involves collecting
and destroying unwanted fruits to destroy the resident
population of flies. It is a difficult strategy to implement
effectively, but greatly helps to reduce the fly population. Harvesting at the stage at which fruits are not susceptible to fruit fly attack has been successful with
574
Proceedings.book Page 575 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Table 2. Level of fruit fly infestation on important fruits and vegetables in PNG.
Host
Variety
Province
Banana
Cooking kalapua
ENB
Cavendish
Breadfruit
Cooking
ENB
>90
B. cucurbitae
Bitter gourd
Arerrhoa carambola
Malaysian
Bactrocera musae
Central
30
B. musae
ENB
75
B. umbrosa, B. frauenfeldi
98–100
B. frauenfeldi
ENB
0.8–13.7
B. frauenfeldi
ENB
6–66
B. frauenfeldi
Central
Guava
Fruit fly species
25
Central
Cashew
Infestation (%)
0
28.3–88
B. frauenfeldi, B. oliqua
Vietnam white
ENB
Vietnam white
Morobe
88
B. frauenfeldi, B. trivialis
Vietnam white
Central
30–80
B. frauenfeldi, B. trivialis
Mandarin
EHP
ENB
0.8
unknown
Mango
ENB
4.5
B. frauenfeldi
Orange
WHP
Pawpaw
Central
1–15
B. frauenfeldi
Morobe
25
B. frauenfeldi
Central
20–60
B. frauenfeldi
Central
57
B. cucurbitae
Central
0
Polynesian chestnut
Pumpkin
Local
Tomato
Terminalia catappa
Sea almond
Watermelon
0
3
unknown
Central
23
B. frauenfeldi
Central
31
B. cucurbitae
ENB = East New Britain Province; WHP = Western Highlands Province
Postharvest treatments to avoid spread and
enable export
As mentioned earlier, fruit fly is considered to be an
important quarantine pest, as historically they have
been able to pass through quarantine barriers and have
successfully established themselves in areas far
removed from their native range. This has resulted in
quarantine restrictions for the export of horticultural
produce known to be fruit fly hosts. Virtually all fruits
and vegetables in PNG are fruit fly hosts. Therefore,
fruits and vegetables cannot be exported from PNG
without some form of quarantine treatment. Heat treatment has been found to be the most appropriate quarantine measure for Pacific island countries, including
PNG. In particular, high temperature forced air treatment of fruits and vegetables has had promising outcomes in Fiji and the Cook Islands, and can be used
successfully in PNG. Developing this treatment for
100
% damage
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12
Weeks
Figure 4. Effect of protein bait spray on carambola
fruit fly infestation, Central Province, PNG.
575
Proceedings.book Page 576 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Table 3. Fruit fly pest species and their host plants.
Scientific name
Common name
Main commercial hosts
Bactrocera frauenfeldi (Schiner)
Mango fruit fly
Guava, banana, betel nut, pawpaw, eggplant, sapodilla,
Polynesian chestnut, breadfruit, okari (Terminalia
kaernbachii), mango, Malay apple (Eugenia malaccensis),
cashew
Bactrocera papayae Drew and
Hancock
Asian papaya
fruit fly
Wide range of hosts: 209 species in 111 genera and 46
families of plants (including guava, pawpaw, cashew, banana,
pomelo)
Bactrocera cucurbitae
(Coquillett)
Melon fly
Melon, cucumber, wild and cultivated cucurbits, zucchini
Bactrocera decipiens (Drew))
Pumpkin fly
Pumpkin
Dacus solomonensis Malloch
Solomon fly
Snake gourd, pumpkin
Breadfruit fly
Breadfruit, jackfruit, chempedak, possibly citrus and giant
granadilla
Bactrocera atrisetosa (Perkins)
Bactrocera umbrosa (Fabricius)
Cucumber, watermelon, pumpkin, tomato
Bactrocera neohumeralis
(Hardy)
Bactrocera musae (Tyron)
Very wide host range of fruit and vegetables in Australia and
New Caledonia
Banana fruit
fly
Banana; nonpreferred hosts: guava, pawpaw, chili and tomato
Bactrocera strigifinis (Walker)
Reared from flowers and developing fruits of zucchini and
mature snake beans
Bactrocera bryoniae (Tyron)
Birdseye chili, snake beans
Bactrocera trivialis (Drew))
Guava, grapefruit, peach, chili
Bactrocera froggatti (Bezzi)
Maybe mango in Bougainville and the Solomon Islands
Bactrocera moluccensis Perkins
Polynesian chestnut (Inocarpus fagifer)
PNG conditions is in its infancy and will be a formidable task because of the large PNG pest fauna, but the
process may be expedited by the use of generic data.
The ability to export fruits and vegetables from PNG
will obviously have positive economic implications
for the country.
PNG’s inability to export fruit and vegetables because
of quarantine restrictions imposed to prevent fruit fly
spread is an important issue for the country and one
that is hard to address. If the horticulture industry can
be developed to the stage where fruit and vegetables
can be exported, job opportunities will be created and
income levels will increase, both of which contribute
positively towards food security.
Conclusion
References
Fruit fly surveys in PNG so far reveal about 200 fruit
fly species, 12 of which are economically important.
The recent incursion of the Asian papaya fruit fly into
PNG indicates the need for a regional approach to
solving the fruit fly problem. Very few fruits and vegetables escape fruit fly attack and therefore fruit fly is
directly responsible for many of the losses experienced in the field. Control methods like bagging of
fruit, growing less susceptible varieties, harvesting at
early stage and applying protein bait spray should be
adopted to reduce field losses and increase the amount
of fruit available for consumption and marketing.
Bateman, M.A., Drew, R.A.I. and Hooper, G.H.S. 1978.
Economic Fruit Fly of the South Pacific Region.
Brisbane, Queensland Department of Primary Industries,
130 p.
Dori, F.M., Tenakanai, D. and Kurika, K. 1993. The current
status of fruit fly (Tephritidae) in Papua New Guinea.
Harvest, 15(2), 22–25.
Drew, R.A.I. 1989. The Tropical Fruit Flies (Diptera:
Tephritidae: Dacinae) of the Australasian and Oceanian
Regions. Brisbane, Memoirs of the Queensland Museum,
vol. 26. 521 p.
576
Proceedings.book Page 577 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
The Potential of Using Homemade Plant-Derived
Pesticides to Increase Food Crop Production and
Local Food Security
Adrian Schuhbeck* and John Bokosou*
Abstract
Insect pests are a major constraint to the production of many food crops in PNG. With the human population
growing rapidly in many areas of PNG, pest problems are likely to increase further. Recent surveys have shown
that the impact of a variety of pests is rising rapidly and disastrous losses are increasing, especially in adverse
environmental conditions and areas of dense human population. The use of commercial insecticides is not a
solution for most farmers in PNG, as they lack financial resources and the necessary technical expertise to use
insecticides economically and safely. Homemade water extracts of local plants can be a more appropriate form
of pest control.
This paper presents results of trials conducted on the Gazelle Peninsula in East New Britain Province, using
head cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata (L.)) and aibika (Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik.). The effect
of plant-derived pesticides (PDP) and commercial insecticides on pests, beneficial insect and arachnid
species, yield and produce qualities are described. Additional information is given on the production and use
of various PDPs.
• In farmers gardens, the yield of aibika is usually less
than five tonnes per hectare per year (t/ha/yr). In
pest management trials, Sutherland (1982) achieved
yields as high as 64 (t/ha/yr). This result was
confirmed by the authors’ own trials at the
Lowlands Agricultural Experiment Station (LAES),
Keravat, where only chemical treatment of insects
was used.
• English cabbage usually earns between 2 and 3
PNG kina (PGK)1 per kilo at Kokopo market,
according to monthly assessments by the Fresh
Produce Development Company (FPDC). For
example, the mean figure in May 2000 was
2.75 PGK (FPDC 2000). In spite of this, the market
is usually undersupplied with all brassica species
except Chinese cabbage. It seems that farmers are
INSECT pests are a major and rapidly increasing constraint to food crop production in PNG. Recent observations suggest that insect pests are having a growing
impact (especially on the smallholder production segment), to the extent that farmers are changing their
farming practices. Some examples, given here, indicate the severity of the problem.
• In many lowland areas, farmers are replacing their
traditional staple crop, taro (Colocasia esculenta),
with other crops. Recent surveys in East New
Britain Province suggested that the main reason for
this change is that taro beetles frequently destroy a
huge proportion of the potential harvest, making the
crop a risky staple.
* Lowlands Agricultural Experiment Station, Keravat,
National Agricultural Research Institute, PO Box 204,
Kokopo, East New Britain Province, PNG.
Email: [email protected]
1.
577
In May 2000, 1 PGK = approx. US$0.40 (A$0.68).
Proceedings.book Page 578 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
to the chemical treatments Atabron® and Thuricide®.
Atabron® is a biotechnical insect growth regulator containing 5% chlorfluazuron. Thuricide® is a commercial
biological preparation containing 16 000 international
units of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (H-3a, 3b, HD1) per milligram (mg) in the form of
a wetable powder that equals at least 30 million viable
spores per mg. Both products were applied at the recommended concentration of 1 g/L water for Thuricide® and 1 milliltre (mL)/L water for Atabron®.
The homemade products were extracted overnight.
The extract was then strained into a knapsack sprayer
and locally made coconut soap (Vulcan® soap) was
added in a ratio of 1 g/L. Spraying was done immediately afterwards. Derris (Derris elliptica) was used at
a concentration of 160 g fresh roots per 15 L water and
neem (Azadirachta indica) at 100 g fresh ripe seeds
per 15 L water. More detail on preparation and use of
the extracts has been reported in Bokosou and Schuhbeck (1999).
Pests and antagonists were counted once a week on
each plot. Ten plants were assessed for their complete
arthropod population. Only insects present in high
numbers (e. g. cotton leafhoppers, aphids and spider
mites) were assessed per leaf. Damage was scored in a
crop-specific scoring system. Damage assessments
were done for all crops, but only data from cabbage
trials is reported in this paper (other results will be
reported separately in the future). Cabbage was scored
at time of harvest from 1–5, defined as follows:
1.—no damage
2.—slight damage less than 10% of leaf area
3.—10–25% leaf surface damaged, insects bore
into heads
4.—25–50% leaf surface damage, head malformation
5.—> 50% leaf surface damage, no head formation
Separate assessments were done for insect damage
and damage due to fungal and bacterial diseases.
not covering this market niche because insect
damage to the crop and associated losses are high.
Field observations on pest abundance and damage
show that various caterpillar pests, mainly
Crocidolomia binotalis (Zell.), damage much of the
crop, rendering it nonmarketable.
To find out more about the reasons for what appears
to be a steady increase of pest impact on a high number
of crop species, various pest surveys were undertaken.
Experiments at LAES indicated that the use of homemade, water-based extracts was a promising approach
to controlling a number of core pests of various crops.
Some of this work is reported here.
Materials and Methods
Surveys were undertaken on the Gazelle Peninsula,
along the south coast of East New Britain Province in
Ihu District and in Manus. Additional ‘snapshot’
observations were done in Lihir, the Kavieng area,
along the Lae–Menyamya transect, and in the Port
Moresby region. Methodology was as described in
Schuhbeck (1999).
The effectiveness of various water-based extracts
was determined mainly from trials at LAES, which is
located on the Gazelle Peninsula near Keravat, East
New Britain Province, (4°20'S, 152°02'E). The agroecological conditions at LAES are typical for humid
tropic lowlands, with a precipitation of between 2000
and 3000 millimetres (mm) of rainfall per year (mean
over 54 years: 2687 mm) and mean maximum and
minimum temperatures of 32°C and 22°C respectively. Head cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata
(L.)) and aibika (Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik.)
were used as model crops in a series of experiments.
A range of homemade extracts was applied using a
knapsack sprayer at weekly intervals in the case of
English cabbage and at fortnightly intervals for aibika.
Extracts were usually prepared from crude plant materials that had shown insecticidal properties in pretesting experiments.
Generally, an unsprayed control was compared with
a chemical treatment and treatments using two different homemade extracts. The chemical treatment
used was the commercial pyrethroid Karate® 2.5 EC,
containing lambda cyhalothrin at a concentration of
25 grams per litre (g/L). For the trials, Karate® 2.5 EC
was diluted 1:1000 in water according to the manufacturer’s recommendation. The trial design was usually
latin square.
In cabbage trials, the broad spectrum Karate® 2.5 EC
was compared to plant-derived pesticides (PDPs) and
Results
Assessment of the pest situation
Although a very limited number of pest surveys
focusing on food crop farming have been carried out in
the recent years, some trends are already evident.
Certain factors seem to influence the number of pest
species recorded, as well as the level of population of
important core pests and the extent of damage caused.
The distribution of insect species tends to vary
greatly between different areas. A number of pests
578
Proceedings.book Page 579 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
ranked by Waterhouse (1997) as core pests for the
country in general are only represented in certain
areas. With regard to food crops, this is true for important species like the giant African snail, the Asian rhinoceros beetle, taro beetles and the banana scab moth.
Some species or species groups such as locusts,
rhyparid beetles and grey weevils are widespread but
seem only to cause damage under certain ecological
situations or in certain geographical areas. Various
factors causing an increase in pest problems are:
• increase in density of human population;
• decline in length of fallow period;
• increase in number of plantings before fallow;
• more intense use of land;
• increase in dominance of one or few crops or their
taxonomic families in a farming system;
• decline in percentage of primary and secondary
forest on total land area;
• increase in waste grassland;
• unfavourable growing situation (e.g. drought, water
stress, nutrient deficits); and
• poor hygiene in seed and planting material.
Conditions causing a decline in pest problems
include:
• increase in garden segregation;
• increase in distance of gardens from each other;
• soil parameters close to physiological requirements
of the plant species; and
• climatic patterns close to the physiological
requirements of the plants.
Most farming systems face a mixture of favourable
and unfavourable ecological parameters. However,
many of the parameters listed are in some way related
to population density and thus to population growth.
These factors are also the ones rapidly changing and
thus are likely to promote future food insecurity
through pest problems.
Farmers in PNG will face increasing problems as
populations grow rapidly, forests become heavily
exploited and fallow period is reduced. However,
unlike many other countries, chemical pest control
will not be a realistic option for the vast majority of
smallholder farmers as their monetary resources are
extremely limited—pesticides are very expensive as
transport costs are high and distributors are based only
in the larger urban centres.
Classical biocontrol is also generally an unlikley
option for food crops, as most staples and traditional
vegetables originate from New Guinea or the IndoMalay Archipelago, and natural antagonists of a pest
species are likely to be more plentiful in the region of
origin than in other regions.
More promising are cultural control methods and
the use of homemade water extracts derived from
plant parts with insecticidal properties. The latter technique is highly promising, as tropical rainforests are
the ecosystem with the highest density of plant species. Rainforests in PNG are known to host extremely
high biodiversity.
Results of the use of plant-derived pesticides
The aim was to develop effective extraction
methods that can be followed easily by farmers.
Methods were developed for four plant species: derris
(Derris elliptica), pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium), neem (Azadirachta indica) and chilli
(Capsicum frutescens). This paper concentrates on
derris and neem.
The main damage in all trials on aibika was due to a
symptom on aibika leaves known as ‘hopper burn’. A
yellow discoloration of leaf edges begins as a result of
sucking activity of cotton leafhopper Amrasca devastans (Distant). Later, as the leaf edge rolls downwards
and starts to dry up, this is referred to as the toxic saliva
effect. In severe attacks, yellow discoloration also
spreads gradually across the leaf blade between the
main veins; the leaves get necrotic and finally fall off
the plant. Whole plants can die under heavy leafhopper
attack. Plants showing hopper burn are always stunted.
Figure 1 shows the mean number of specimens of
the cotton leafhopper Amrasca devastans, derived
from nine counting dates spread over five consecutive
months. The treatments gave significantly different
results. No treatment completely eradicated leafhoppers, but all treatments reduced the population substantially. As expected, Karate® had the strongest
effect, but derris extract was also able to reduce the
pest population to less than 50%. The insect population gradually increased after treatment, indicating
that none of the treatments had an ovicidal effect. In all
treatments leaves were healthier and bigger in size
than in the control.
Major pests were the cabbage cluster caterpillar
Crocidolomia binotalis (Zell.), the diamond back
moth Plutella xylostella (= P. maculipennis) (L.), the
cabbage centre grub Helulla undalis (F.) and the
common cutworm Spodoptera litura (F.). Other phytophage insects did not cause economic damage. With
regard to fungal diseases, head rot Rhizoctonia solani
(Kuehn) is of particular importance (Pett 1995).
Figure 2 shows the impact of fungal diseases and
insect pests on head cabbage under different treatments. None of the commercial products or the
579
Proceedings.book Page 580 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
high level of resistance against Karate® and other
pyrethroids. No marketable heads were harvested
from the control or the plants treated with pyrethroids.
Assessment of beneficial insects suggests that derris
and neem have little or no effect on important nontarget organisms. This is illustrated by an example of
spiders in an aibika trial, as spiders are the most important predator group on most of the food crops (Fig. 3).
Spider populations were only slightly reduced by
neem and derris treatment compared to control plots.
The broad spectrum insecticide Karate® reduced
spiders by more than 50% and dead spiders of various
species were found eight hours after treatment. All
treatments other than Karate® are of economic benefit
to the grower.
Derris and neem are likely to have secondary
effects, as they reduce the density of organisms on
which spiders normally prey. Both these PDPs are
assumed to work mainly through the oral route. They
do not have a high contact toxicity and are probably
deactivated (mainly through UV radiation) within one
to two days. However, further work is needed to
support this hypothesis.
extracts had an impact on fungal diseases. This suggests that the effects of the treatments are exclusively
due to their insecticidal properties and that insects are
not responsible for the spread of the fungal diseases.
The commercial products and homemade extracts
tested significantly reduced the number of plants
damaged by insects. In this trial, Atabron® was the
only commercial product providing better control than
the two homemade insecticides.
Unexpectedly, Karate® did not reduce damage to
head cabbage. After analysis of the insect counts and
the insect–host relationship, it became clear that the
diamond back moth was mainly responsible for the
damage. Larvae collected at time of harvest and tested
in the laboratory with artificially high concentrations
of the chemical confirmed that the strain showed a
7
No. of specimens
6
5
4
3
Conclusion
2
1
As pest problems increase in many farming systems in
PNG, control techniques appropriate to smallholder
crop production are needed. Control would be facilitated by a better understanding of the factors responsible for the increasing pest problems in many farming
systems. Study of the impact of various ecological
factors on pest populations could identify areas and
0
Control
Derris
extract
Karate¤
Neem
extract
Treatment
Figure 1. Cotton leafhopper on aibika—mean number
of specimens per leaf from nine counts.
1.4
Disease %
40
% damage
No. of spiders per plant
50
Insect %
30
20
10
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Atabron¤
0
Thuricide¤
Derris
extract
Neem
extract
Karate¤
Control
0
1.2
Control
Derris
extract
Neem
extract
Lambda
cyhalothrin
Treatment
Treatment
Figure 3. Spiders (Araneae) per aibika plant under
different treatments—mean figures from
nine counts.
Figure 2. Percentage of cabbage heads damaged by
fungal diseases and insect pests.
580
Proceedings.book Page 581 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
References
crops at risk from various pests. This information
could be added to the geographic information system
that the National Agricultural Research Institute
(NARI) is currently using. Detailed pest surveys are
necessary to achieve this aim.
Bokosou, J. and Schuhbeck, A. 1999. How to produce home
made pesticides. Lowlands Agricultural Experiment
Station (LAES) Information Bulletin, 1/99, 1–10. PNG,
Keravat.
FPDC (Fresh Produce Development Company). 2000. Fresh
Produce News. Mt Hagen, FPDC, Local market price
averages: No. 148, 20.
Pett, B. 1995. Possible control measures for Rhizoctonia
head rot of cabbage. LAES Technical Bulletin, 5/95, Pest
Management Series, 1–9.
Schuhbeck, A. 1999. New Britain south coast survey—
records and distribution of invertebrate organisms related
to cultivated plants. Unpublished technical report, 1–22.
Sutherland, J.B. 1992. Different populations of four insect
pests found on sixteen cultivars of aibika (Malvaceae)
Abelmoschus manihot. In: Levett, M.P., Earland, J. and
Heywood, P., eds, Changes in Food and Nutrition in
Papua New Guinea: Proceedings of the First Papua New
Guinea Food and Nutrition Conference, November 1983.
Port Moresby, University of Papua New Guinea and the
Department of Agriculture and Livestock, 141–145.
Waterhouse, D.F. 1997. The Major Invertebrate Pests and
Weeds of Agriculture and Plantation Forestry in the
Southern and Western Pacific. Canberra, Australian
Centre for International Agricultural Research,
Monograph, 93.
Homemade extracts could control a variety of pests
of traditional as well as introduced food crops,
including core pests already showing resistance to commercial products. The fixed cost for the recommended
equipment is around 35 PGK. The selected small handsprayer and the minor hand tools will last for several
years even if heavily used. Equipment can be shared
within a whole community. If labour does not need to
be paid for, the only variable cost at farm level is the
soap, which costs less than 0.01 PGK/L of spraying
solution. There is hardly a more appropriate and
cheaper pest management system possible. The recipes
of the four extracts developed for pest control will soon
be published in easy English and Tok Pisin versions.
Many more plants in the forest are expected to be
potential sources for PDPs. At LAES, around half a
dozen are being assessed at the moment. However, the
authors would like to obtain more information on additional potential plant species and welcome contact
from anyone with knowledge of plants with insecticidal or fungicidal properties.
581
Proceedings.book Page 582 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Farmer Field Trials of Integrated Pest Management
in North Malaita,
Solomon Islands, Using a Participatory Technology
Development Approach
Roselyn Kabu*
Abstract
As shifting cultivation in Malaita, Solomon Islands, comes under increasing pressure, farmers are facing an
increasing array of plant pest problems—especially on important food crops. Women farmers with little
formal education are responsible for most of the agriculture for family food production in Malaita. Appropriate
Technology for Community and Environment Inc. (APACE) has facilitated a situation analysis and a process
of participatory rural appraisal awareness over a number of years. This has led to the identification of a number
of promising farmer innovations to manage food crop pests. APACE initiated a pilot process of participatory
technology development (PTD) to further trial and then disseminate these methods through informal farmer
networks. The approach has proved very successful, with farmers now becoming trainers and reaching out into
other areas to share their experiences in natural pest management. The PTD approach has potential to be used
as a low-cost, appropriate and empowering method of improving village food production for women and other
village farmers.
NORTH Malaita, Solomon Islands, is one of the most
densely populated rural areas in the Solomon Islands
chain with a population of over 100,000 people
(Daniel Fa’alimae, Malaita Census coordinator, pers.
comm.). Malaita is a long (about 180 kilometres),
narrow and mountainous island (up to about
1000 metres) with a narrow coastal plain in most
areas. More than 80% of the population of the
Solomon Islands resides in rural areas in small villages on kastomary land—in Malaita in bush and
coastal villages. A population growth rate of 3.5% is
increasing land pressure and affecting food production in these rural villages (Ministry of Finance 1997).
Village farmers are facing increasing pest problems
affecting important food crops such as sliperi kabis
(Abelmoschus manihot) and sweet potato, or kumara
(Ipomoea batatas), that are produced mainly for
family consumption. In some cases, this is causing
families to abandon some of these crops, particularly
kabis, contributing to increasing nutrition problems.
Many factors have contributed to the increasing pest
problem that, in general, originates from pressure on
traditional agriculture systems of shifting cultivation.
Appropriate Technology for Community and
Environment Inc. (APACE) is a nongovernment
organisation that has been working to strengthen
food security at the grass roots level in this area of
* Kastom Garden Program, Appropriate Technology for
Community and Environment Inc. (APACE)
C/o Development Services Exchange, PO Box 556,
Honiara, Solomon Islands.
582
Proceedings.book Page 583 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
North Malaita for two years. APACE identified a
number of farmer innovators who have developed
promising solutions to pest problems on these two
main crops (kabis and sweet potato). These farmer
methods of integrated pest management (IPM) have
been trialled and then disseminated using a participatory technology development (PTD) process, which
works at the grass roots level through informal
farmer networks. The networks allow the farmers
(most of whom are women) to share with other
farmers some of the successful methods they have
tried in their gardens.
past and loss of traditional methods in areas as diverse
as seasons to cultivation methods.
The program was initiated in North Malaita because
it is one of the highest populated areas in Malaita province and the Solomon Islands. In most villages, 50% of
the population is under 14 years of age (Ministry of
Finance 1997). In order to increase agricultural production, fallow periods have shortened over the last
decade to the stage where most are now between
6 months and 4 years. Farmer groups estimate that in
10–20 years, there will not be enough land to produce
food for the population using existing shifting cultivation methods, in which a fallow of 8–15 years is
needed to maintain soil fertility (Kabu 1998). It is
likely that people will increasingly depend on
imported foods such as rice and white flour, which will
continue to have a negative impact on health. The
Solomon Islands is suffering from an economic imbalance due to increasing food imports. Health problems
are increasing because of changing diets, with a
serious increase in noncommunicable disease such as
overweight, diabetes and undernourished infants
(Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries 1998).
Background
APACE’s Kastom Garden Program is an initiative
funded by the Australian Agency for International
Development (AusAID)1 that aims to work at the grass
roots level to develop innovative, low-cost and appropriate approaches that strengthen village food security.
The program works with selected farmers, mostly
from local women’s groups, in a number of villages
affiliated with the Mana’abu Training Centre (MTC),
a community-based organisation that provides adult
vocational training in the villages.
The author conducted a situation analysis in 1998
that identified a number of farmers who were experimenting with botanical sprays for pest control. These
sprays were made from forest plants and other
common wild plants and were used as part of an integrated package of farmer-developed cultural methods
of pest management (Kabu 1998). A network of interested farmers, mostly women, (see Fig. 1) was established to test these methods on a wider scale, to
address the strong need expressed by local farmers to
solve pest problems in a low-cost way that would not
threaten their health.
Since 1996, APACE and MTC have undertaken
awareness-raising programs about issues as diverse as
youth development, women’s group activities (e.g.
sewing machine repair and income generation),
making small gardens close to the house, improving
soil fertility in shifting gardens and pest problems in
gardens. All of these programs have in common a
practical, hands-on training approach that is appropriate to village people and is designed to strengthen
village life and community.
In the Kastom Garden Program, problem identification in the target area (the MTC catchment area in Lau
and Toambaita language areas) was undertaken using
participatory approaches. APACE involved the
selected community groups by encouraging them to
express their problems in agriculture using participatory rural appraisal methods. The main problems were
identified as shorter fallow periods, increasing pest
problems, loss of many varieties of plants grown in the
1.
APACE is an Australian nongovernment organisation that
has worked with rural communities in the Solomon Islands
since 1978. The Kastom Garden Program was funded
through the AusAID Environment Initiative and later
through the AusAID ANCP program. APACE is an agency
that is fully accredited by AusAID.
Figure 1. Woman farmer from Mana’abu village
harvesting sliperi kabis (aibika) from a
shifting cultivation garden.
583
Proceedings.book Page 584 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Natural IPM using a locally adapted farmer field
trial methodology was employed as this provided an
entry point to look at many other wider and long-term
issues affecting food production in the area. It was
hoped that pest management methods would provide
rapid results that would then interest farmers in trying
further innovations.
APACE is producing a booklet documenting
farmers’ field trials involving natural pest management. This booklet will be shared with the farmers in
their community to raise awareness of the methods
used for pest management. It is being produced at the
village-based field office, in a leafhouse, by field staff
with the help of a local artist and local community
groups, who are involved in editing. To ensure that it is
easy for village people to use, the book will be written
in English and a Lau language and will have many
illustrations.
In mid-1999, an expanded pilot program of farmer
field trials of IPM was established in Takwa, Mana’abu
and Gwou’ulu villages in North Malaita. The farmers
teach the methods themselves in village workshops in
a network of farmer groups established by APACE and
MTC as part of the awareness program. The farmers’
innovations were further tested by a number of farmers
from each village following an initial planning workshop. Close monitoring and support was provided for
the field trials by an APACE coordinator and field
officer—both of whom are women from local villages
who have been trained by APACE.
The Participatory Technology
Development Process
Table 1 shows the process being used for trials with
farmers. The PTD methodology was modelled on the
experiences of farmer groups in Africa and other countries based on case studies in LEISA, a journal from the
Netherlands, which publishes case studies of PTD,
involving low external input sustainable agriculture
(LEISA), from around the world.
Training
A series of workshops in the local language (Lau) have
been promoted by APACE and the farmer innovators.
Three additional languages from the target area—
Toambaita, Baelelea and Pidgin—were also spoken
during the workshops. All of the participants understood Lau, but were also free to express their views in
their local dialects. The farmer innovators were the
main resource people in the workshops, assisted by
APACE field workers. The farmers demonstrated and
discussed the more promising methods, which are then
trialled in farmer field trials by women from the three
villages. APACE field officers visit the trials, give
advice and help record results with the farmers, most
of whom have very little formal education.
Collaboration with Agricultural
Research
Since the adoption of a new policy focusing on food
production for food security, which calls for coordination with nongovernment organisations (NGOs), the
Solomon Islands Department of Agriculture (DAL) has
taken a much more positive approach to working with
NGOs (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries 1998).
In 1998, APACE and the Research Division of DAL
agreed to collaborate in the process of IPM farmer
field trials promoted by APACE. The Research Division would provide technical input in the form of
assistance from a crop protection expert while APACE
would contribute by facilitating links and the development of farmer and community networks.
Unfortunately we have not had any technical
support from the Research Division of DAL due to the
ethnic tensions in Solomon Islands over the last
18 months. The main government research station at
Dodo Creek, Guadalcanal has been closed down or is
only partly working, with many staff having been relocated or on leave. In principle, the staff and director
have been very supportive and we hope to have more
technical support in the future when the situation in the
ministry returns to normal.
The APACE field staff have little experience or
training with pest science and are basing all of their
Literacy and lack of experience in spoken and
written English were problems we experienced during
the workshops and the field trials. More than half of
the participating farmers are not literate, necessitating
special approaches involving hands-on participation
and the use of local language and terms. Participants
are encouraged to participate during workshops
through small group discussions and activities in their
local language.
Twenty farmers attended a planning workshop early
in 2000 and are starting a second round of new trials this
year, which will be closely monitored by staff. Once the
trials are complete, farmers share the results with other
farmers in a follow-up workshop and other activities
that are planned in the villages by the participants.
584
Description
Get to know all the groups and stakeholders involved (e.g. community groups, women’s groups, church groups, community leaders, local
extension officers and other nongovernment organisations in the area). We communicate with these groups, hold meetings, and share and listen
to each other. The aim is to encourage these stakeholders at the village level to tell us what they want to do, not what we want them to do.
After getting to know the groups, we decide which ones we can work with in a useful way. We then try to determine the agriculture and related
problems in each community group. The people tell us the main problems they have come across in their communities. After identifying the
problems we work with the community to try to find solutions or alternatives to solve their problems. All of this is done using participatory rural
appraisal methods including focus group discussions, surveys, matrix scoring, change over time diagrams and community mapping.
The main problems identified to date relate to soil fertility and crop pests.
We then help the farmers to try to find solutions to their problems. We do not attempt to come up with the answers ourselves but instead try and
help the farmers to solve their own problems or find alternatives. The farmers —especially innovative ones —are encouraged to try out and
develop their own solutions and then share these experiences with others. APACE held workshops to explore some of the cultural and control
methods used by farmers based on botanical sprays. The farmers then share their experiences and as a group plan a series of field trials.
A series of workshops are held in the local language. We ask some of the experienced farmer innovators to be involved in facilitation and in
demonstrating the sprays and cultural methods and how they are used. During these workshops we also plan with the farmers what spray and
methods they want to try on what crops and when they would like APACE to visit their garden.
After the workshop each farmer starts to clear an area for her/his trial and starts to plant the target crop. The trials are usually about 10 square
metres.
For the duration of the trial, the field officer helps to monitor the trial through each important stage such as planting, application and harvesting.
Monitoring involves recording time planted, what type of spray is used and how often it is applied, which insects and crops are present and the
results according to the farmers’ views and observations made by the field officers on their visits.
When all the trials are completed in one round we then hold a workshop for all the farmers involved to share the results they found for the sprays,
so that we can reach some conclusions as a group.
In order to keep the process going we have to start again from the first step with each new round of trials. Some of the farmers are now in their
third or fourth round of field trials, while others are just beginning. The process can then be expanded to other villages and areas led by the
farmer innovators and promising leaders. This is facilitated through farmer tours and exchanges where groups of farmers visit other villages to
see interesting innovations being done by individual farmers in their gardens.
In this way, an expanding network is developing, which leads to further innovation and dissemination of experiences. In the process, farmers are
empowered to analyse, understand and find solutions to their own problems.
Step
Getting started
Identifying
problems
Looking for
things to try
Experimenting
and trialling
Sharing results
Sustaining the
participatory
technology
development
process
Table 1. Steps in the participatory technology development process.
Proceedings.book Page 585 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
585
Proceedings.book Page 586 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Farmers’ Results
work on field experiences and the farmers’ views and
ideas. To date, this has proved effective but we
believe that a research/farmer link, facilitated by
APACE, would improve the useful information
reaching the farmers.
• Farmers reported a number of reasons for increasing
pest problems.
• Shortened fallow—fallow periods are now
typically 2–5 years and in some areas around
Mana’abu and Gwou’ulu they are under 2 years.
The bush is not recovering well in these periods: the
soil is not very fertile when cleared and when a
fallow period is under 1 year, pests persist as sweet
potato and other plants remain in the fallow area.
Pesticides
APACE promotes LEISA. In the target area, many
farmers had started to use fertilisers and pesticides to
improve soil fertility and control pests. Local people,
however, reported that chemical use led to an increase
in pests in surrounding gardens and a number of
women in the villages have been poisoned during the
project period by incorrect application of pesticides. In
the course of our fieldwork, women have reported that
they often feel unhealthy and weak after using the pesticides. Local villagers have reported skin rashes and
headaches after eating kabis grown with pesticides.
We have found that many farmers do not practice or
understand withholding periods for chemicals.
Our approach has been to work with farmers to
develop local solutions that do not require the use of
pesticides. We believe that this is the only sustainable
way and that it is also more realistic for most
farmers—especially women—who cannot afford to
buy chemicals from the store.
• Gardens are close together. This allows pests to
move from garden to garden as there is little or no
vegetation barrier between gardens.
• Garden ‘hygiene’ is not being followed—farmers
need to remove infested plants and use only healthy
planting materials.
• Poor planting rotations and lack of seasonal
knowledge—people planting the same crop again
and again (mostly sweet potato)—leads to a buildup of pests. Also many people are planting their
crops at the wrong time of year.
Table 2 below shows some examples of the results
from the farmer innovators and the farmer field trials.
Table 2. Examples of results from farmer innovators and farmer field trials.
Name of farmer Botanical
innovator
spray used
Plant it is
applied to
Part of the Used to control what Farmers’ perceptions of
plant
type of insect
this method
Basilisa Roko
Chilli and
Bini, sliperi
Mala’alakwa
kabis, Chinese
(a local
kabis
medicinal herb)
Leaves
wawa—a small
green caterpillar, and
a stem-boring beetle
called wawa
Kills or removes the
caterpillars in all trials
‘because it is hot, smells
strong and the caterpillar
has soft skin’
Felix Laukasi
Sliperi kabis
Coleus leaves
and other forest
plants (a tree
bark, a fern and
a small herb)a
Leaves
Small black beetle
and small green
caterpillar
Kills the beetle ‘because it
has hard skin and does not
like the smell of the spray’;
also kills caterpillar and
other soft-bodied insects.
Basilisa Roko
Ashes
Sliperi kabis,
bean
Leaves
Black bean fly that
lays eggs in fruit,
caterpillar
The insects do not like the
ashes and will soon leave
the plants
aThe
names of the forest plants are being withheld at the request of the farmer. The plants are shared with local farmers
participating in the project but the farmer has requested that, at this stage, his plant knowledge not be shared wider than the
local area.
Note: All of the plants being used for the sprays are considered nontoxic by local plant experts. Most of the plants also have
medicinal uses where they are taken internally.
586
Proceedings.book Page 587 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Conclusion
strengthen local farmers’ experiences because they are
the ones who spend most of their time in the field and
they know what is happening every day with plants,
insects and soil, even if they cannot express it in scientific terms. Our experience has shown that certain
innovative farmers have already developed many
solutions to widespread problems. The PTD process
allows these experiences to be shared and further
developed.
Many factors have contributed to pest problems and
food security, deriving from land pressure resulting
from population growth and changing settlement patterns. Food security is now a serious problem and, if
people are not careful, it will become a very big
problem. APACE is helping to find solutions to pest
problems and eventually we hope that this PTD
approach will address other long-term problems such
as improving fallows and soil fertility. Indeed, this
process has already begun with the soil fertility field
trials now at the stage of ‘looking for things to try’ (see
Table 1).
The PTD process is low cost and generates real
results for the farmers at the village level. In North
Malaita, the process could be improved with better
research links and technical support. However, appropriately trained and supported village field workers on
their own can generally facilitate the entire process.
This makes the PTD approach particularly useful
when working with women farmers, who often have
little formal education and little access to traditional
agricultural extension even though they are the main
food producers in Malaita. The PTD approach
involves farmers and people in the villages themselves
in identifying, trialling, developing and disseminating
new technologies to improve their food production.
The results of the PTD process are very promising so
far. For example the chilli spray and mala’alakwa
spray (see Table 2) is working to control stem-boring
beetles and leaf-eating insects such as the small green
caterpillar that caused serious crop losses in sliperi
kabis. This method, developed by a local woman,
Basilisa Roko, is now being widely used, mainly with
good results (Fig. 2). Another farmer, Felix Laukasi,
has developed a method to control small leaf-eating
beetles on sliperi kabis using Coleus sp. with a fermented mix of five forest food plants that is proving
very effective; the small beetles are a persistent and
serious pest problem at certain times of the year. Most
importantly, this and other cultural methods are being
revived and shared by the farmers.
A network of innovators and farmers working
together to solve their agricultural problems has been
established in the participating villages. The farmer
innovators themselves are now becoming very effective trainers and are extending the network into new
areas. The group of interested farmers who will be
trying these approaches in the future is growing. A
solid body of experience in IPM and in PTD methodology is building up among the local farmers.
The project has demonstrated the success of the
PTD approach in Malaita and the potential for using
local farmers’ innovations as the basis for agricultural
improvement. It is important to build on and
References
Kabu, R. 1998. A situation analysis of food production in
three villages in North Malaita. Unpublished report,
Appropriate Technology for Community and
Environment Inc.
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries 1998. National Plan of
Action for Food Production, Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, Solomon Islands Government.
Ministry of Finance 1997. Village Resources Survey 1996–
96, Report 2. Statistical Bulletin No. 10/97. Solomon
Islands Government, Statistics Office, Ministry of
Finance.
Figure 2. An APACE village field officer demonstrates to a group of farmers the application
of a chilli spray on sliperi kabis (aibika) in
Ferasubua village, Malaita.
587
Proceedings.book Page 588 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
University of Vudal Workshop on
Commercialisation of Vegetable Production
Geoff Wiles* and Peter Mwayawa†
Abstract
A workshop on ‘Commercialisation of vegetables in the Islands Region’ was held at the University of Vudal,
PNG, on 5–6 October 1999. Papers were presented on marketing and economics, farmers’ experiences,
research, pest and disease management, extension and training. Working groups were established to make
recommendations in the areas of marketing and economics, extension and industry support and research needs.
At the end of the workshop, an Islands Region Commodity Committee for Vegetables was established under
the auspices of the National Agricultural Research Institute. This paper reports the highlights of the main
presentations and the recommendations of the working groups.
A WORKSHOP on commercialisation of vegetables in
the islands region was held at the University of Vudal
(UOV) from 5–6 October 1999. The workshop was
organised by UOV in cooperation with the National
Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) Wet Lowlands
Islands Program (WLLIP) and the Fresh Produce
Development Company (FPDC). The aim of the workshop was to promote commercial market-oriented
vegetable production in the PNG Islands Region and
to identify constraints to production.
The workshop was organised in seven sessions, as
follows:
• opening session
• marketing and economics
• farmers’ experiences and viewpoints
• vegetable research in the Islands Region
• pest and disease management in vegetable crops
• extension services for vegetable growers
• training and education.
In the afternoon of the second day, the participants
were divided into the following three working groups:
• markets and economics
• extension and industry support
• research.
The findings of the working groups were presented
and discussed in the concluding session.
Session 1: Opening Session
Opening remarks were delivered by Sir Alkan Tololo,
Chancellor of UOV and Chairman of the NARI
Council. Professor Walter Wong, Vice Chancellor of
UOV, delivered a welcoming address. The workshop
was officially opened by the Hon. Leo Dion, Deputy
Governor of East New Britain Province. The opening
session concluded with a paper by Henry Gowen
(Regional Horticulturist, New Guinea Islands), which
examined the potential for horticultural development
in the region. He listed a number of real or alleged constraints to production, as follows:
• unsuitable climate;
• no market;
* National Agricultural Research Institute, PO Box 4415,
Lae, Morobe Province, PNG. Email: [email protected]
† University of Vudal, Private Mail Bag, Rabaul, East New
Britain Province, PNG.
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Proceedings.book Page 589 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
• pest problems;
price trends in the Kokopo market as monitored by
FPDC surveys. While some crops follow an expected
pattern of seasonal fluctuations within a long-term
trend, other crops have performed differently. The
reason for these differences was discussed.
• lack of knowledge of vegetable growing;
• land shortages;
• lack of extension support; and
• lack of commitment by growers.
Brown Konabe (NARI WLLIP) presented a paper
that discussed budgeting farm vegetable production
for a prospective commercial horticultural enterprise
in East New Britain Province. He identified the following stages:
He also noted that most growers practise low-input
agriculture, usually using home-saved seed or vegetative planting material, and they plant gardens without
artificial fertiliser or pesticides. This paper set the scene
for the papers and discussions later in the workshop.
• estimate market demand;
• decide what can be grown and sold;
Session 2: Marketing and Economics
• develop a production plan to meet demand;
• cost the production for each crop in the cropping
mix; and
Levi ToViliran (Division of Primary Industry (DPI)
advisor) described the policy of the East New Britain
Province DPI in relation to vegetable marketing. This
policy is very much in the formative stage and needs to
reflect the workshop recommendations. The DPI has
historically attached more importance to cash crops
such as cocoa and vanilla. However, the DPI is concerned about marketing arrangements for fresh
produce and the possible need for depots or central
buying points. The construction of a new town market
in Kokopo is one issue that needs to be tackled, with
the assistance of the Gazelle Restoration Authority.
• combine the information to produce a model budget
for the whole enterprise.
Mr Konabe presented higher (and more inclusive)
demand estimates for supermarkets and hotels than
those given by FPDC (see Table 1). He also estimated
prices likely to be obtained by growers and gave
expected yields for the same crops (Table 2).
Mr Konabe’s annual farm budget summary showed
expenditure of about 34,000 PGK per year for producing 3 tonnes of potato, 1 tonne of cabbage, 700 kg
of carrots, 300 kg of lettuce, 300 kg of tomatoes and
200 kg of capsicum per month. Value of sales was estimated to be almost 81,000 PGK per year, with a gross
margin of 47,800 PGK per year. However, production
of carrots and potatoes (67% of total production) was
assumed to be undertaken at a high altitude site in the
Bainings, not in the lower Gazelle area.
Current marketing arrangements in East New
Britain Province were described by Elisabeth Melchior of the FPDC. Markets were classified as
informal or formal. Informal markets are dominated
by growers selling their own produce and include town
markets in Rabaul, Kokopo and Keravat as well as
many roadside markets. Formal markets include
supermarkets, hotels, restaurants and kaibars and institutions (schools, hospitals, prisons etc.). Supply to the
formal markets in East New Britain Province tends to
be dominated by institutional growers.
Peter Mwayawa (UOV) reported an experiment to
compare the effect of different fertilisers (organic and
inorganic) on cabbage. Mean yields (over three crops)
are shown in Table 3. The beneficial effect of applying
organic material such as grass clippings or sawdust
was apparent. A simple economic analysis showed
that these two treatments gave the highest return to the
farmer, even after taking into account the additional
labour required for mulch application.
Henry Gowen then presented a paper on market
information. He presented a crude, incomplete estimate of a formal market demand of 146,000 PNG kina
(PGK)1 per year. Because of incomplete information,
the real demand is probably twice this figure. The
share of the major crops is (by value): potato 33%,
cabbage 27%, carrot 14%, broccoli 10%, lettuce 7%,
tomato 5% and capsicum 4%. Demand for potato,
carrot and broccoli must be met from high altitude production areas, and these commodities are currently
being supplied from the highlands provinces or from
overseas. Mr Gowen also presented information on
1.
Mrs Miree New, manager of Anderson’s Rabaul
store, explained the difficulties a supermarket faced in
obtaining adequate quantities of quality produce from
local suppliers. Supermarkets such as Anderson’s
need reliable suppliers who can offer a range of
quality produce on a regular basis. Continuity of
supply is a major problem and the quantity currently
supplied is inadequate.
In 1999, 1 PGK = approx. US$0.40 (A$0.60).
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Proceedings.book Page 590 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Session 3: Farmers’ Experiences and
Viewpoints
• pig damage to the garden (neighbours’ pigs not
fenced); and
• some shops selling seeds that do not germinate well.
Five farmers or farmers’ representatives discussed
vegetable production in the Gazelle area from their
point of view. The farmers came from different backgrounds and had varying experiences.
Despite these problems, Mr Madara was willing to
continue with production. He considered market
arrangements to be the major problem.
Lady Nerrie Tololo
Eremas Madara (Tavui village)
Lady Tololo spoke in her capacity as chairman of
East New Britain Council of Women (ENBCW).
Women grow vegetables to feed their families and
produce surplus for sale. Lady Tololo highlighted
problems faced by women farmers, who make up the
majority of vegetable growers:
Eremas Madara was assisted by UOV to develop
commercial cabbage production. His main observations and problems were:
• production was not successful without addition of
organic manure;
• marketing difficulties (transport, returning with
unsold produce, no storage);
• stealing of cabbages from his garden (and wantoks —
friends and relations—expecting handouts);
• difficulty of accessing formal markets;
• poor quality of produce and lack of knowledge on
how to improve quality;
Table 1. Estimated annual formal market demand for selected vegetables in East New Britain Province.
Crop
Annual demand
Kilograms
PGKa
Potato
74 892
116 083
55.5
37.3
Carrot
16 044
78 295
11.9
25.2
English cabbage
% by weight
% by value
23 208
43 399
17.2
14.0
Lettuce
8 124
36 802
6.0
11.8
Capsicum
5 376
18 386
4.0
5.9
Tomato
Total
aIn
7 200
17 928
5.3
5.8
134 844
310 893
100.0
100.0
1999, 1 PNG kina (PGK) = approx. US$0.40 (A$0.60).
Table 2. Expected farm yields and price paid by
formal market buyers for selected vegetables
in East New Britain Province.
Table 3. The effect of different organic and inorganic
fertilisers on cabbage (mean yields over
three crops).
Crop
Fertiliser treatment
Yield
(t/ha)
Price expectation
(PGK/kg)a
English cabbage
30
Capsicum
Yield (t/ha)
Chicken manure plus grass clippings
23.9
1.50
Chicken manure plus balsa sawdust
23.8
20
2.50
N:P:Ka
Carrot
20
3.00
Urea only
18.1
Lettuce
20
2.50
Chicken manure alone
16.5
Potato
15
1.50
No fertiliser applied
15.2
Tomato
20
2.00
aIn
(12:12:17) only
aNitrogen,
2000, 1 PNG kina (PGK) = approx. US$0.40 (A$0.60).
590
phosphorus, potassium fertiliser
18.4
Proceedings.book Page 591 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
• inadequate feeder roads to main roads, making
market access difficult;
• lack of visits by extension workers;
• poor condition of the Kokopo market—need for
improved market facilities;
• wastage of unsold produce at the end of each day
(no storage); and
• pest and disease problems affecting production.
A colleague from ENBCW, Salatiel Williams from
Napapar village, spoke about production problems at
the farm level and mentioned that traditional remedies
were used by farmers for pest control in their gardens.
keting, but other problems differed according to the
farmers’ social environment and their degree of commercialisation and training in vegetable production
practices.
Session 4: Vegetable Research in the
Islands Region
Five papers were presented in this session. Each paper
is briefly summarised below.
Dr K. Thiagalingam argued for the need to carry out
vegetable production research within a commercial
farm situation. At least initially this can be a commercial vegetable production operation managed by an
institution (e.g. NARI, UOV, Sonoma). This has a
number of advantages:
• the research data collected in a commercial farm
situation will be accurate and realistic for economic
analysis;
• research activities can also generate revenue, which
will help finance the cost of the research;
• research plots can also be used to train extension
officers, cadet scientists and farmers; and
• new technology can be tested before transferring the
technology to the farmer.
Brown Konabe (NARI WLLIP) presented a review
of aibika research in the Islands Region. He described
14 aibika trials conducted in East New Britain Province, mostly at the Lowlands Agricultural Experiment
Station (LAES), since independence. These included
seven variety trials, five fertiliser trials and two trials
on other agronomic practices (mulching, harvesting
methods). There is a substantial body of information
on variety performance, but the trials were often
affected by pests, diseases or poor plant establishment,
which affected the validity of variety comparisons.
There is also a need to standardise management practices for aibika trials (spacing, plot size, harvesting
method) to improve the validity of yield comparisons.
Fertiliser trials showed surprisingly little response to
nitrogen application. The mulching trial failed to show
significant yield differences as a result of mulch application. Unfortunately, the results of the harvesting
method trial have been lost. Work on aibika pests was
reported separately by Adrian Schuhbeck (see below).
Dr Geoff Wiles presented a review of introduced
vegetable research in the islands region. He focused on
four main crops: potato, Chinese and English cabbage
and tomato. His main conclusions were as follows.
• Potato shows potential for commercial production
at altitudes above 500 metres above sea level.
Sam Napatai (Sonoma area)
Sam Napatai, originally from Enga and an exSonoma student, talked about his attempts to establish
commercial vegetable production in the Gazelle. He
grows a range of vegetables, including cabbage (English and Chinese), capsicum, tomatoes, silver beet and
watermelon. The main constraints are, in his opinion:
• weather conditions (heavy rain and hot sun);
• insect pests, especially diamond back moth;
• competition with similar produce from highlands
provinces; and
• theft of produce from gardens.
Some financial assistance for vegetable production
was available from Kokopo Local Level Government
(LLG).
Gaena Iwais Ezokic (manager, UOV
commercial farm)
Mr Ezokic described attempts by the UOV to adopt
practices such as alley cropping, organic farming and
use of cover crops in their vegetable production program. The farm is used for teaching, supplying the
UOV mess and revenue generation from the sale of
surplus produce. Marketing of produce has encountered some problems and there are plans to establish a
farm shop. Income and expenditure data are collected
for all farm enterprises. In 1998, income from food
crops (not only vegetables) was 21,123 PGK and
expenditure amounted to 24,900 PGK, a net loss of
3777 PGK. There is the potential to improve profitability by selecting those crops with good market
demand and an attractive price to growers. Mr Ezokic
suggested that vegetable growers should form an association to promote marketing of their produce.
This session provided views from institutional
growers, settlers and local Tolai farmers, both men and
women. All groups experienced difficulties with mar-
591
Proceedings.book Page 592 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Fertiliser application was shown to be beneficial. At
Lelet (950 metres above sea level), the variety
Sequoia yielded well. At lower altitudes the variety
Dalisay may be superior.
1994 and 1998, and results of attempts to promote
commercial cabbage production with Gazelle area
farmers. Based on trials conducted at UOV the top five
cultivars are shown in Table 4.
• Several Chinese cabbage varieties have outyielded
Saladeer in trials, and some of these have shown less
soft rot damage. Wong bok types generally produce
only loose heads under the conditions at LAES.
Ten cabbage cultivars were compared on 10 farms.
However, crops on four farms were destroyed by
diamond back moth. Based on the six crops harvested, the best yielding cultivars are shown in
Table 5. In this trial, KY Cross performed better than
Eureka. KK Cross, which is believed to be the same
as Tropic Cross, gave much smaller heads than the
latter in this trial. There was a significant site by cultivar interaction. Lower yields reflected differences
in head size and in the proportion of plants forming
marketable heads.
• English cabbage variety trials have generally
confirmed that the recommended lowland variety
KK Cross is as good as, or better than, other
available varieties. This appears to be true at
Malasaet (about 550 metres above sea level) as well
as at LAES.
• A series of tomato trials have shown that varieties
which combine heat tolerance, resistance to
bacterial wilt and medium to large fruit size are
needed for successful production in the Gazelle
area. The hybrid Polyred can be recommended and
Heatmaster (a recently released hybrid) looks
promising. Seed saved from local farmers’ varieties
outyielded bacterial wilt resistant varieties Island
Red and Alafua Large. Tomato production under
plastic shelters appeared promising, and further
work is recommended.
As a follow up to this trial, 10 farmers were selected
for pilot commercial production of head cabbages.
Each farmer had a plot of either 200 or 400 square
metres divided between the four best cultivars from
the previous trial. Farmers’ average yields were:
Eureka—22.2 tonnes per hectare (t/ha); KY Cross—
22.1 t/ha; KK Cross—21.4 t/ha and Tropic Cross—
15.4 t/ha. Farm average yields ranged from 14.7–
27.9 t/ha. All cultivars gave acceptable yields, but
yields under farmer management were somewhat
lower than those from the researcher managed plots
reported above.
Two papers by Peter Mwayawa (UOV) presented
cabbage variety trial results obtained at UOV between
Table 4. Characteristics of the top five cabbage cultivars in variety trials at the University of Vudal, 1994–98.
Cultivar
Supplier
Earliness
Yield (t/ha)
Remarks
Eureka
Yates
Mid-season
63.0
Firm heads
KY Cross
Takii
Early
45.3
Susceptible to soft rot
KK Cross
Takii
Early
38.7
Susceptible to soft rot
Green Crown Cross
Takii
Mid-season
45.0
Resistant to Rhizoctonia rot
Tropic Cross
Yates
Early
35.0
Synonym of KK Cross
Table 5. Yield, head size and earliness of the best yielding cabbage cultivars in variety trials on six farms on the
Gazelle Peninsula.
Cultivar
Yield (t/ha)
No. heads
harvested/plot
Average weight
(kg/head)
Age at maturity
KY Cross
55.1
28.3
1.81
56 DAP
Tropic Cross
47.6
28.3
1.78
56 DAP
Eureka
44.6
30.0
1.54
70 DAP
KK Cross
33.8
27.5
1.27
56 DAP
Green Gold
28.0
26.2
1.09
70 DAP
DAP = days after planting
592
Proceedings.book Page 593 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Session 5: Pest and Disease
Management in Vegetable Crops
• regular scouting to check for the presence of pests
and diseases (with hand picking of pests and
roguing of diseased plants if necessary);
• use of biological pesticides (e.g. Biobit) or plant
derived pesticides (e.g. derris);
• removal or burying of crop debris after harvest; and
• use of crop rotation to reduce carry over of pests
and diseases.
General advice on use of plant derived pesticides
(derris root, chilli, neem and pyrethrum) was provided.
Incidents of resistance to pesticides (Karate, Orthene,
Dercis) were noted. The speaker also raised concern
over unnecessarily strict quarantine procedures for
import of vegetable seeds.
Steve Woodhouse, of Farmset Rabaul, reviewed
pesticide usage in PNG. He emphasised basic safety
measures when handling pesticides:
• always read the label;
• use recommended rates and application methods;
• wear the correct protective gear;
• never repack chemicals into other containers;
• keep children and animals away when mixing
chemicals;
• choose the right chemical for a particular problem;
and
• dispose of chemicals safely.
He noted that smallholders have tended to use only
a few chemicals (e.g. Karate, Orthene) and that fungicide use is minimal. Newer biological products
include Biobit, and, more recently, Azoxystrobin (a
fungicide derived from mushrooms). Use of adjuvants, stickers and penetrants to improve the effectiveness of other chemicals was recommended.
Pere Kokoa gave a talk on vegetable diseases in the
Islands Region. He listed the following diseases as
important.
Tomato
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium spp.)
Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii)
Brown leaf spot (Corynespora cassiicola)
Early blight (Alternaria solani)
Fruit rots (2, 4, 5 and Phytophthora parasitica)
Blossom end rot (lack of calcium)
Capsicum
• Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
• Leaf spot (Cercospora sp., Cladosporium sp.)
• Fruit spot (Curvularia lunata, Colletotrichum
gloeosporoides, Fusarium sp.)
Aibika
• Collar rot (Phytophthora nicotianae, Fusarium sp.)
Lettuce
• Soft rot (Erwinia carotovora)
Cabbage
• Head rot (Rhizoctonia solani)
Session 6: Extension Services for
Vegetable Growers
Potato
Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Early blight (Alternaria solani)
Black scurf (Rhizoctonia solani)
Common scab (Streptomyces scabies)
Blackleg (Erwinia carotovora)
Potato leaf roll virus
Fusarium dry rot (Fusarium solani, F. oxysporum)
Some suggestions on how to control vegetable crop
diseases were given.
Adrian Schuhbeck followed with a talk on integrated pest management. He emphasised a number of
ways to produce healthy crops with minimal use of
chemical pesticides:
• heat-sterilising nursery soil;
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Egi Mada, of Brian Bell, discussed issues of seed
supply. National seed imports in 1995 were
1238 tonnes (see Table 6).
Table 6. National seed imports in 1995.
Crop type
Tonnes
Graina
1150.6
Potato
84.0
Vegetables
Total
aIncludes
593
3.0
1237.6
corn, rice, sorghum, grasses and legume cover
Proceedings.book Page 594 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
date, practical and economically sound. He highlighted the diversity of information sources available
and the potential confusion as to which source to use.
Much published information is now out of date.
Researchers and extension staff also face problems in
updating extension materials, and have to strike a
balance between farmers’ urgent needs for information and the lack of reliable local experimental data.
Vegetable seed imports by Brian Bell rose from
693 kg in 1993 to 997 kg in 1995. Of these, the major
crops were: carrots (45%); Chinese cabbage (22%);
English cabbage (11%); beans and peas (8.4%); broccoli (3.7%); cucurbits (3.5%); capsicum (1.7%); and
tomato (1.3%).
Mr Mada proposed a number of steps to improve
seed supply:
• establish an official body for crop/variety testing;
• introduce seed laws;
• look at increasing the number of overseas suppliers
to increase competition; and
• revive seed production in PNG with private sector
involvement.
Problems of limited seed shelf life in PNG conditions were noted. Many packets do not have expiry
dates marked.
Seri Lowe, of East New Britain DPI, reported on
vegetable crop extension activities. Extension work on
vegetable crops has not been given serious attention in
the past. Recently some potential crops have been
identified for higher altitude areas in the Bainings
(potato, carrot, cabbage, capsicum, broccoli). Constraints identified to effective extension work
included:
• insufficient funds being available through the
provincial DPI Alternate Crops Section;
• land pressure in the Rabaul/Kokopo districts;
• lack of knowledgeable extension staff (production
and postharvest); and
• poor cooperation between different organisations
involved (DPI, FPDC, non-government organisations (NGOs) and women’s groups).
Some suggestions on how to address these constraints were given.
Henry Gowen described the FPDC extension program. Major components of the FPDC program are:
• market support activities;
• technical support activities;
• the seed potato program;
• the Food Processing and Preservation Unit; and
• the Socioeconomic Monitoring Unit.
The FPDC records farmer contacts as cases, and
these cases are recorded in a computer database. This
gives a permanent record of the reasons why farmers
seek advice and the response provided. This database
is a useful source of information on common problems
encountered by farmers in fruit and vegetable production.
Dr Geoff Wiles gave a brief talk on the information
about vegetable production available to farmers. He
stressed the need for information to be accurate, up to
Session 7: Training and Education
The activities of four institutions involved with
training for horticultural production were described.
• Sonoma College (Seventh Day Adventist)
• Vunamami Farmers Training Centre
• George Brown Pastors College
• Keravat Corrective Institution Service (CIS)
Those being trained vary from school leavers to
future pastors to prisoners. The different approaches
used and problems experienced were described. There
is an abundance of institutions in East New Britain
Province involved with agricultural training, and
several of these engage in significant vegetable production and marketing activities.
Session 8: Working Groups
In this final session, workshop participants split into
three working groups to discuss marketing and economics, extension and industry support and research
needs. The findings of the working groups are presented below.
Group A: marketing and economics
The marketing and economics group identified the
following issues and constraints.
Issues
• Lack of provincial strategy
• Infrastructure development
• Poor quality produce
• Inconsistent supply
• Market information
• Lack of promotion of produce by local marketers
• Downstream processing
• Export and niche markets
• Open market regulation
Constraints
• No regular maintenance of roads
• Type of transport; higher freight costs
• Lack of storage and cool rooms (central depot)
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Proceedings.book Page 595 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Poor communication systems
An inadequate extension system
The need for postharvest research and information
Lack of data on production costs
Lack of radio market information
Farmer attitudes
Farmer training
• All parties to link with the Cocoa and Coconut
Research Institute (CCRI) and NARI
Group C: research needs
This group identified a number of general research
issues and then went on to describe specific research
needs for priority crops.
Group B: extension and industry support
General issues
• Variety testing should continue
• Research should involve farmers as far as possible
(i.e. adopt a farmer participatory approach)
• Onfarm trials should be conducted where
appropriate
• Data should be gathered on economics of
production of all important crops
The extension and industry support group identified
the following constraints and recommended that
incentives be put in place to promote production:
Constraints
• Lack of coordination between organisations (DAL,
NARI, DPI and FPDC)
• Need to establish strong links between the above
organisations
• Provincial DPI to budget for these links
• Need to overcome breakdown in communication
between district level and provincial administration
Incentives
• Availability of finance (credit facilities)
• Quality planting material and seed to be made
available
• Better marketing information and market facilities
• Cocoa and coconut farming systems strategies to
incorporate vegetable production
Specific priorities and priority crops
• Aibika: variety testing; pests; diseases; agronomy
• Pitpit: variety collection and description; collection
of traditional agricultural knowledge; variety
screening; maturity index; post harvest handling
• Cabbage: economics only
• Lettuce: varieties; diseases
• Tomato: varieties; rain shelters; diseases
• Capsicum: varieties
• Broccoli: heat-tolerant varieties; mid-altitude production (600–1200 metres above sea level)
Table 7. Initial membership of the Islands Region Vegetable Commodity Committee.
Representing
Name
Organisation
Formal market
Dennis McLean
Andersons Foodland, Kokopo
Open market
To be appointed
Kokopo/Vunamami LLG
Extension services
Levi ToViliran
East New Britain Province DPI
Henry Gowen
Fresh Produce Development Company
Vegetable farmers
Eremas Madara
Tavui village
Women farmers
Lady Tololo
East New Britain Council of Women
Regional DAL
Fred Dori
DAL Regional Director, Islands
Institutions
Peter Mwayawa
University of Vudal
NGOs
Isako Esekia
Sonoma College (Adventist)
Agriculture suppliers
Steve Woodhouse
Farmset, Rabaul
NARI (chairman)
Research Program Leader (ex officio)
NARI Wet Lowlands–Islands Programme
DAL = Department of Agriculture and Livestock; DPI = Division of Primary Industry; LLG = local level government;
NARI = National Agricultural Research Institute; NGO = nongovernment organisation
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Establishment of an Islands Region
Vegetable Commodity Committee
• Potato: seed supply; diseases; fertiliser rates; midaltitude production
• Carrots: commercial testing and pilot plantings at
mid-altitude
Finally, the workshop decided to establish a committee to be coordinated by NARI and address issues
relating to vegetable production. The initial membership of the committee was decided upon by the workshop participants, in order to represent all interested
parties (Table 7).
• Chinese cabbage: varieties
• Watermelon: varieties; pests and diseases
• Snake bean: varieties; pests
• Maize: varieties; corn ear worm control
596
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Towards an Understanding of Research and
Extension Needs in the Highlands: the 1999
Highlands Horticulture Workshop
B.J. Watson*
Abstract
The aims, objectives and methodology of the Highlands Horticulture Workshop conducted in Mt Hagen, PNG,
in 1999, are explained. Of the 70-plus fruit, vegetable, spice, industrial and ornamental crops listed, 27 crops or
crop groups are covered in detail in terms of the constraints and opportunities for research and extension. These
crops or groups are prioritised in order of importance, gauged by the workshop participants. Suggestions for the
future consultative process for more effective prioritisation, leading to maximisation of benefits to growers,
marketers and consumers, are detailed. Food security issues are incorporated in the prioritisation process.
THE highlands of central to western PNG, including
the provinces of Eastern Highlands, Simbu, Western
Highlands, Enga and Southern Highlands, are home to
some 320,000 farming families. The rural enterprises
involving these families range from substantial cash
crops including coffee, fresh produce and spices
through to the basic consumption root crops and pure
subsistence farming. The 70-plus crops and additional
traditional vegetables and forest products form a very
large number of farming systems. Some of these
systems are complex, particularly when combining
traditional and introduced crops.
However, few farming families are purely subsistence farmers, and the aspirations of families for education for children, an adequate protein diet and a
reasonable level of amenities drive the need for at least
some level of cash cropping.
These needs, together with the concerns for practices leading to sustainable land use, form the framework of the basic area of assistance from both
governmental and non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) that provide agricultural support services.
In the current situation, with very limited government funds available for research and extension
service activities, it was decided in early 1999 to
convene a workshop to reexamine the constraints and
opportunities for horticultural crop production and
postharvest concerns in the highlands. The aim was to
better prepare agricultural support organisations to
address high priority issues in the 21st century.
With sponsorship from the Australian Contribution
to the (PNG) National Agricultural Research Systems
(ACNARS) project and the National Agricultural
Research Institute (NARI), the workshop was convened at the Highlands Agricultural College (HAC) on
7–8 September 1999.
* Australian Contribution to the (PNG) National
Agricultural Research System (ACNARS) Project,
C/o Highlands Agricultural Experiment Station, Aiyura,
National Agricultural Research Institute, PO Box 384,
Kainantu, Eastern Highlands Province, PNG.
Email: [email protected]
We use the term ‘horticultural crops’ for the
majority of crops in the highlands based on small-scale
agriculture. The major exception is coffee.
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Workshop Aims and Objectives
Workshop Methodology
The principal aim was to provide information to
enable assistance to the 320,000 farming families
(approximately 2 million people) in the highlands, to
achieve a higher standard of living. Desirable supporting actions include:
The preworkshop activities included preparation of
crop profiles for some 36 horticultural crops or crop
groups to provide a basis of information and discussion for the workshop participants. Table 1 lists the
crop groups that were discussed at the workshop.
Information came from a number of researchers and
extension/outreach liaison personnel in various organisations. The draft crop profiles were circulated before
the workshop. Within the workshop itself, the following activities occurred:
• collecting information relative to the current status
of horticultural crop production and marketing;
• developing unified priority recommendations for
research, extension and development, relative to a
focus on assistance to growers, marketers and
consumers in the highlands in particular, but for the
country overall; and
• presentation of papers and discussion on fresh
produce imports into PNG and current and future
developments for fresh produce transport to major
coastal centres;
• strengthening links and future communication
between growers and the various organisations that
are, or will be, supporting agricultural development
in the highlands.
• discussion of possible ‘new’ crops with frost
resistance, which may enable the reduction of ‘taim
hangre’ situations (where there is insufficient food);
Table 1. Crops and crop groups considered at the workshop.
Crop
Alliums
WDGa
Crop
WDGa
Yes
Maize, sweet corn
Yes
Asparagus
No
Mango
Yes
Avocado
Yes
Pandanus spp.
Yes
Banana
Yes
Passionfruit
Yes
Beans
Yes
Pawpaw
Yes
Beetroot, parsnip, turnip
No
Peanut
Yes
Brassicas
Yes
Peas
Yes
Capsicum
Yes
Pineapple
Yes
Carrot
Yes
Potato
Yes
Cassava
Yes
Pyrethrum
No
Celery
Yes
Raspberry
No
Chilli
No
Strawberry
Yes
Citrus
Yes
Sugarcane
No
Cucurbits
Yes
Sweet potato
Yes
Cut flowers and foliage
No
Tamarillo
No
Eggplant
Yes
Taro and Xanthosoma
Yes
Ginger
Yes
Tomato
Yes
Lettuce
No
Yam
Yes
aSome
crops/crop groups were covered in workshop discussion groups (WDGs) in which
constraints and opportunities were developed. Three discussion groups were convened
concurrently and then their presentations were discussed by all participants.
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Specific Crop Statements
• discussion by workshop participants (in subgroups
for crops or crop groups) on constraints for
production and marketing and opportunities for
appropriate research and extension development
(this was followed by the compilation of lists for
further discussion);
The workshop produced 27 crop/crop group statements. The statement for sweet potato is provided as
an example below.
Crop statement—sweet potato
• the holding of plenary sessions for subgroup
presentations and general workshop discussion on
the issues raised; and
Sweet potato is the dominant staple crop in the highlands. Possibly the amount consumed per head of population has declined somewhat in recent years due to
the general increase in the cash economy and a more
varied diet, with rice and bread in particular making
inroads. However, with the population increase, there
is obviously a continuing increase in the area of the
crop planted. The demands placed on additional land
and probably shorter rotations between fallows are
matters of major concern.
• a summation by the chairman on the issues raised.
Only crops that are currently widely grown and
marketed/traded were formally covered in the workshop sessions. New crops or potential crops were not
included. It was considered that they should be
addressed by a specialised forum because most workshop participants had limited knowledge of these.
Some crops covered in the workshop are not particularly important, but were included so as not to deny
comment for future potential. Due to time limitations, only 27 of the 36 crops or crop groups covered
were included in the discussions and the compilation
of lists.
With possibly 730,000 tonnes of sweet potato produced in the highlands and some 3500 to 7000 tonnes
exported to major centres (mainly Port Moresby) per
year, the importance of this crop to food security and
the highlands cash crop income is very substantial.
On the matter of virus complexes, the question
remains that if growers are automatically selecting
for tolerance then in fact all cultivars are affected in
yield terms.
Participants and Responses
The workshop was open to all interested parties.
Unfortunately, growers were poorly represented but
overall there was a fair indication that grower concerns
were reflected well by the knowledge and range of participants, especially in the review sessions. There was
good representation from all the highland provinces
with the exception of Southern Highlands Province. A
total of 58 participants attended the workshop: NARI
(9), ACNARS (7), Fresh Produce Development
Company (FPDC) (9), provincial divisions of primary
industry (DPIs) (15), Porgera Joint Venture (4), HAC/
Department of Agriculture and Livestock (DAL) (4),
farmers (1), NGOs (5), consultants (1), PNG Forestry
(1) and others (2).
Production constraints
• Soil fertility decline and shorter rotations.
• The possible hidden effects of virus complexes.
• Disease pressure—leaf scab, stem blight and tuber
rots.
• Pests—sweet potato weevil and leaf gall mite.
• Rat damage and human theft—particularly during
droughts.
• Competition between coffee harvest and sweet
potato cultivation at critical periods.
• Effect of drought through loss of cultivars.
Other constraints
Development of Constraints and
Opportunities
• Marketing—high cost of transport and lack of
quality feeder roads to main roads.
• Low prices at production source (farm gate and
local markets).
For the 27 crops and crop groups covered, the constraints and opportunities for research and extension/
outreach liaison are presented in Tables 2 to 5. The
figures in the tables reflect the number of times the
constraint or opportunity was raised during discussion
of the 27 topics.
• Postharvest—tuber rot in long distance transit (very
substantial).
• Transport losses associated with lack of appropriate
curing, packaging, handling and rough roads.
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Table 2. Production concerns considered at the workshop.
Constraints topic
No. of
discussions
Problems with pests—insects, mammals and birds
15
Problems with diseases and nematodes
15
Availability of suitable varieties and cultivars and cost
14
Seasonality supply problems —too wet, too dry
10
Lack of knowledge of suitable varieties and cultivars
9
Lack of authentication (guarantee) of varieties and cultivars
8
Lack of production and marketing information
8
Deteriorating yields—soil fertility reduction
7
Crop nutritional disorders
6
Costs of inputs too high —fertilisers, seeds and chemicals
5
Availability of labour and cost
4
Problems with weed control
2
Theft of produce
2
Lack of nursery management information (vegetables mainly)
2
Land pressure in areas of premium cropping suitability
2
Lack of mechanisation
2
Lack of knowledge—rhizobium benefits for leguminous crops
2
Land modification requirement —terracing etc.
1
Table 3. Postharvest concerns considered at the workshop.
Constraints topic
No. of
discussions
Poor quality packaging materials and cost
9
Lack of cheap, suitable and reliable transport
8
No marketing infrastructure
7
Rots and blemishes in product in transit and at market
6
Lack of suitable depot cold storage and transport
6
Lack of curing, grading and discard of poor quality
5
Lack of processing information
5
Low prices and price fluctuations
5
Lack of market information
4
Saturated local markets
3
Lack of knowledge for prime maturity for marketing
2
Crops extremely perishable
2
Lack of varieties/cultivars with good storage life
2
Lack of suitable wholesalers for crop purchase
2
Lack of consumer awareness and product availability
1
Market hygiene—water sources contamination in particular
1
Toxins in peanuts
1
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Table 4. Opportunities—research benefits considered at the workshop.
Research topic
No. of
discussions
Pest, disease and production systems surveys
18
Selection and screening —local and introduced varieties and cultivars
for production and pest and disease resistance
16
Fertiliser/nutrition and organic additives studies
9
Irrigation research and development
6
Surveys—current consumer use and nutritional values
6
Develop processing opportunities
6
Soil degradation studies
4
Integrated pest management development
3
Review past research
3
Cooperator screening for new varieties and cultivars
2
Screen fungicides
2
Develop low cost packaging
2
Develop information—economics of production
2
Develop cultural techniques
1
Plant breeding development
1
Develop crops easy to store
1
Weed control and mulching studies
1
Table 5. Opportunities—extension and development considered at the workshop.
Extension/development topic
No. of
discussions
Information development and effective extension liaison
9
Postharvest quality care —grading, better packaging, quality
presentation etc.
8
Promote disease free, authentic seed and planting material and identify/
promote reliable sources
7
Promote health aspects of fruit and vegetables
6
Develop market information systems
5
Develop container transport systems
5
Promote irrigation to reduce extremes in seasonality of supply
4
Facilitate cheaper vegetable seed cost
3
Develop recommendations —planting time for appropriate market
3
Promote crop rotations
3
Promote techniques for reduction of postharvest losses
3
Develop a PNG vegetable seed industry
2
Promote import substitution
2
Set up commodity groups
1
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Achievement of Workshop
Objectives
Opportunities—research benefits
• Studies of soil fertility and fallow management.
• Intensive study of pests and disease complexes
including virus status.
• Open pollinated selection and screening between
elite cultivars and those with virus complex
tolerance.
• Cultural techniques for adoption in dry periods.
• Cultural techniques to deal with the sweet potato
weevil.
• Downstream processing.
Within the timeframe of the workshop itself, it was not
possible to review, summarise and prioritise the issues
even for research alone. However, the lists provided in
Tables 1–5 and the 27 individual crop/crop group constraints and opportunities summaries, plus the 36 crop
profiles, should be a valuable guide for agricultural
support organisations for more detailed investigations
and for developing policy.
After the workshop, the author, with the cooperation
of specialist NARI research staff, corrected and
updated the 36 crop profiles. All materials derived
from the workshop and subsequent summaries were
circulated to all participant groups as draft proceedings in November 1999.
All three workshop objectives—collection of information, development of unified recommendations (the
issues of constraints and opportunities) and strengthening of links between the suppliers of agricultural
support services—were achieved.
Opportunities—extension and development
• Promotion of information on cultivars and access
to these.
• Promotion of cultural techniques already established
for reduction in sweet potato weevil damage.
• Blanket extension (radio).
• Promotion of soil management concepts—basic
erosion control, soil fertility, sustainability etc.
• Development issues, FPDC—improve transport/
handling facilities to reduce postharvest losses.
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Impacts of Biotechnology on
Food Security and Food Quality
D. Singh*, P. Kaushal† and M. Singh‡
Abstract
The use of biotechnological processes like tissue culture and genetic engineering will be extremely important
in devising new ways of increasing food production, improving nutrient content and providing better
processing and storage characteristics, especially in a developing country such as PNG, where there is a wealth
of plant genetic resources. However, because biotechnology is such a new technology, particularly in PNG,
there are considerable constraints for agricultural production, distribution and food quality, which are likely to
impede the early introduction and adoption of biotechnology products requiring special technical attention.
However, emerging biotechnology should be given a chance, provided that regulations are established in
relation to labelling, health and environmental safety and patenting of genes.
THE impact of new techniques resulting from
advances in biotechnology, when applied to various
aspects of agriculture, will radically change food and
agricultural production, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The use of biotechnological processes, such
as tissue culture and genetic engineering, will be
extremely important in devising new ways of
increasing food production, improving nutrient
content and providing better processing and storage
characteristics. Studies carried out by the United
States Office of Technology Assessment (OTA 1986)
have indicated that, if these new techniques are systematically applied to agriculture, they could contribute to meeting global food needs.
The governments of the Pacific countries, including
PNG, are aware of the potential of biotechnology to
speed up the genetic improvement of plant species
and, consequently, to increase food security. How-
ever, at the same time, there is a growing concern from
some consumer organisations, public health organisations, scientists, farmers and individuals about the
effectiveness and safety of biotechnology and its
impact on food security. Critics and sceptics believe
that biotechnology poses unprecedented risks in relation to food quality and security. Biotechnology techniques have only recently been used in PNG. The
considerable constraints associated with agricultural
production, distribution and food quality should not be
underestimated and will probably impede the early
introduction and adoption of biotechnology products
that require special technical attention. In this paper,
we provide an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of biotechnology and its impact on food
security in relation to PNG circumstances.
Biotechnology: A Technical and
Historical Perspective
* Bubia Research Station, National Agricultural Research
Institute, PO Box 1639, Lae 411, Morobe Province, PNG.
† Division of Crop Improvement, Indian Grassland and
Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, 284003, India.
‡ University of Sydney, Camden Campus, Private Bag 3,
Camden, NSW 2570, Australia.
The origins of biotechnology go back to the beginnings of civilisation, when people first began to grow
and select crops for food instead of gathering food
from the wild. The domestication, selection and
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hybridisation of food plants for specific characteristics
became a routine process for farmers. In the 1860s,
Gregor Mendel gave this process of selection a scientific basis when he established the first principles of
genetics. In the 1900s, studies suggested that the chromosomes located in each cell’s nucleus carried the
code of hereditary characteristics. Further studies
showed that chromosomes are comprised of genes and
that genes are made up of DNA—the biological material that conveys the instructions governing hereditary
characteristics. In 1953, Watson and Crick revealed
the structure of the DNA molecule and this knowledge
formed the foundation for the development, in the
1970s, of recombinant DNA technology, a method
whereby strands of DNA can be combined or moved
from one organism to another. Over the last 30 years,
such advances have been refined to allow modern
gene technology.
Hence, biotechnology has become a difficult term to
define. Today, it is used to refer to methods that do not
rely on traditional cross-hybridisation but, instead,
rely on a variety of modern methods that aim to propagate new and useful cultivars very rapidly. These
methods include tissue culture and, most recently,
genetic modification. The latter involves the isolation
of desired genetic material from a donor organism,
cutting or editing it as required and transferring it into
the genes of a host organism. With the manipulation of
genetic material (genetic engineering), permanent
modification of crop species and, consequently, genetically modified (GM) food can be produced. Thus,
GM food can be defined as food which contains ingredients that have had their genetic structure modified in
order to produce desirable characteristics in a particular crop. Such characteristics include higher yield or
inherent resistance to pests in crop plants, or specific
nutritional properties or enhanced storage capability
of food products.
In the past few years a variety of foods produced
through biotechnology have shown positive results in
some countries. Biotechnology has been applied to a
whole range of technologies, some of which are relatively basic, such as traditional microbial processes in
food and beverage fermentation, and some of which
are more advanced, such as biotechnological control
of pests.
Various biotechnology techniques and their direct
application to agricultural improvement and to
attaining food security are summarised below.
Tissue culture
The direct application of plant tissue culture (or in
vitro culture) include isolation of virus-free lines and
micropropagation of many species and varieties of
food crops. Micropropagation allows growers to be
supplied with multiple planting material that is
healthy and free of disease. This technique proved to
be very effective in 1976 when, following an exceptional drought, there was a proliferation of virusbearing aphids in France. To avoid a disaster for
potato crops and food security, in vitro micropropagation was used to produce millions of disease-free
tubers (Sasson 1990).
Many developing countries have the ability to make
use of tissue culture, particularly for micropropagation.
In PNG, crop species that can be micropropagated for
commercialisation include economically important
species such as cassava, potato, sweet potato, taro,
yam, banana, coffee, orchids, oil palm and coconut.
Several of these crops play an important role in the
economy and in securing staple food stocks in PNG.
The induction of haploid plants (possessing half the
chromosome number of the normal plant) by the technique of anther culture is becoming very popular for
breeding crops. Haploidisation offers the possibility,
after hybridisation, of the regeneration of the gametic
segregations of a hybrid as plants (Demarly 1989).
Haploid plants can be converted into dihaploid plants
(possessing normal chromosome number) by the use
of certain chemicals in in vitro cultures. In theory,
dihaploid plants contain all the genetic material of the
initial parent hybrid. Importantly, this operation can be
carried out in 1–2 years, whereas a similar outcome
could be achieved only after some 10 years with conventional methods of self-fertilisation. The technique
has been successfully used in rice and other crops to
produce in a short period of time varieties that are
stable, resistant lines against biotic and abiotic
stresses. This technique is of particular significance to
Positive Impacts of Biotechnology
Agriculture is constantly seeking new technologies to
keep pace with population growth and environmental
constraints. Traditional cross-breeding methods for
improving crops are slow. There is concern that, even
if we could redistribute what we grow now, it may not
be possible to feed the anticipated 10 billion world
population by the year 2030. Biotechnology is offered
by scientists as means of increasing food security for
developing countries. It has the potential to improve
crop yields and quality, and may facilitate farming in
areas previously unsuitable for food production.
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PNG for cereal crops such as rice, and for oil palm.
Since rice is becoming a major staple, several breeding
programs are being carried out to make PNG self-sufficient through the release of promising new lines.
There is no doubt that this technique will help in
achieving that goal in much less time than conventional plant breeding methods. This time-saving technique may also have an impact on fruit trees and other
perennial species that have a long generation time.
Substantial genetic variability, referred to as somaclonal variation, has been observed in tissue culture
regenerated plants. Somaclonal variation may offer
the potential for producing genotypes tolerant to stress
conditions such as acidic or toxic soils, heat, cold and
drought. In PNG, there is a wide range of agroecological zones and no single variety performs well in all
zones. Therefore, somaclonal variation could be
exploited to produce varieties suitable for different
agroecological zones.
Plant genetic resources (PGRs) are the basis of longterm economic development and food security. Biological diversity makes it possible to increase the
number of foods available. However, the loss of
genetic variability results may lead to an increase of
crop susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses. Conventionally, the PGRs are maintained in situ as gene
banks (in field conditions). Past experience has shown
the pitfalls of trying to maintain in situ collections. In
vitro technologies, like storage using slow growth
regimes (to extend subculture intervals) and cryopreservation (long-term, ultra-low temperature storage
of germplasm that cannot be stored as seeds), offer
alternative methods that are safe, reliable, manageable
and cost-effective.
usage, which means food free of chemicals and a
reduction in the impact of chemicals on the environment. Secondly, the availability of crops that thrive in
adverse conditions (e.g. drought and saline or acidic
soils) could enable farmers to expand production into
marginal lands. Thirdly, nutritional contents of food
staples could be improved. For example, researchers
are manipulating maize to produce a number of amino
acids that it naturally lacks so that the 80 million
people who live almost exclusively on maize can
obtain a more balanced diet. A series of such modifications has now been achieved through biotechnology.
Although becoming popular in developed countries,
the results of such research are still far from being
applicable on a scale appropriate for agricultural
exploitation in developing countries such as PNG.
However, once fully applicable, our agricultural crops
may undergo a radical transformation with genetic
modification, which may assist in feeding an
expanding world population in coming decades.
DNA markers
A major problem with conventional breeding
methods is that progeny must be raised in field conditions and populations of plants must be grown to maturity to enable selection of superior lines of interest for
growing in successive generations. This process is
time consuming (especially for slow-maturing crops
such as tree crops), and may not be particularly accurate. The problem can be reduced considerably if the
genes that are difficult to score are tagged with a
genetic marker. Biotechnology offers DNA markers to
assist in such selection. Accurate and more reliable
selection can be achieved in laboratories, rather than in
the field, and can save considerable time and
resources. For instance, traits such as content of
soluble solids in tomato, conditioned by the presence
of the gene 2-tridecanone, can now be selected by the
use of specific DNA probes or markers (Tanksley and
Hewitt 1988). Researchers are now working to mark
the entire tomato genome, which would be extremely
useful in selecting genes that are difficult to score in
the field.
DNA fingerprinting, based on similar principles, can
be used in describing differences between varieties.
This can be used as a major tool in the rationalisation of
germplasm collections (by identifying similar lines and
eliminating duplications). PNG is very rich in plant
genetic resources, but conserving germplasm in a
rational economic approach has always been a
problem. DNA fingerprinting is now being used by the
Genetic modification
Genetic modification is achieved through genetic
engineering (GE) techniques, in which DNA is transferred from the cell of one species to the cell of another
species (often unrelated). In this way, desired genes
can be synthesised artificially in the laboratory and
cloned. For example, scientists have isolated the gene
responsible for producing an ‘antifreeze’ substance in
arctic flounder fish and have transferred it into fruits
such as tomatoes and strawberries in order to make
them frost resistant. Similarly, some crop species have
been genetically modified to make them resistant to
herbicides, or to produce their own insecticide.
The applications of GE are manifold. Firstly, GE
offers resistance to crop pests to improve production.
At the same time, it may reduce chemical pesticide
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National Agricultural Research Institute, and the PNG
University of Technology, to accurately identify genetically similar cultivars and eliminate duplications.
permanently disabled or afflicted more than 5000
others with EMS.
Another case of an adverse outcome of GE involved
the use of a yeast that had been genetically modified to
increase the rate of fermentation, but which ultimately
resulted in the accumulation of the toxic metabolite
methyl glyoxal (Inose and Kousaku 1995).
Although obvious health problems arising from GM
organisms may be rare, the unpredictability of their
emergence is of considerable concern. These examples highlight the fact that there are potential hidden
dangers when genetic engineers are artificially manipulating the finest level of life. Because the technology
is so new, the medium- and long-term effects of introducing GM organisms into the environment or the
food chain are unknown and may be unpredictable.
Biotechnology companies believe that they can help
poor farmers by tailoring their crops and expanding
their food production. However, many activists think
the opposite—they fear that, through the commercialisation of GM crops, agricultural resources will be
controlled by a handful of large multinational companies who may ultimately determine what can and
cannot be grown. What is more, the high price of the
technology may lead to a situation whereby the few
farmers who can afford GM seeds will be able to outcompete their poorer neighbours and will eventually
buy them out.
In the United States, some farmers have already
been forced into an agreement with powerful biotechnology companies under which they can purchase seed
only from those companies, which is a costly exercise
for a poor farmer. Even if they want to produce their
own seed, they cannot because the variety has been
modified in such a way that second generation seeds
are not viable in the following year. For example, a
‘terminator’ gene has been developed that causes
seeds to self-destruct, thus preventing their use the
next year and forcing the farmers to buy seed from the
companies each year. In these circumstances, farmers
would have to abandon the age-old practice of using
one year’s seed for the next year’s sowing. Poor
farmers, especially in developing countries, cannot
afford to make royalty payments for seed each year.
In addition, a handful of GM varieties offered under
the label of GE would inevitably be more genetically
uniform, hence more susceptible to unforeseen
stresses, than the plethora of conventionally bred varieties. This problem could be significant in Pacific
countries, especially PNG, where there is more
existing crop diversity together with greater environmental stresses. These countries also have limited
Negative Impacts of Biotechnology
Concerns about the potential for GM foods to
adversely affect human health have been raised but,
because the technology is relatively new, the question
has not been fully resolved. It is now estimated that
60% of processed food contains ingredients from
organisms created by GE. Over the last decade, GM
soybeans have been widely used, either directly or
indirectly, in processed foods, including margarine,
salad dressings, biscuits, cakes, breads, confectionery
and many other common foods. As yet, there is no
strong, clear-cut evidence that GM foods have an
impact on human health, but some people have argued
that the consumer is virtually a guinea pig in this vast
nutritional experiment.
Also of concern to some scientists and some
members of the public is the use of antibiotic-resistance marker genes in GM crops, because of the risk
that exposure to these genes will eventually lead to the
development of antibiotic resistance in the bacteria
found in the intestines of animals or humans who eat
those crops.
Another health concern with GM foods is their
potential to be allergenic to people who consume
them. Recent studies suggest that allergies caused by
plants are triggered by plant proteins involved in
defence against pests and diseases. Thus, plants that
have been genetically modified to increase resistance
to diseases and pests may have a higher allergenic
potential than unmodified plants. For example, a
soybean variety that was modified to include a brazil
nut gene was shown to contain the protein that causes
allergy to those particular nuts (Nordlee et al. 1996).
However, this was discovered during trials before the
modified soybean was marketed for human use.
In 1989, a new disease epidemic, eosinophilia
myalgia syndrome (EMS)—a potentially fatal and
painful blood disorder—emerged in the United States.
It was eventually traced, after several months, to the
consumption of a particular brand of L-tryptophan (a
common dietary food supplement) derived from bacteria that had been genetically modified to overproduce this amino acid. The modification unexpectedly
resulted in the formation of a novel toxin that then contaminated the final product (Mayeno and Gleich
1994). The disease killed more than 30 Americans and
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financial resources and may not be able to pay multinational companies for the rights to incorporate proprietary genes into local varieties.
Scientists who discover genes and ways of manipulating them can patent not only GE techniques but also
the genes that they have modified . Should the use of
GM crops become widespread, and old varieties lost
from agriculture, it is possible that a small corporate
elite could own a substantial proportion of the world’s
food resources. It is also possible that, within the next
few decades, agriculture will move off the soil and into
biosynthetic industrial factories that are controlled by
a few giant chemical and biotechnology companies.
There is a fear that farmers will loose their livelihoods
and, consequently, that food will become secure only
for the wealthy.
relation to public awareness and education, the public
interest group Consumers International has called for
better consultation on GM foods. Consumers International recommends that GM foods should be carefully
monitored for any health, socioeconomic and environmental consequences and that regulations and controls should be put in place to ensure the safety of all
GM organisms.
The best way to meet these recommendations is to
label all GM foods, or their components, that come
onto the market, so that consumers are in a position to
decide for themselves whether to buy GM products. A
symbol identifying GM foods, recognised around the
world, should be developed and products labelled if
they have ingredients that have been derived from GM
organisms. While this subject is currently being
addressed by a number of developed countries, it will
be a costly exercise, particularly for developing countries. In addition, developing nations will need to
ensure that they are not exploited by large multinational companies, particularly through regulatory
loopholes, and that they protect their people against
becoming involved in what may be tantamount to a
giant human experiment.
The Future
It is clear that biotechnology can offer both advantages
and disadvantages to people and to the environment.
We believe that imposing an interdiction on the technology now would be a mistake because the potential
for benefit is considerable. Gene technology is an
entirely new science and could indeed be the leading
science of the 21st century. We should keep an open
mind and proceed according to genuine scientific evidence. The use of GE in modifying organisms is
important in devising new ways to increase food production, improve nutrient content and provide better
processing and storage characteristics. However, we
believe that GE should be used as an adjunct to, and
not as a substitute for, conventional technologies.
However, this huge experiment is not just a debate
about modified organisms, farm income or food security. It is a debate that strikes all of us in a fundamental
way—it is about who decides what we eat. It is
important that we do not stifle an emerging and promising technology but, at the same time, we must take
a precautionary approach to the labelling of GM
foods. The public has a right to know what they are
eating and to have a choice of eating foods free of
genetic modification.
In this context, a joint Food and Agriculture Organization–World Health Organization expert consultation on Biotechnology and Food Safety was held in
Rome in September–October 1999. This meeting
highlighted the fact that, when new foods or food
components are developed using GE, there are both
national legal requirements and consumer expectations that effective systems for the assessment of food
safety will be developed and implemented. Also, in
In implementing biotechnology safely and wisely
for attaining food security, developing countries need
to be provided with assistance and education in
matters relating to the safety assessment of foods and
food components produced by GM. The private sector
should bear the expense of research and any action
needed in relation to potentially unsafe GM foods,
rather than the government having to take responsibility for these matters.
The issue of patenting of genes should also be given
careful consideration. With gene patents, plant
breeders will have to pay for GM crop varieties if they
wish to use them for farming or to breed new material.
As GM crop varieties become global commodities,
most farmers in developing countries will not be able
to compete internationally because they will not be
able to afford to repeatedly buy genetically modified
seed, or pay royalties on their crops. As crops grown
from traditional varieties become less attractive, the
1.4 billion of the world’s poorest farmers who grow
80% of crops from saved seed will become increasingly disadvantaged. We believe that there should be
free access to all the genes of nature, including those
created artificially in the laboratory as long as they are
used for improving our agriculture. Free access would
ensure that modified genetic resources do not become
the sole property of a few multinational companies.
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engineered yeast. International Journal of Food Science
and Technology, 30, 141–146.
Emerging biotechnology should be given a chance,
provided that regulations are established in relation to
labelling, health, environmental safety and patenting of
genes. We have to proceed according to scientific evidence rather than hypothetical assumptions, especially
if we want to feed a population of 10 billion people by
the year 2030. It should be emphasised though, that
agricultural biotechnology is not revolutionary technology that is a magic potion to feed the hungry.
Rather, it is merely another step in the development of
an agricultural food production system that generates
more than enough food for the world’s population.
Mayeno, A.N. and Gleitch, G.J. 1994. Eosinophilia-myalgia
syndrome and tryptophan production: a cautionary tale.
Trends in Biotechnology, 12, 346–352.
Nordlee, J.A., Taylor, S.L., Townsend, J.A., Thomas, L.A.
and Bush, R.K. 1996. Identification of brazil-nut allergen
in transgenic soybens. New England Journal of Medicine,
334, 688–692.
OTA (Office of Technology Assessment). 1986. New
technologies and agricultural productivity. Economic
Impact (United States Information Agency, Washington
DC). 53 (1986/1), 14–21.
Sasson, A. 1990. Agriculture, agroforestry and livestock
husbandry: international agricultural research centres,
regional and international co-operation, transfer of
results. In: Feeding Tomorrow’s World. France, United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, 533–606.
References
Demarly, Y. 1989. Technical aspects of plant biotechnologies. In: A. Sasson and V. Costarini, eds, Plant Biotechnologies for Developing Countries. UK, Trinity Press,
47–58.
Tanksley, S.D. and Hewitt, J. 1988. Use of molecular
markers in breeding for soluble solid content in tomato—
a re-examination. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 75,
811–823.
Inose, T. and Kousaku, M. 1995. Enhanced accumulation of
toxic compounds in yeast cells having high glycolytic
activity: a case study on the safety of genetically
608
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Consumer Perspectives on Genetically Modified
Foods in PNG
G. Arigai* and A. Benjamin†
Abstract
Genetically modified (GM) crops and foods are a major issue worldwide. In recent times, environmental
groups have warned consumers about the environmental and health risks associated with these products, while
genetic technologists have assured us that GM foods are safe and beneficial. Some developed countries are
asking for GM labelling for all imported foods. There are more than 100 GM crop varieties in the world today,
and this number will increase substantially over the next 10 years. This paper notes the potential risks and
benefits of GM products, outlines the concerns of the PNG Consumer Affairs Council and makes some
recommendations for GM products in PNG.
FOOD is a vital part of Melanesian culture and tradition, and consumers care passionately about issues
surrounding its production and consumption. These
people have a fundamental right to know what they are
eating and that it is safe.
and observer organisations identified safety and nutritional assessment of food derived from biotechnology
as the main priority of the task force. CTFFB therefore
plans to develop a major report of this area.
In this paper we highlight some of the issues that
PNG will have to consider concerning the introduction
of GM food in order to minimise any possible negative
impact of the new technology. We then offer a policy
framework to maximise the benefits of biotechnology
to achieve food security and sustainability. The position taken by the PNG Consumer Affairs Council
(CAC), including its recommendations, is also given.
Responding to mounting consumer concerns over
the safety of genetically modified (GM) foods, the
23rd session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission
of the World Health Organization adopted a proposal
from the Government of Japan to establish an ad hoc
intergovernmental committee called the Codex Task
Force on Foods Derived from Biotechnology
(CTFFB). The charter of this task force is to develop
standards or recommendations for GM foods derived
using biotechnology, on the basis of scientific evidence and risk analysis, with appropriate regard to
other factors relevant to consumer health.
Benefits and Risks of GM Crops in
PNG
The possible benefits of GM crops in PNG are as follows:
• GM crops could have increased resistance to pests
and give higher yields, thus providing more food for
the growing population;
• plants could be modified to produce more nutritious
and healthier foods;
• GM plants could be developed to survive in extreme
conditions, including drought;
CTFFB met for the first time in Chiba, Japan, on 14–
17 March 2000. Many of the participating delegations
* Consumer Affairs Council of Papua New Guinea, PO Box
6394, Boroko, National Capital District, PNG.
† Food Security Branch, Department of Agriculture and
Livestock, PO Box 417, Konedobu, National Capital
District, PNG.
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• pesticides and herbicides could be used less
intensively, giving energy savings from reduced
crop spraying;
Concerns of the Consumer Affairs
Council
• GM foods could have health benefits, such as
providing edible vaccines; and
The CAC, as the foremost consumer organisation in
PNG, is the custodian of eight fundamental consumer
rights:
• GM foods could provide cheaper, better quality and
tastier foods.
• the right to safety (the right of consumers to be
protected against products, production processes
and services that are hazardous to health and life);
The possible risks are that:
• we simply do not know enough about what will
happen to genes inserted into GM crops;
• the right to the satisfaction of basic needs such as
adequate and nutritious food, housing, health care,
education and sanitation;
• growing GM crops on a large scale may have
implications for biodiversity and the balance of
nature, wildlife and the environment;
• genes from GM crops could transfer to non-GM
crops and other plants growing nearby;
• the right to be informed (to be given the facts needed
to make an informed choice and to be protected
against dishonest and misleading advertisement and
labelling);
• using antibiotic-resistant genes as GM markers
could increase the problem of antibiotic resistance;
and
• the right to choose (to be able to choose from a range
of products and services with the assurance of
quality);
• toxins or allergens may be increased, transferred or
produced as a result of genetic modification.
• the right to be heard (consumer interest must be
addressed at all levels of society; consumers must
not become onlookers, but should be active
participants in determining policies regarding their
health and safety);
In addition to these public health risks, there are
concerns that growing GM crops may diminish biological diversity through a reduction in the pest weeds
and insects upon which other species (including animals) depend. Measures to protect global biodiversity
from potential GM hazards are a main goal of the
United Nations’ Biosafety Protocol.
• the right to redress, by receiving a fair settlement of
just claims including compensation;
• the right to consumer education, including the
importance of labelling so that knowledge can allow
informed, confident choices; and
A further concern is that biotechnology companies
have used a genetic technology referred to as a ‘terminator’ gene. This technology alters the genetic patterns that control the plants’ reproductive systems, so
that the harvested seeds are unable to germinate when
replanted. In PNG, 80% of people live in villages and
depend on seeds saved from their previous harvests to
feed themselves. They cannot afford to buy seeds
during every growing season. This and other related
technologies that allow a genetic trait to be turned on
or off with the application of chemicals, such as a herbicide or fertiliser (also sold by the large companies),
may lead to an increase in ‘biological neocolonialism’ or control and domination by a few transnational corporations.
• the right to health and a sustainable environment, to
live and work in an environment that does not
threaten the existence of this and future generations.
The Current Situation in PNG
The CAC has been alerted to the importation of GM
seeds and living organisms. Investigations are under
way to establish and confirm these reports. The CAC
believes that accurate information about the quality,
potency and purity of GM products must be made
available to consumers. Information on the risks associated with the use of GM crops and foods must also be
conveyed to the consumer. The consumer has an unalienable right to safety and to be protected against the
marketing of goods and services that might pose a
hazard to life and the environment. We have reason to
believe that none of this information is readily available at present.
A more detailed discussion of the positive and
negative impacts of biotechnology is included in
another paper in these proceedings (Impacts of Biotechnology on Food Security and Food Quality, by
D. Singh et al.).
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Regulatory assessment
In PNG, there are at present few resources and
testing facilities, and little legislation dealing with GM
foods. Consequently, the hazards of GM foods may not
be fully comprehended or contained. Therefore, CAC
considers that a precautionary approach is necessary.
GM crops and foods or products containing GM
organisms (GMOs) will soon be available in PNG, if
they are not already on consumer shelves. Currently,
there are no formal mechanisms in place to deal with
GMOs. However, there are customs and quarantine
regulatory bodies in PNG that deal with the import of
organisms and products and assess risks associated
with live GMOs. The potential risks from trading in
GMOs are similar to those presently assessed and
managed for non-GM living organisms by quarantine
services, such as the risk to human health and safety,
potential animal and plant pests and environmental
impacts. Risk analysis should be done on a case-bycase basis.
In PNG, more than 80% of food consumers are subsistence-based farmers. The low food productivity and
high import cost of food implies that PNG has not fully
developed its potential using conventional methods
and resources. Until this potential is reached, the
chances for farmers using GM crops to produce food
on a commercial scale should not be a major concern.
Furthermore, PNG does not have the capacity to deal
with problems that may occur as a result of genetic
engineering applications.
It is, however, important that regulatory services,
such as the National Agriculture Quarantine and
Inspection Authority (NAQIA) and the government
health and environment departments, interact with the
Department of Agriculture and Livestock (DAL) to
develop appropriate domestic regulatory arrangements for assessing and managing the potential risks
from trading in GM foods. In terms of international
regulation, the importer notification model should be
the preferred administrative process for assessing
potential risks. This model is aligned to the import
permit process of most countries in the Pacific region.
Methods and protocols
All stakeholders should agree to develop methods
and put in place protocols for assessing major safety
issues, including toxins, allergens, nutrients, antinutrients, antibiotic marker genes, unexpected effects and
maximum limits.
Labelling
Labelling allows consumers to make informed
choices and stems from the right of the consumer to be
informed. Information alone does not guarantee
safety, but having the right information empowers
consumers to exercise their right of choice within the
marketplace. Most arguments against labelling rest on
claims of ‘substantial equivalence’ (i.e. the notion that
GM foods do not differ substantially from their conventional counterparts, and therefore do not require
special labelling). We take the opposite view. The
CAC would lobby to have all imported GM foods adequately labelled.
Other legitimate factors
These factors must be considered at the national
level:
• environmental and public health impacts;
• food security and sustainability;
• ethical and religious issues;
• existence or absence of benefits to consumers and
their rights;
• traditional gardening and food distribution systems;
and
• enforcement capabilities.
The Consumer Affairs Council
Position
Recommendations and Conclusions
CAC recommends that a national task force, to be
known as the PNG Biosafety Committee, should be
convened to respond to the concerns raised over GM
foods and organisms. To date, a committee known as
the Interim Biosafety and Biotechnological Committee (IBBC) has been formed. The membership of this
committee includes people from DAL, the Department
of Environment and Conservation, the Department of
Foreign Affairs and Trade, the Department of Health,
Application of the precautionary principle
CAC believes that current scientific evidence is not
conclusive enough to establish control measures based
on a sound and accurate risk assessment. There is an
urgent necessity to take measures to protect public
health, safety, and the environment. CAC urges all
parties to agree to set standards and guidelines that will
incorporate a precautionary approach.
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CAC, NAQIA, the University of Papua New Guinea
and the Codex Alimentarius Commission. It is anticipated that all stakeholders and experts identified in the
field will be requested to join the committee as soon as
the National Executive Council endorses a cabinet
submission for the formation of such a body.
(c) To recommend appropriate legislation or amendments to current legislation to deal with the
biosafety of products from biotechnology.
Consumers should not be exposed to products
which might harm their wellbeing and/or pose a
hazard to the environment. CAC strongly recommends
a moratorium on the importation of all GM foods,
seeds and organisms until it has in place the necessary
legislative framework, manpower and equipment to
deal effectively with the products of biotechnology.
The terms of reference for this committee would be
as follows.
(a) To develop or adopt standards, guidelines or recommendations as appropriate for foods derived
from biotechnology, or traits introduced into foods
by biotechnology, on the basis of scientific
evidence, risk analysis and having regard, where
appropriate, to other legitimate factors relevant to
the health of consumers.
Further Reading
Consumers International. www.consumersinternational.org
(accessed February 2000).
Consumers International. 1999. World Consumer Rights
Day 1999 kit. Brazil, Consumers International.
DAL (Department of Agriculture and Livestock). 1999.
Policy Document on Food Security. Port Moresby, DAL.
(b) To develop a national policy in regard to the
biosafety of GM foods and GMOs, either imported
or produced within PNG.
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Quality Assurance of Processed Food in PNG
Nalin Anand*
Abstract
In recent years, consumption of processed food products has significantly increased in the daily dietary
intake of Pacific Island nations, including PNG. More traditional sources of food, such as root crops,
vegetables, fruits and fresh meat are being supplemented in large amounts by processed food such as flour,
rice, baked products, canned products, frozen food, snacks and soft drinks. As this reliance on processed
food grows, manufacturing industries need to provide consumers with improved standards for high-quality
food products that are safe to consume. Such a service not only makes business sense to enhance sales and
profits, but it is a responsibility of food industries in the Pacific to bring their products in line with what can
be expected in a developed economy. Manufacturing industries have a special responsibility for
safeguarding the health of consumers: poor standards of manufacturing can lead to contaminated food,
which may cause illness, injury or even death. Government authorities in PNG need to develop laws to cover
food handling and sale, while consumers need further information on healthy eating and consumer rights.
PROCESSED foods such as rice, flour, meat, canned
products, baked products and snacks now form a large
proportion of dietary intake for the people of PNG and
Pacific Islands in general. To the consumer, quality
means satisfaction of their needs and expectations in a
product. Quality assurance is a guarantee that consumer needs and expectations will be consistently met.
The expectation of consumers for processed food is
that it be affordable, great tasting, nutritious and safe
to consume. Assuring the quality of processed food in
PNG is a combined responsibility of the manufacturers, the government and the consumer.
safety. Poor standards of manufacturing can lead to
contaminated food, which in turn can cause illness,
injury or even death of the consumer.
Food contamination
Food can be contaminated by harmful or objectionable elements. The mode of contamination can be via
physical, chemical or microbial means. Examples of
physical contaminants are stones, nuts, bolts, jewellery, hair and so forth. Cleaning chemicals, pesticides
and pest baits are examples of chemical contaminants.
Food poisoning bacteria are an example of microbial
contamination.
Manufacturing Industry
Responsibility
Prevention methods
Manufacturing industries have a special responsibility
for safeguarding the health of consumers. Of paramount
importance to manufacturers is the concern for food
Industries in PNG should take greater responsibility
for producing food that is safe to consume and free of
any contamination. The following good manufacturing practices, while not complete, would contribute
greatly to the prevention of food contamination.
* Goodman Fielder International (Pacific), Associated
Mills, PO Box 1906, Lae, Morobe Province, PNG.
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and sale and that reflect the modern times. The aim of
the legislation should be to ensure that:
• food is wholesome and fit to eat so that consumers
are protected from illness and injury;
• employers are bound by legal obligations that force
them to provide various facilities at work to enforce
food safety (the provision of washing and cleaning
facilities, staff amenities and so forth);
• employees are provided with adequate training,
instruction and supervision so that their food safety
and quality responsibilities are fulfilled; and
• quality and food safety systems that are
internationally recognised as meeting consumers
requirements are recommended and implemented.
• The design of food production premises and
equipment to allow for:
– separation between raw and processed food;
– separation of clean and dirty work areas;
– easy and thorough cleaning of the workplace;
– proper waste management;
– prevention of pest infestation; and
– adequate equipment that allows for temperature
control of food.
• Strict personal hygiene for food handlers.
• Cleaning and sanitising of food areas, equipment
and utensils.
• Control of food pests.
• Storing of cleaning chemicals well away from food
and following manufacturer’s instructions for use.
• Providing the required level of care for the food
until it is sold, including the time during delivery
and storage.
• Rotation of stock.
• Keeping high-risk and perishable food at safe
temperatures (below 5°C and above 60°C), as
applicable.
• Recognition of spoilt materials/food and
elimination from the use channel.
• Implementation of quality assurance management
systems.
• Education and training of staff.
• Continuous measurement of quality performance of
the manufacturing plant and setting of challenging
targets.
Enforcement of legislation
The enforcement of legislation can be through
food inspectors who also give advice and assistance
to food businesses. Enforcement should target all
food industries.
Penalties
Warnings and penalties should be used for those
breaking the law. However, these need to be applied
fairly, regardless of the size of the industry, in order to
ensure that there is a drive by all to lift the quality of
food safety management.
Role of the Consumer
Government Responsibility
There is a need in PNG to educate consumers in:
• healthy eating;
• indicators of what are wholesome, healthy and
unspoiled food;
• their rights as consumers and where they should
take their grievances; and
• awareness of illnesses linked to food.
Legislation
There are rules and regulations in all countries covering the handling of food to meet with consumers’
requirements. Government authorities in PNG need to
develop laws that cover every aspect of food handling
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Food Processing and Preservation
Research in PNG
Mary K. Maima*
Abstract
Research on food processing and preservation technology is vital for the development of a sustainable food
industry. In PNG, the development of technology for food processing and preservation of agricultural produce
has not been a priority because there is an abundance of fresh produce all year round. However, such
technology is becoming increasingly important because of changing lifestyles. Since the mid-1980s, food
processing and preservation research has been carried out by the Food Processing and Preservation Unit, based
at the PNG University of Technology in Lae. Comparison with the National Food Research Institute and
prefecture food technology research centres in Japan shows the potential for further development in PNG, in
line with the research and development activities in horticulture. A plan is proposed to address the issue at a
national level by setting up a food technology research institute specifically to provide research and
development activities on priority food processing and preservation issues.
TECHNOLOGY in food processing and preservation for
the extension of storage life of agricultural produce
has never been a necessity in the traditional PNG lifestyle, as it is in other parts of the world, because there
is an abundance of fresh produce all year round. However, with a change in lifestyle towards dependence on
a cash economy, the need to process and preserve
food, bring it to the market place and make it accessible to all who require it at minimum cost is
increasing. Therefore, appropriate workable technology is needed to encourage downstream
processing. This is important for the following reasons: to create a market for local produce; to increase
income for farmers; and to replace imports. Downstream processing may be encouraged by:
• promoting transfer of food processing and preservation technology through existing organisations;
• creating commodity profiles on all crops grown in
the country to inform interested parties and investors; and
• providing incentives to develop major staple crops.
Research in food technology is a vital requirement
for the development of a sustainable food industry.
Research is only a means and not an end in itself.
Results of the research should contribute to the development of the industry in one way or another and this
should be the ultimate goal of every researcher.
Research should support, rather than be isolated from,
development objectives. There may be various reasons
why a research project is proposed in the first place
and carried out, depending on the organisation or personnel involved. However, because research is expensive, some form of quality control should ensure that
only appropriate and beneficial research is carried out
in line with development objectives.
• food processing and preservation research on crops
with potential;
* Food Processing and Preservation Unit, PNG University
of Technology, PMB, Lae, Morobe Province, PNG.
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There are four important and obvious reasons why
food processing and preservation research should be
carried out:
• to continuously develop new and improved products to keep up with consumer requirements, so as to
maintain market share and to expand;
• to improve methods of production or efficiency so
as to minimise costs;
• to introduce new products and technology worth
adopting; and
• to provide information required to make informed
decisions.
ulate the establishment of a diversified food
industry in PNG;
• to identify and formulate viable food processing
projects and encourage entrepreneurs to invest in
them;
• to assist in the development of local small-scale
food processing in the rural areas and encourage
entrepreneurial expertise within the country;
• to provide an effective economic incentive and
stimulus for the increased crop production through
the establishment of an effective demand for processing;
• to develop and analyse processed and preserved
foods from locally grown crops and to carry out
costing and consumer acceptability trials;
• to encourage and assist with the establishment and
development of small-scale food processing ventures; and
• to develop techniques for small-scale processing at
minimum cost.
The research activities that were proposed are
shown in Table 1. Most of these activities were carried
out, but the list is not exhaustive. In 1989, the unit was
transferred to the Food Management Branch (FMB) of
the Department of Agriculture and Livestock (DAL)
and placed under the Marketed Fruits and Vegetable
Program. A steering committee was formed in 1990,
which met twice a year to review FPPU’s performance
and recommend other work as required. In 1996, management of FPPU was transferred to the Fresh Produce
Development Company (FPDC) and this arrangement
continues today.
Brief History of Food Processing and
Preservation Research in PNG
The Food Processing and Preservation Unit (FPPU),
based at the PNG University of Technology, Lae, was
opened in 1984 under the then Research Division of
the Department of Primary Industry (DPI). It was originally built to cater for food processing and preservation research in the country. The objectives for the unit
were:
• to preserve locally produced fruits and vegetables,
to prevent wastage and make them available out of
season;
• to produce and promote food products that would
help to improve the nutritional status of the PNG
population;
• to produce processed or preserved foods for both the
import substitution and export markets and stim-
Table 1. Proposed development projects for the Food Processing and Preservation Unit, 1984.
Process and raw materials
Dehydrated products
Root crops (sweet potato, taro, yam,
cassava)
Vegetables (carrots, beans, pumpkin,
aibika, corn, choko, okra, pak choi,
other traditional leafy greens)
Fruits (banana, pawpaw, pineapple)
Canned products
Fruits, vegetables, etc.
Products
Work required
Dice, slices, flakes, powders, shreds
Mixed vegetables, soup mix
Vegetable or mixed with dried meat
Varietal research, market surveys
Dried ripe fruit as snack food
For institutions, etc. (but not
considered economically feasible at
present)
Further work on techniques,
packaging/shelf life, consumer
testing, costing
Techniques, packaging/shelf life,
costing
Varietal research, techniques,
packaging, costing
Continued on next page
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Proceedings.book Page 617 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Table 1 (cont’d).
Proposed development projects for the Food Processing and Preservation Unit, 1984.
Process and raw materials
Products
Work required
Chips (as snack food for schools,
etc.)
As above
Minimally refined oils for use as
high-energy supplement to mix with
traditionally prepared foods, refined
cooking oil
Market surveys, techniques,
packaging/shelf life
Flour for use as admixture with
wheat flour in baked products
Market surveys, packaging/shelf life,
costing
Frozen vegetable for high-income
market
Market surveys, varietal research,
techniques, packaging /shelf life,
costing
Ready to drink nectars, cordials,
squashes, concentrates
Market surveys, formulation,
preservation/ concentration
techniques, preservatives,
packaging/shelf life, consumer
testing, costing
Low-cost infant food for hospital/
health centre use
Nutritional requirements for
products, formulation, techniques,
packaging/shelf life, costing
Bulk jams for industrial use, fillings
for bakery use, possible project for
women’s group
Market surveys, further work on
techniques, packaging/shelf life,
costing
Flours/breads/cakes, boiled corn
For institutional, bakery use, villagelevel use
Market surveys, recipes, techniques,
packaging/shelf life, costing,
consumer testing
Pickles/chutney
Tomato, mango, pawpaw
Bulk for institutional use
As above
Sauces/purees
Tomato, fruit, vegetables etc.
Bulk for institutional use
As above
Food analysis
Effect of processing on products,
food composition tables for PNG
To be carried over number of years
in conjunction with other scientific
institutions
Technical advice
To industry or other interested
bodies and local groups (e.g.
women’s cooperative)
Village level technology
Solar dried products, smoked fish,
etc.
Waste disposal use
Biogas, animal feed
Deep fried products
Banana, sweet potato, cassava
Edible oils
Palm oil, coconut oil
Flours
Maize, cassava, taro, etc.
Frozen vegetables
Corn, beans, broccoli
Fruit juice
Passion fruit, citrus, five corner, etc.
Infant foods
Avocado, fruits, vegetables
Jams
Strawberry, pawpaw, citrus
Milled corn
617
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Under FMB’s management, the FPPU carried out
adoptive research (trials), usually at the request of clients. Table 2 gives the list of trials carried out by
FPPU. Clients became the normal source of FPPU
business since the introduction of courses or training
workshops to accommodate women’s groups created
much awareness. The trend then became established
whereby adoptive research trials were carried out at
the request of clients, either to solve problems, provide
information, prototype samples or samples of products
for promotional purposes.
These trials were based on specific requests made
by clients, and not the FPPU staff. Clients were usually
interested in one particular product, which, according
to them, was marketable. Because there was no formal
policy or guidelines as to the kind of research projects
that could be undertaken, research was random. Thus,
systematic research on particular commodities with
potential was not carried out. At the same time, FPPU
lacked resources such as adequately qualified and fulltime staff. The limited number of staff were trying to
address clients’ requests as well as carry out the
requested adoptive research trials.
Horticultural research already has a lot of facilities
and growers have access to advanced production techniques. This has resulted in a surplus of some food
crops with consequent marketing problems. With
increased participation of farmers, the limited market
has become saturated. In order to profitably use the
surplus, and to provide food at other times and to other
regions, increased processing is needed. Policy
makers need to understand the situation at the farmer’s
level and do something constructive to improve
address the lack of market access to fresh produce. If
the food industry in PNG is to be developed, then
food-processing research must be given priority.
Table 2. Research work at FPPU, 1984–99.
Topic
Researcher/date
Processing of okari nuts
M. Vloeberghs, 1988
Study on import substitution for strawberry jam
M. Vloeberghs, 1988
Sunflower oil production in PNG
M. Vloeberghs, 1988
Technical report on citrus processing
M. Vloeberghs, 1988
Comparison between Rabaul mangoes and Markham mangoes
M. Vloeberghs, 1988
Industrial processing of passion fruit jam
M. Vloeberghs, 1988
Processing of kulau (young coconut)
M. Vloeberghs, 1988
Okari nut processing and preservation
M. Maima, 1990
Fruit dehydration—pawpaw and pineapple
M. Maima, 1990
Coconut milk processing
M. Maima, 1990
Coconut oil processing
M. Maima.1990
Preservation and storage of kulau (young coconut)
M. Maima, 1990
Fruit juice processing
M. Maima, 1991
Pawpaw jam processing
M. Maima, 1991
Processing of galip nut
M. Maima, 1991
Pawpaw jam processing
M. Maima, 1991
Strawberry jam processing —assessment of honey as substitute for sugar
M. Maima, 1992
Processing of sweet potato flour
M. Maima, 1992
Banana processing ‘flour’
M. Maima, 1992
Pretreatment of kulau for storage
M. Maima, 1992
Desiccated coconut processing
M. Maima, 1992
Galip nut processing ‘roasted’ —2
M. Maima, 1992
Sweet potato variety evaluation for processing
M. Maima, 1993
Potato variety evaluation for processing
M. Maima, 1993
Continued on next page
618
Proceedings.book Page 619 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Table 2 (cont’d).
Research work at FPPU, 1984–99.
Topic
Researcher/date
Tomato variety evaluation for processing
M. Maima, 1993
Evaluation of Goroka-grown and processed spice —cardamom, chilli and ginger
M. Maima, 1993
Processing potential of Pandanus conoideus
M. Maima, 1993
Evaluation of potato varieties for processing —2
M. Maima, 1997
Canning of Mt Whilhem trout
M. Maima, 1998
Peeling, packaging and storage of taro for marketing
M. Maima, 1999
Drying and packaging of betel nut
M. Maima, 1999
Trials on sweet potato products
S. Srinivasan, 1992
Processing of galip and finchia nuts
S. Srinivasan, 1993
Pandanus sauce
S. Srinivasan, 1994
Tomato sauce processing
S. Srinivasan, 1994
Testing of orange varieties
S. Srinivasan, 1994
Processing of fruit bars/toffees
S. Srinivasan, 1994
Small-scale processing of deep-fried chips/crisps
S. Srinivasan, 1994
Variety trials of sweet potato for processing into: 1) deep-fried chips and 2)
composite flour bread
S. Srinivasan, 1994
Assessment and evaluation of sweet potato for processing into:1) deep-fried chips;
and 2) French fries
B. Seri and S. Srinivasan, 1995
Case Study of Food Processing and
Preservation Research in Japan
The main research topics of NFRI are directly in line
with these priorities and are:
• analysis of food components and food quality;
• evaluation and utilisation of food materials;
• development of technology for food processing and
distribution systems; and
• elucidation and utilisation of biological functions
for new food materials.
The organisational structure of the NFRI is as
shown in Figure 1.
It is interesting to note that most of the technologies
that are in operation in Japan today have been modified from technologies introduced from other countries. The basic technology is imported and then
developed to suit Japan’s own needs. Thus research
and development (R&D) has a major role to play in the
development of the food industry.
Even though the government in Japan provides
research through the NFRI and the FTRCs for the
private sector to use, companies consider R&D such
an important activity that they allocate it a department
on its own, in addition to the quality control department, which caters for the quality assurance of their
products. Companies believe that, without R&D, they
will not expand or will even lose their market share.
R&D is also important in identifying problems and
Earlier this year (2000), I had the opportunity to
examine, at first hand, Japan’s food processing and
preservation technologies and research institutes, and
the vital role they play in developing and sustaining
the food industry in that country. The observations I
made in Japan are presented as a standard for comparison with the situation in PNG.
In addition to the National Food Research Institute
(NFRI) of Japan (JICA 2000), all prefectures (equivalent to PNG provinces) have their own food technology research centres (FTRCs). Each research
centre determines its own priorities, depending on the
importance of the commodities in their region. Work
at NFRI covers a wide range of general research activities from basic to applied. This helps to establish a
national technological system that supports a safe and
stable food supply. The priority areas are:
• development of technology for food processing and
distribution safety;
• scientific evaluation of food and food components
in relation to human health; and
• identification and utilisation of new functionality’s
found in living organisms.
619
Proceedings.book Page 620 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Director General
Research Planning and
Coordination Division
•
•
•
•
Postharvest Technology Division
•
•
•
•
•
•
Planning Section
Research Coordination Section
Senior Research Information Officer
Information and Library Section
Associate Director for Research
Stored Product Entomology Lab.
Protein Protection Lab.
Food Packaging Lab.
Low Temperature Technology Lab.
Radiation Technology Lab.
Food Resource Division
• Associate Director for Research
• Cereal Properties Lab.
• Cereal Utilisation Lab.
• Protein Materials Lab.
• Horticultural Products Lab.
• Biomaterials Conversion Lab.
General Affairs Division
• General Affairs Section
• Accounts Section
Food Science Division
• Carbohydrate Science Lab.
• Protein Science Lab.
• Lipid Science Lab.
• Food Rheology Lab.
Applied Microbiology Division
• Associate Director for Research
• Applied Mycology Lab.
• Applied Bacteriology Lab.
• Applied Enzymology Lab.
Food Analysis Assessment Division
• Food Analysis Lab.
• State Analysis Lab.
• Non-destructive Lab.
• Food Metrics Lab.
Biological Function Division
• Associate Director for Research
• Molecular Function Lab.
• Molecular Engineering Lab.
• Genetic Engineering Lab.
• Cell Function Lab.
Food Function Division
• Associate Director for Research
• Nutrition Biochemistry Lab.
• Safety and Quality Lab.
• Functional Food Factor Lab.
• Physiological Function Lab.
Food Engineering Division
• Associate Director for Research
• Process Engineering Lab.
• Reaction and Separation Engineering Lab.
• Instrumentation Engineering Lab.
Figure 1. Organisation of the National Food Research Institute of Japan.
620
Proceedings.book Page 621 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
improving efficiency, as well as helping to discover
ways to improve their product and introduce new
products. Some of these companies are world leaders
and yet they do not become complacent but continue
to invest in R&D. It is important for industries to
carry out their own research, since their own technology often becomes a trade secret. One such
example is the Satake Corporation, which supplies
production, processing and quality control equipment, ranging from batch size or laboratory scale, to
large-scale mass production machinery. Satake supplies 75% of markets worldwide and yet they claim
that one of their biggest budget items is R&D. Their
latest products are the ‘Taste Analyser’ and the
‘Instant Rice’ (Ajika 2000).
of downstream processing and preservation systems as
one of the major constraints’ in the development of a
sustainable food industry in the country. To make
informed decisions about development, food industries require adequate and up-to-date information on
raw materials, technology and markets. The basic
technology and ingredients to produce a particular
food product may be understood by a food scientist,
but the details or trade secrets that give the product its
competitive advantage may not be realised unless
some form of technical analysis is carried out. Facilities to conduct this type of analysis are not available at
this stage in PNG. Commercial analytical facilities are
limited and cannot cater for product development or
detailed research.
The FPPU facility is about half equipped. Some
work, such as making products, can be carried out, but
important quality-control equipment is nonexistent.
The physical structure is quite old and research facilities are crowded. Even if given the mandate to carry
out research, staff numbers are limited and most
research time is spent on client consultations. Because
facilities are shared with the university’s Food Technology Division, there is limited space to take on any
extra responsibilities—such as commercial trials or a
showroom for product samples.
Food processing and preservation research is almost
nonexistent in PNG, but because it is essential to the
development of the food industry, there is a need to
establish an institution dedicated to food processing
and preservation research. An outline of a proposal for
such a centre is given below.
The above case may be considered extreme but it is
not, given that the scientific and general principles in
this case are the same as anywhere else. Fifty years
ago, Japan was so poor after World War II that people
were actually begging for rice at the Emperor’s palace
(Kado 2000). They converted the factories used for
making ammunitions into food-production factories.
Now bread is a household product in Japan, although it
is an introduced product (Kodama 2000). They
adopted both western technology and products but
with modifications to suite their own consumers’ taste
and requirements. Research is the key to any kind of
product development. Trial and error is required to
produce a perfect model, thereby making research a
need and not a want.
Food Processing and Preservation
Research in PNG
Proposal for a Food Technology
Research and Development Centre
Currently, there is no institution officially delegated to
carry out food processing and preservation research in
PNG. Some adoptive research carried out by FPPU is
available but it is not exhaustive and more could be
done. Due to limited resources, only client requests
are carried out. In addition, many of the food businesses in the country do not have well-equipped R&D
laboratories. While they require research to either
develop products or solve problems, there is no facility
available for this kind of assistance. Local food materials and plant resources have the potential to be developed into marketable products for food, additives and
health products, but facilities are required to carry out
this kind of research.
Main activity
The main activities of the proposed centre—food
technology research and development—will be supported by an administration unit and a team of consultants to carry out monitoring and evaluation on a
regular basis, assess performance and provide direction to the institute.
Research Division
Long-term research
Long-term research will develop local products to
replace imports and attain food security. This research
should be directed by government policy and supported by government finance. The research will be
During a food security meeting in Loloata Island
Resort in February 1999, policy makers in the leading
agricultural institutions in PNG identified ‘the absence
621
Proceedings.book Page 622 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Consultancy services
Consultancy services will include feasibility studies,
testing facilities and professional advice. This will
require a well-equipped laboratory to carry out testing.
focused on development of staple foods and other
surplus fresh produce into attractive marketable products. Long-term research will include:
• development of local staples to provide marketable
food and industrial products;
Proposed structure
• Administration
– staff/personnel
– accounts
• Research Division
– Food Processing Pilot Plant
– Applied Microbiology Section
– Engineering and Physics Section
– Postharvest Section
– Packaging Section
• Development Division
– Publication and Information Unit
– Training and Technology Transfer
– Marketing and Showroom
– Projects and Consultations
• development of functional or health foods from
local raw materials;
• nutrient analysis of traditional foods for which there
is currently little information on composition;
• improvement of traditionally processed and preserved food products; and
• identification of compounds in traditional food
additives.
Adoptive research
Requests for adoptive research will mostly come
from clients who would like prototype products to
show that their ideas will work. This should be funded
by the proposing client.
Monitoring and evaluation
Short-term research
Development Division
Regular monitoring and evaluation (preferably
annually) would be required to ensure that the activities carried out are in line with the original objectives
and that intended beneficiaries are actually benefiting.
Beneficiaries in this case are the food industry,
farmers, investors, women and youth groups. The
funding agency should carry out the review. The proposal has potential to generate some income and therefore, in the long term, should not rely entirely on the
government for funding. However, the initial investment capital should be the responsibility of the
national government.
Information dissemination
References
Short-term research requests will mostly be made
by industries who do not have research facilities themselves and should be funded by the requesting client.
Training and collaborative research
This is most likely to be carried out by students studying for higher degrees, and also joint research programs with other institutions overseas, and should
normally be supported by research grants.
Results of the research will be the major component
of the information disseminated, which should be available to all who are involved in the food industry. Other
appropriate information will form part of the package,
depending on the nature of requests from clients.
Ajika, T. 2000. Factory Training of Agricultural Foods 2:
Modern Rice Milling Technology. Japan, Satake
Corporation, Japan International Cooperation Agency,
19–22.
Kado, T. 2000. Outline of Japanese food industry. In: Food
Processing and Preservation Technology. Japan, Japan
International Cooperation Agency, 1.
Training and awareness
Training activities will cater for the transfer of vital
technologies to participants. Promotional activities for
creating awareness will require participation in shows
and displays. A showroom will display product
samples worth promoting and other appropriate technologies for clients and visitors.
Kodama, M. 2000. Factory Training of Agricultural Foods
1: Bread. Japan, Takaki Bakery Co, Ltd., Japan
International Cooperation Agency, 1.
JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency). 2000.
Inquiry training. In: Food Processing and Preservation
Technology. Japan, JICA, 1–3.
622
Proceedings.book Page 625 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Potential for Producing More Meat from
Small-Scale Livestock Production
A.R. Quartermain*
Abstract
In PNG, there is a need for meat to be produced locally for household consumption with a predicted growth rate
of around 5% per year. Policy should be determined by what small-scale producers are willing and able to do,
not by considerations of import substitution. People will produce more meat only if they are comfortable with
the types of livestock and production systems available. Various reasons are given as to why efforts to increase
production have failed in the past in spite of adequate technology. These include inadequate demonstration of
benefits and implications of adoption, a high labour requirement, demand for consumption outstripping the
reproductive capacity of the animals, inadequate follow-up and people participating for the wrong reasons.
More significantly, the prevailing concept of extension was to offer farmers a package of technology to accept
or reject. This inflexible approach should be replaced with one where an array of technologies and options is
made available from which choices can be made to improve existing systems or adopt new ones. The emphasis
should be moved to participatory testing of new ideas to solve recognised problems or to aim for realistic goals
using available resources.
SMALL-SCALE farmers of livestock can be defined as
those for whom keeping livestock is not a full-time
occupation, who do not employ labour other than
extended family, who have a low capital investment
(except for their animals and minimal housing) and
who typically own less than 50 head of the relevant
species. However, producers of broiler chickens for
the local live bird market may grow more than 50 birds
per batch and are fully commercial in approach. Most
small-scale farmers divide their production between
sale and self-consumption, with household producers
sometimes engaging in opportunistic sales or
exchange. Possibly, some 50% by weight of all meat
production in PNG, or 26% of the total consumption,
never enters formal commercial trade.
PNG has an abundance of natural resources suitable
for livestock production and an enviable low disease
risk status compared to its Asian neighbours. Meat
consumption has been increasing and is predicted to
continue growth at up to 5% per year, commensurate
with a population growth rate of 2.0–2.5% per year and
continued increasing affluence.
There is no doubt that there is a need for increased
meat consumption and a demand for it when circumstances permit. Infant mortality and child malnutrition
are both serious problems in PNG and the national
average adult protein intake is only 55 grams per day,
of which most is plant protein. The nutritional and
health values of animal proteins are not well understood and people eat meat for taste rather than
acknowledged need. Further education is needed and
statistics (e.g. the negative relationship between infant
mortality and female adult literacy) suggest that it can
* Australian Contribution to the (PNG) National
Agricultural Research System (ACNARS) Project, C/o
National Agricultural Research Institute, PO Box 4415,
Lae, Morobe Province, PNG.
Email: [email protected]
625
Proceedings.book Page 626 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
be effective (McKay et al. 1999). However, more meat
must be available either from self-production or at
affordable cost.
sector. In other tropical countries, major advances
have been achieved through simple interventions in
disease control. This is not so readily applicable in
PNG where a more comprehensive approach and
demonstration of the benefits of improved
husbandry are required.
Availability of Meat
The most dramatic increase in the availability of meat
has come from imported sheep meat, mainly because
of substantial price advantages. Imports rose from
4753 tonnes in 1980 to 36 190 tonnes in 1998 (Vincent and Low 2000). Two sets of estimates of meat
production and availability have been produced and
are presented in Table 1. Regarding the earlier set
(Quartermain 1993), only values which are at variance
with those of the later set (Vincent and Low 2000) are
given. The variation is due to different assumptions
concerning production parameters. The major implications of the data presented are as follows.
• Local production of meat from sheep, goats and
rabbits is negligible in spite of much promotion of
sheep, an apparent steady growth in numbers of goats
and a promising start to the development of rabbit
production. This is discussed in more detail later.
• Commercial production of beef and pork is small
but important in the market. The former is the main
subject of the review of the PNG red meat industry
(Vincent and Low 2000) but neither production
system is discussed in detail in this paper.
• Frozen chicken is the major commercial product
and although much of this production comes from
relatively small-scale contract growers, this
production system is tied to large-scale industry and
is also not the subject of this paper.
• Small-scale commercial production of chicken for
the live bird trade is clearly important whichever
estimate is used and is based on the purchase of
approximately 120,000 day-old broiler chicks per
week. This represents the major attempt by
independent farmers to commercialise livestock
production and is discussed later in this paper.
There may be as many as 20,000 farmers engaged
in this activity.
• While the two estimates of production from village
or household pigs and poultry differ widely, there is
no doubt as to the significance of these largely
traditional forms of production. The effects of
increased production are theoretically very high.
For example, a 10% increase in output could
produce additional meat equivalent to something
between 40 and 90% of the current total beef
production. However, past experience indicates that
it is not an easy task to raise production in this
Table 1. Meat production and availability in PNG,
1993 and 1998
Type of meat
1998 Estimates
(tonnes)a
Imported
Local
Beef
8,900
2,860
Sheep
32,900
Goat
1993 Estimates
(tonnes)b
Local
15 c
54 d
9e
72 f
Poultry
Frozen
17,500
Live bird
17,500 g
5,616 g
5,760 h
1,238 i
Village
Pig
Commercial
5
Totals
Village total
1,013
5,000 j
Village
41,805
24,000 k
49,657
10,784
25,364
Rabbit estimatel 15,000 head, 1000 farmers, 112 tonnes
production
No estimates for Muscovy ducks
a Vincent
and Low (2000)
(1993)
c Based on 10,000 head
d 15,000 head, 30% off-take, 12 kg per carcase
e 17,000 head, Food and Agriculture Organization,
independently estimated production
f 20,000 head, 30% off-take, 12 kg per carcase
g Based on 120,000 day-old chicks/week, 1.0 kg per
carcase
h Based on 1.5 million birds and consumption patterns
i 1.0 million birds at any time, off-take 1.55 million (0.77
million in any 6-month period), 0.8 kg per carcase
j 1.5–2.0 million head, 10% off-take, 30 kg per carcase
k 1.6 million head, 50% off-take, 30 kg per carcase
l 4000 does, 20 offspring per doe, 1.4 kg per carcase
(I. Grant, pers. comm. 2000)
b Quartermain
Constraints
There are technical, social and economic constraints to
increasing small-scale production. Technical constraints are manifested in the low estimated production
626
Proceedings.book Page 627 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
rates shown in Table 1. Factors contributing to this situation include high mortalities, low reproductive rates
and slow growth (even when taking into account the
genetic limitations of indigenous pigs and chickens).
A limited number of studies documenting the results
of poultry distribution schemes (Quartermain 2000)
identify a range of causes of mortality including dogs
and pigs, theft, motor vehicles and unspecified disease. Quartermain (1996) summarised the production
data available for the native pig, indicating the reasons
for low success rates of such schemes under traditional
husbandry conditions. By contrast, data on reproductive and other production traits of sheep and goats indicate an acceptable level of production (Quartermain
1982; Holmes and Absalom 1985; Quartermain and
Kohun 1985; Kohun 1988; Manua and Malik 1988;
Holmes and Mott 1989; Benjamin et al. 1992; Manua
1994). Lamb and kid mortality, however, remains
unacceptably high, presumably due to helminth parasitism; and footrot continues to be a problem with
sheep in the highlands. However, the sheep and goat
production literature needs to be systematically
reviewed to confirm these conclusions.
The social implications of increased livestock production activities or changed production technologies
are not well understood. Sociocultural research and
attitudinal surveys are required to determine why
farmers do things or do not do them. Problems revolve
around the need for each farmer to exercise judgment
and control in the allocation of resources, such as land,
and the time input of family members to alternative
activities. Other problems occur when there is individualisation of communal resources or communal
expectations from individual enterprise. There is a
need for training in farm management business skills
for farmers wishing to commercialise or partially commercialise their activities.
Economic constraints apply when farmers wish to
earn cash from their livestock production activities.
The best example of this is broiler production for the
live bird trade. This is a fully commercial production
system using hybrid broiler chicks and purchased
milled feed. It is, therefore, totally dependent upon
access to supplies and markets. Production remains
profitable, in spite of the high cost of feed, only
because of the price achievable in the market. There is
little interaction between such a commercial enterprise
and farmers’ other activities, except for the use of
manure on gardens. Therefore, it would be useful to
look at whether or not there are adverse effects on gardening activities, nutritional benefits for the family or
additional burdens on female family members from
such an enterprise. As the cost of inputs is an economic
constraint and the supply and cost of day-old chicks is
a concern, the feasibility of alternative feeds and
feeding systems using increased quantities of cheaper
crop byproducts should be the subject of ongoing planning, research and development.
Small-scale commercial pig production has not
developed in a similar manner to broiler production
and attempts to promote such production have been
spectacularly unsuccessful. This is partly due to feed
costs in conventional commercial production systems
but also to greater technical and attitudinal problems
compared to broiler production. The prevalent farmer
mind-set is that the pig is a foraging asset creating
wealth from crop surpluses and its own efforts, and it is
used mainly for social purposes. It is difficult to commercialise pig production under these circumstances.
Also, commercial meat production, other than broiler
chicken, has suffered in competition with imported
sheep meat, which can be landed and distributed at
lower cost. If commercial, small-scale pig meat production is to be competitive, there must be a substantial
reduction in production costs, mainly in feed costs.
A major strategy for the development of livestock
production used by government agencies, particularly
in the 1970s and 1980s, was the distribution of
breeding stock to small-scale farmers from centralised
breeding centres. Chickens, Muscovy ducks, guineapigs and sheep were distributed through a variety of
schemes. Quartermain (2000) reviewed data on the
effects of the poultry schemes. The current situation
with respect to sheep is discussed later. In general, disproportionate resources were put into breeding and
distribution compared with monitoring of the fate of
the animals or birds, assessment of farmer problems
and ongoing support. Available evidence on the
success of the strategy is not encouraging. Planning
did not take account of what farmers could or were
willing to do, their real needs and whether the animals
could fit into existing farming systems. There were no
systems to monitor and evaluate the programs effectively. It is clear that, in future, breeding stock should
only be made available to farmers at true cost, with
repayment either in cash or kind, and that, as far as
possible, distribution should be farmer-to-farmer or
through nongovernment organisations.
It is also clear that the breeding and distribution of
sheep from government centres is expensive and has
been unable to meet demand. Most sheep are kept in
small flocks with only 5–10 breeding ewes (Levett
1993). It is extremely difficult to achieve growth in
numbers in such circumstances because most off-
627
Proceedings.book Page 628 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
spring are required for household consumption or to
fulfil social obligations. Hence, sheep numbers have
increased very slowly, in spite of intensive extension
efforts since 1975. Priangan sheep in the lowlands, and
goats generally, have higher reproductive rates than
highlands sheep, hence the steady growth in goat
numbers with little government encouragement or
assistance.
the labour involved in handling and storage. The benefits of integrating livestock into PNG crop production
systems, especially where such systems are under
pressure from intensification of production, have been
discussed recently by Quartermain (in press). Systematic use of the fallow by livestock may be the only way
to achieve or sustain intensification of food production. Sheep and goats are the species of choice for
more intensive use of wasteland and fallow. Economic
use of fallow by livestock can offset pressures to
reduce fallow length, especially where grass fallow is
now the norm. Fallow can be improved for livestock
use as well as for soil fertility restoration by the
planting of multipurpose tree species or the sowing of
grazeable legumes.
Opportunities
The key question that should be asked in considering
past livestock extension efforts is: Why have farmers
not done things that the promoters of the programs
obviously believed were good for them?
It seems clear that there was inadequate prior investigation and consultation, in some cases, and inadequate assessment of the likely fit between the new
animal and the existing farming system. However, it is
also clear that opportunities exist for new initiatives or
extension of technology with a high probability of
adoption and success. Past research results had some
application but much of the work was fragmented, not
taken to any conclusion, not presented in a form suitable for application and, therefore, not adopted by
farmers. For example, government or university scientists carried out small research trials on at least 20 different food items for pigs and poultry. Virtually none of
this work resulted in any changes to onfarm practices.
Hence, it was assumed in the 1980s that technology
transfer was more important than research and the latter
essentially ceased until work on rabbit husbandry
began on 1993. The earlier work should be assessed
and interpreted with respect to current relevance. It is
also clear that research organisations paid inadequate
attention to the monitoring and evaluation of the application, uptake, effectiveness and impact of research.
Goats and sheep have proven suitable for village or
household food production and rabbits appear most
promising. Although, as indicated earlier, these
animals are unlikely to make a significant contribution
to total national meat requirements, they do appear
able to contribute significantly to the household
requirements of large numbers of farmers. Planners
should not become concerned about trying to achieve
import substitution for items such as sheep meat, but
this does not mean that the potential of the animals
should not be exploited.
Household production of meat from rabbits,
chickens or ducks can also produce manure for garden
use. The value of manures is well known, but work is
needed to devise systems to optimise use and reduce
There are indications that sheep have been integrated to some extent into cropping systems. A survey
of highlands sheep farmers (Levett 1993) found that
56% of farmers grazed their sheep in food gardens and
67% used sheep manure in their gardens. With an
average flock size of only 15.6 animals, 68% of
farmers had not increased the area of land used as a
result of introducing sheep into their mixed farming
system. Only 13% grazed sheep amongst cash crops
but the scope for doing this would be greater in the
lowlands with cash crops such as coconut, rubber and
oil palm. Sheep are now apparently grazed under
coffee trees and it is possible that larger flocks of
30–50 ewes could be established in plantations or on
more extensive areas of grass fallow to overcome the
problem of the availability of sheep to sustain smallscale production.
Meat consumption preferences are largely determined by availability and price. Therefore, development of production must be driven by what small-scale
farmers are willing and able to do, what can be produced most economically at the local level for household consumption and what can be afforded by the
local market (when conditions allow for some cash
generation). Particularly with livestock, people will
produce successfully if they have an aptitude and are
comfortable with the species or varieties available.
There is no point in trying to promote ideas or animals
that people are unwilling or unable to adopt. Various
reasons have been given to explain past failures. These
include inadequate demonstration of both benefits and
implications of adoption, too high a labour requirement, demand for consumption outstripping the reproductive capacity of the animals, inadequate follow-up
and people participating for the wrong reasons (e.g.
prestige rather than aptitude).
628
Proceedings.book Page 629 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Lae, PNG University of Technology, June 20–23, 1988,
Volume 1, 160–164.
Levett, M.P. 1993. Results of a Survey of Sheep Farmers in
Five Highlands Provinces. Port Moresby, Unisearch PNG
Pty Ltd, University of PNG, 246 p.
Manua, P.N. 1994. Perfomance of sheep and goats in smallholder farms in Eastern Highlands Province of Papua
New Guinea. Livestock Development Note No. 3.
Harvest, 16(1–2), 10–11.
Manua, P.N. and Malik, R.C. 1988. Reproductive
performance of Corriedale, Perendale and crossbred
sheep. In: Krebs, G.L., Cridland, S., Nunn, M.J. and Sims,
L.D., eds, Maximising Animal Production in Papua New
Guinea. Papua New Guinea Society of Animal
Production, Proceedings of the Inaugural Conference,
Lae, PNG University of Technology, June 20–23, 1988,
Volume 1, 165–168.
McKay, K., Lepani, K. and Wagner, T., eds. 1999. Papua
New Guinea Human Development Report 1998. Port
Moresby, Office of National Planning, 320 p.
Quartermain, A.R. 1982. The reproductive capacity of
female goats in Papua New Guinea. In: Jainudeen, M.R.
and Omar, A.R., eds, Animal Production and Health in
the Tropics. Serdang, Penerbit Universiti Pertanian
Malaysia, 417–420.
Quartermain, A.R. 1993. Livestock Research and Extension.
Papua New Guinea Agricultural Research and Extension
Project (ADB TA No. 1587-PNG). Manila, Asian Development Bank Report Annex 3, December, 63 p.
Quartermain, A.R. 1996. Characterisation of the Papuan
native pig. In: Partnership for Sustainable Livestock
Production and Human Welfare. Proceedings the 8th
Asian–Australian Association of Animal Production
Societies (AAAP) Animal Science Congress, October
13–18, 1996, Volume 2. Tokyo, Japanese Society of
Zootechnical Science, 8–9.
Quartermain, A.R. 2000. Non-commercial poultry
production in Papua New Guinea. Asian–Australian
Journal of Animal Science, 13(Supplement, July) C,
304–307.
Quartermain, A.R. In press. Environmental implications of
livestock production in Papua New Guinea. In:
Environment Papua New Guinea, Collected Papers
Series, Volume No. 2. Lae, Environmental Research and
Management Centre, PNG University of Technology.
Quartermain, A.R. and Kohun, P.J. 1985. Performance in a
small flock of Priangan sheep in Papua New Guinea and a
comparison with goats. In: Efficient Animal Production
for Asian Welfare, Proceedings of the 3rd AAAP Animal
Science Congress, May 6–10, 1985, Seoul, Volume 2,
1205–1207.
Vincent, D. and Low, S. 2000. A Review of Papua New
Guinea’s Red Meat Industry. ACIAR Monograph No.66.
Canberra, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 71 p.
The old idea of extension seemed to be that a technology package was developed and farmers were
expected to take it or leave it. It would be more effective to have available a collection of innovations or
options from which farmers can choose in order to
improve existing systems or start a new enterprise.
Emphasis should be on participatory consultation with
the testing and demonstration of new ideas to solve recognised problems, or helping people to aim for realistic
goals in production using available resources. Farmers
will change if the benefits are clear and they can see
ways of fitting new practices into their social agendas
and resource use.
The elaboration of a strategy for livestock research
and development requires planning to determine what
should be done, where, in what sequence and by
whom. The strategy should be related to national and
local livestock development plans with clear objectives and targets. At present, such plans do not exist or
are inadequate.
There should be a livestock development plan for
each local level government area or district. The plan
should enable priority-setting for action and the allocation of resources for research, promotion, investment and extension. Resource allocation should be
based on recommended and desired production and
management systems for the various species of livestock within identified agroecological zones and cultural groupings.
References
Benjamin, A.K., Manua, M.N., Saleu, L. and Wally, J.P.
1992. The reproductive performance of goats at Benabena. Village Livestock Research Paper 2. Goroka,
Department of Agriculture and Livestock, Food
Management Program, 17 p.
Holmes, J.H.G. and Absalom, P. 1985. Growth rates of
Priangon crossbred sheep and some effects of internal
parasitism, in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Papua
New Guinea Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries, 33 (3–4), 109–113.
Holmes, J.H.G. and Mott, G. 1989. Reproduction, growth
rate and mortality in grazing goats in lowland Papua New
Guinea. In: Malik, R.C., ed., Smallholder Animal
Production in Papua New Guinea. PNG Society of
Animal Production, Proceedings of the First Symposium,
Mt Hagen, Highlands Agricultural College, June 27–29,
1989, Volume 2, 95–101.
Kohun, P.J. 1988. Reproductive performance of Priangan
ewes in Lae. In: Krebs, G.L., Cridland, S., Nunn, M.J. and
Sims, L.D., eds, Maximising Animal Production in Papua
New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Society of Animal
Production, Proceedings of the Inaugural Conference,
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The Role of Livestock in Food Security for PNG
Charles B. Maika*
Abstract
Food security in PNG remains critical in the face of increasing numbers of people with low agricultural
productivity. Livestock intervention for increased productivity is a sound strategy to combat malnutrition,
increase availability of meat and provide adequate diets based on locally produced animal protein. Livestock
are important for consolidating growth in agricultural output and accelerating rural development on a
sustainable basis—a prerequisite for national food security. The integration of suitable livestock species with
traditional cropping systems could achieve village-level food security for over 80% of the population.
Appropriate animals for village production can become integral to farming systems, improving meat protein
availability and complementing inadequate and deficient diets in marginal rural and urban areas. This paper
highlights relevant livestock development strategies for PNG.
FOOD security in PNG will require the use of new technological interventions without radical structural
changes to existing cultural farming practices. Introductions of livestock species and varieties for integration with subsistence food gardens to grow vitaminrich vegetables and fruits are necessary to diversify
and increase production. They offer scope for
increasing the rate of evolution of traditional agriculture without replacing it.
The integration of animals in subsistence gardening
and smallholder farms can contribute tremendously to
improved food security, nutritional status of people
and reduced population growth. The role of livestock
in food security is to assist in transforming the current
subsistence-based agrarian society and add to its
overall productivity for better food security. Evidence
from developed countries shows that when the quality
and quantity of the food supply become abundant, the
quality of life for people improves and the size and
growth of populations decline (Lunven 1985).
Small animals with a high reproductive capacity
that can be produced efficiently and economically
with locally available resources are needed. Such
species should be a high priority in any scheme integrating livestock into smallholder farming systems to
improve the use of farm resources, sustainability and
self-reliance in the food supply. Suitable species for
livestock production in this context in PNG are cattle,
sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, ducks, quails and rabbits.
Contribution to Gross Domestic
Product and National Food Security
Over the past 25 years, growth of the PNG economy as
a whole has been poor. Real per capita gross domestic
product (GDP) was lower in 1998 than in 1973 (Vincent and Low 2000). Despite recording an estimated
real GDP growth of 3.8 in 1999 (Bank of PNG budget
document, 2000), low agricultural GDP over the past
decades reflects a need for accelerated growth in food
production. The bulk of this increase will have to come
from extension and intensification of existing subsistence agriculture based on household food gardens.
Smallholder and subsistence activities, which occupy
more than 80% of the population, will have to produce
* Bubia Research Station, National Agricultural Research
Institute, PO Box 1639, Lae 411, Morobe Province, PNG.
630
Proceedings.book Page 631 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
most, if not all, of the food for rural consumption and
provide surpluses to meet the demand for urban food
supplies (FAO 1994).
not from starvation or famine but from nutritionrelated sicknesses and diseases (FAO 1989).
According to Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) figures, the average daily energy consumption
of 2253 calories per person for PNG falls within the
range of 2401–2800 calories typical of countries with
a lower than average daily calorie supply (FAO 1989;
AusAID 2000). This is mainly due to the consumption
of high-carbohydrate foods (sweet potato, banana,
taro, cassava, sago, yam and rice). Hunger and malnutrition are widespread when the average calorie supply
is lower than 2000 calories per person per day. The
existence of poverty, as supported by recent social
indicators, is linked, directly or indirectly, to food
problems (FAO 1989; AusAID 2000).
For several decades malnutrition was considered the
fifth most common diagnosis and cause of death in
hospitals. Infant and maternal mortalities in PNG,
partly determined by nutritional status, are higher than
in other developing countries. For example, estimates
of child malnutrition in Morobe Province for the late
1980s showed that more than 50% of children could be
considered malnourished by FAO standards, while the
country has the third highest recorded level of
maternal deaths in the world (AusAID 2000).
According to the 1994 FAO report on PNG, the
spread of malnourishment in certain regions, continuing high prices for some basic domestic foods and
increasing levels of food imports suggest domestic
food production is lower than population expansion.
Efforts are needed to combat malnutrition and
manage, through indirect means, the effects of the
population explosion. New approaches to food production, with emphasis on improving food consumption levels and nutritional status of deprived
population groups, are important. Livestock species
that can promote the sustainability of village gardens
to ensure diets of adequate quantity and quality for
rural and urban poor could become indirect solutions
to managing social problems associated with urbanisation and urban drift.
Total agricultural GDP, which has livestock as a key
component, together with crop husbandry, hunting,
forestry and fishing, was reported to be about 3 million
PNG kina (PGK)1 in 1989 (FAO 1994). The livestock
share of agricultural GDP is estimated at 12% (Vincent and Low 2000). There is no significant export of
livestock to earn foreign exchange for the national
reserves, so there are opportunities for livestock
beyond domestic food consumption. Smallholder,
low-income farmers need the help of policy makers to
decide where and how certain livestock interventions
can generate increases in both income and food production for local consumption and possible export
earnings (FAO 1995).
Given the right support, livestock can make a substantial contribution towards agricultural GDP by
expanding its component base. For example, adoption
of new animals like rabbits, with the potential to
provide marketable surpluses through products such
as meat, skin and manure, should be endorsed through
government policy. These and other less well-known
rabbit products (heads, kidneys, blood, bowels, ears,
paws and bones) can be used in animal feeds to
expand livestock production and contribute to the
total agricultural GDP.
Combating Undernutrition and
Malnutrition with Livestock
Undernutrition and malnutrition
There are two basic conditions that can result from
hunger: undernutrition and malnutrition. These terms
are often confused. Undernutrition means that a person
is not getting enough to eat, especially to meet energy
needs. Malnutrition refers to a person’s diet not having
the proper mix of vitamins, minerals, proteins and
energy necessary for healthy living (FAO 1989).
Sources of animal protein
A malnourished person may not feel hungry and
may even eat too much. However, someone who is
malnourished may suffer from similar dietary diseases
to those seen in undernutrition, such as vitamin A deficiency (which can cause blindness), iron deficiency
(which leads to anaemia) or iodine deficiency (which
leads to goitre). The majority of hunger deaths result
1.
Food protein is obtainable from plant (vegetables)
and animal (livestock and fish) sources, including to
some extent from insects. Vegetable protein is not considered to be ideal because many vegetables have a low
total protein content and deficiency of some essential
amino acids. Animal protein is more concentrated and
provides a better balance of the essential amino acids.
In PNG, animal protein is derived mainly from eggs,
In 1989, 1 PGK = approx. US$1.16 (A$1.47).
631
Proceedings.book Page 632 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
milk, tinned fish, tinned meat and other fresh or frozen
meats such as chicken, beef and sheep meat.
The livestock industry can achieve self-sufficiency
and import replacement of animal protein at the
national level. However, based on recent estimates,
some livestock components do not perform well (Table
1). For example, increasing productivity from cattle at
the village level is difficult due to customary land ownership, lack of management skills, poor extension and
government support, increasing law and order problems and better returns from alternative enterprises.
The current depressed growth trends of most sources of
protein indicate increased reliance on imported protein, except for poultry, which can satisfy local demand
for chicken meat (Vincent and Low 2000).
lation growth and declining animal resources in forests
in many areas of the country, resulting in limited availability of protein for the rural populace.
The consumption of protein meat depends on both
imports and local production. Figures for 1998 show
that more meat is being consumed than is produced
locally (Table 2). With the exception of fish, the trend
for increased consumption of meat should continue
into the future along with population growth and
increasing income levels (Vincent and Low 2000).
According to a recent survey (Vincent and Low
2000), the total consumption of meat (excluding fish)
has increased from 44,000 tonnes in 1980 to 97,000
tonnes in 1998. There has been a substantial increase
in the consumption of imported sheep meat and
locally-produced poultry meat. Although the country
is self-sufficient in poultry and pig meat, the pattern of
consumption is dictated by the purchasing power of
individual households. More sheep and poultry meat
is being consumed by those able to buy from stores
and from sellers of live broiler chickens (Table 3). In
contrast, rural production of meat for subsistence is
limited and its static rate of consumption reflects the
lack of growth in production and supply from this
sector for decades (Vincent and Low 2000).
Availability and consumption of animal
protein
Historically, meat protein has never formed a major
part of the rural village diet and is often available only
through fishing and hunting, or on special occasions
such as singsings and feasts. Low protein availability is
therefore rooted in social and cultural conditions that
give rise to unavailability of sufficient high-quality
food. This is evidenced by the existence of high popu-
Table 1. Estimated numbers, current value and growth trends for various components of livestock in PNG.
Component of PNG livestock
No. of animals
Value (thousands of PGK)a
Pig meat:
– village
– commercial
1.6–1.8 million
2150 sows
36,000
3450
Industry trends
Static
Static?
Beef:
– large-scale
– small-scale + village
63,000
17,000
7275
75
Sheep meat
15,000
160
Declining?
Goat meat
20,000–30,000
200
Moderate growth?
Poultry:
– large-scale meat
– eggs
– small-scale meat
– village
meat
eggs
Numbers declining,
production static
20,000
2,496
10,000
80,000
15,000
45,000
Strong growth
Strong growth
Strong growth
1,548,000
226,000
25,272
1224
Static?
Static?
Total
213,656
aIn
3–5% per year
July 2000, 1 PNG kina (PGK) = US$0.40 (A$0.60); this value is based on the total numbers of animals killed or
sold as a proportion of the total number of available animals.
Source: Adapted from I. Grant, ACNARS Project, 2000 (pers. comm.)
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Proceedings.book Page 633 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Table 2. Production and consumption of protein meat in PNG, 1998.
Beef
Production
(tonnes)
Consumption
(tonnes)
Goat meat
Poultry
Pig meat
Fish
2860 a
Mutton
15 a
9c
35,616 e
6013 a
26,200 a
Total
77,850
16,210 b
36,205 b
9d
38,738 f
6018 g
25,607 g
121,787
a Production
(commercial and subsistence)
of subsistence and commercial production (including imports)
c Subsistence production
d Consumption of subsistence production
e Production (commercial frozen, village fresh and subsistence)
f Consumption (commercial and subsistence plus village fresh)
g Consumption (commercial and subsistence)
Source: adapted from Vincent and Low (2000)
b Consumption
Table 3. Changing meat consumption in PNG, 1980–98.
Product
Amount consumed (tonnes of carcase weight)
1980
1990
1998
Beef
– official production plus imports
– singsing sales
12,266
15,100
15,850
284
295
360
Total
12,550
15,395
16,210
Sheep meat
– imports
– subsistence production
4753
5
28,710
15
36,190
15
Total
4758
28,725
36,205
9
9
9
12,318
11,485
16,489
3760
5760
11,389
5760
16,489
5760
21,838
28,634
38,738
223
1000
1018
5000
5000
5000
Goat meat
– subsistence production
Poultry meat
– commercial production plus imports
– village fresh production
– subsistence production
Total
Pig meat
– commercial production plus imports
– subsistence production
Total
Fish (total)
5223
6000
6018
42,251
25,169
25,607
Source: Vincent and Low (2000)
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Proceedings.book Page 634 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Pigs and poultry
Increasing urbanisation in PNG is adding a new
dimension to the problem of protein availability and
consumption. This is noticeable with the change from
traditional diets to imported foodstuffs, which has a
major impact on the national food economy. At
present, the value of meat imports is around 215 million PGK per year (47,000 tonnes of mutton and beef
worth 140 million PGK and 25,000 tonnes of fish
worth 75 million PGK). Meat is very expensive and
villagers with limited or no income have little access to
this protein source.
The choice for pigs and poultry (ducks and
chickens) is normally based on high feed conversion
efficiency (2–4 kg feed/kilogram (kg) live weight
gain) and high reproductive capacity when fed grainbased diets. However, this argument does not recognise that the superiority of pigs and poultry is only
apparent when grain-based feeds are available at low
cost. Additionally, commercial production of pigs and
poultry requires high management skills and controlled environments with adequate disease prevention. If these requirements are not met, the improved
breeds will not breed and produce well (Leng 1988).
The advantage of increasing the numbers of pigs,
ducks and chickens using only a smaller land area
compared to ruminants may guarantee success for
such livestock. However, increased village livestock
production (especially pigs) for food security must be
cost-effective without competing with humans for the
same food. The main reason for lower productivity is
not low numbers. Thus, it would be beneficial to assist
traditional pig farmers to develop effective marketing
services and feed supplies to improve productivity.
Village poultry production, where birds scavenge
for feed, is an appropriate low-cost system for smallholder farmers. It could contribute effectively towards
food security, provided there is genetic improvement
of current village stocks to improve growth, reproductive performance and survival in the village free-range
environment. This would provide a cheap alternative
source of poultry meat for households that cannot
afford commercial breeds (Vincent and Low 2000).
Livestock Interventions
Ruminants
There is great opportunity in PNG for grazing animals. This could include both large and smaller ruminants, which do not compete with people in terms of
feed consumption and can sometimes exhibit a feed
conversion ratio of less than 1:1 (Leng 1988). However, although smaller ruminants (sheep and goats)
provide scope for increased production of meat and
milk for village farmers, their ability to use lowquality forages is negated by poor adoption rates due
to mismanagement, and animal health and nutritional
problems. Internal parasites and malnutrition often
result in low rates of reproduction by these animals.
Large areas of agricultural land are planted to tree
crops, which have open canopies, offering opportunities for intercropping with pastures and grazing. Such
a diversified system is beneficial as extra production
can be obtained from existing agricultural land. For
example, it can increase yield, regulate grasses
through grazing, improve soil fertility through animal
manure and urine, provide required feeds from
byproducts and forage crops, and generate more
income for farmers.
Other small livestock
The potential for livestock development schemes to
introduce other small poultry animals such as geese,
turkeys and pigeons needs to be considered seriously
to target remote and peri-urban areas (Quartermain
2000). Providing suitable breeds and strains of poultry
birds to these marginalised areas would help them to
develop sustainable crop and animal agriculture for
food security.
Two newly introduced microlivestock species that
are proving suitable for production are quails and rabbits. Quails produce both meat and eggs but require
high-quality imported feed and high levels of management, including artificial incubation of eggs. They
are highly susceptible to predation by dogs, rats and
cats. It is anticipated that quail production will be
restricted to peri-urban areas only where specialty
In PNG, there are about 1 million hectares of natural
grassland as well as an abundance of forages from
roadsides and garden fallow areas that are potentially
suitable for grazing by ruminants. With improved
nutritional and management practices, the current efficiency of large ruminant (cattle) production systems
could be improved using these feed resources. Higher
productivity can be realised through better husbandry
practices and management skills and innovative customary land arrangements to facilitate expansion of
existing farms through commercial undertakings
between landowners and potential livestock developers (Vincent and Low 2000).
634
Proceedings.book Page 635 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
markets can develop and technical support is available (I. Grant, Australian Contribution to the (PNG)
National Agricultural Research System (ACNARS)
Project, pers. comm. 2000).
The domestic rabbit has gained popularity among
farmers throughout PNG, being very suitable for
village food gardens. There are about 1200 trained
farmers engaged in rabbit farming activities with
approximately 15—20,000 meat rabbits available.
Rabbit meat is similar to chicken and is highly palatable. Rabbit meat contains at least as much protein as
the equivalent weight of chicken, pork, lamb or beef
(Table 4).
while the traditional village-based economic system
provides for the basic needs of most citizens (AusAID
2000). Thus, the stimulus for village-level livestock
development to assist in food security will have to
come from recognition of the key role of animal
protein in elimination of malnutrition and provision of
adequate diets for the growing numbers of rural and
urban poor in PNG. Failure to improve rural living
conditions, together with increased occurrence of
natural calamities, such as drought, floods, volcanic
eruptions, tsunamis and pest epidemics, can hamper
national efforts to maximise agricultural food production (Lunven 1985).
Ultimately, the goal of integrating livestock with
subsistence agriculture is to secure an adequate and
quality diet for people. However, any plans for integrating livestock into the traditional and semisubsistence crop production systems should emphasise the
nutritional aspects of food security, income generation
opportunities for smallholder semisubsistence farmers
and sustainability of gardening systems. Livestock
development strategies must show an effective order
or sequence for implementation of livestock interventions. Simple generalised recommendations that fail to
clarify the impact of envisaged changes can be a
wasted effort.
Development of suitable strategies to increase livestock productivity from the village food system should
target the village as being a unit of production with
diversified farming activities. Correct choices of livestock species to integrate with cropping systems
(backyard gardens, smallholder tree crop plantations
and mixed gardening systems) will be adopted based
on well-planned research programs such as those proposed by the National Agricultural Research Institute
(I. Grant, ACNARS Project, pers. comm. 2000). Such
research programs must depend on the sustainable
allocation of funds and labour to support livestock
integration with traditional farming systems.
In order to address the nutritional aspects of food
security (i.e. protein requirements) under the proposed
scheme, the suitable animals identified for integration
into village agriculture would include those that:
• are easy to rear and manage by women and children;
• can grow and reproduce under village management
conditions;
• require minimum establishment costs;
• are noncompetitive with humans for feed
consumption;
• are less dependent on imported manufactured feeds;
and
• can provide adequate protein for a family meal.
Table 4. Comparison of protein and fat content
(grams) and energy value (kilojoules) of
various meats.
Meat
Protein
(g/100 g)
Fat
(g/100 g)
Energy value
(kJ/100 g)
Rabbit
21.9
4.0
520
Turkey
21.9
2.2
454
Chicken
20.5
4.3
508
Pork
20.7
7.1
615
Lamb
20.8
8.8
679
Beef
20.3
4.6
517
Source: Paul and Southgate (1979)
Rabbits have advantages over other meat-producing
mammals. For example, they can produce at least
14 litters of 8 young in 2 years (i.e. 112 young). The
young can be reared to at least 1.8 kg live weight in
8 weeks, with a saleable carcase weight (dress out
weight) of 50–54% of the live weight (meat, fat and
bones less head and feet). Rabbit heads, kidneys,
blood, bowels, ears, paws and bones may be used in
animal feed, for example, for feeding village pigs.
Rabbits have many advantages: they do not directly
compete with humans for food; their feed conversion
ratio is in the region of 4:1 for forage-based diets and
3:1 for commercial rabbit pellets; they can use fibrous
feeds efficiently (grasses, byproducts from coconut
and oil palms and leaves); and they provide a valuable
source of organic fertiliser.
Livestock for Food Security in
Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture forms the core of activities for
the lives of a great majority of Papua New Guineans,
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Proceedings.book Page 636 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Conclusion
• Identify major social, economic, technical and
institutional constraints limiting the contribution of
livestock to food security and economic progress.
• Define appropriate strategies to alleviate these
constraints and develop a framework for implementation of a food and livestock program.
• Analyse past and present trends in livestock productivity and consumption of livestock products.
• Formulate strategies to increase livestock
productivity through better management of
available resources.
The role of livestock for food security and increased
cash income opportunities for subsistence farmers will
require policy and institutional support. The latter will
depend on sustained allocation of funds and labour.
Both factors are important but often they become casualties of politics.
Despite these constraints, livestock research, development and extension should transcend the current situation. The integration of livestock with cropping
systems can provide opportunities to feed people,
maintain their nutritional requirements and conserve
environmental and genetic resources.
Traditional farming systems and livestock integration should have a clear development program to
support the role of livestock in advancing food security and agricultural productivity for human development. Opportunities need to be identified that will
improve policies and institutional arrangements to
enhance management and investment strategies.
There is no clear policy for livestock production in
PNG. Past research agendas have failed to show where
livestock can make a difference in reducing malnutrition. The demand for meat imports and the need to
supply cheaper quality protein meat to low-income
rural and urban dwellers need to be addressed. Livestock research and development is required to create
linkages between resource users, farmers, extension
and research workers. Developmental projects should
be modified to allow for adaptive and effective
research so that animal production studies can be
carried out on farms with farmer participation.
References
AusAID (Australian Agency for International Development).
2000. Papua New Guinea’s Challenges. Program profiles
1999–2000. Canberra, Australia, 56 p.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations). 1989. What is hunger? World Hunger Rome,
World Food Day Secretariat. FAO, Via delle Terme di
Caracalla, 22 p.
FAO. 1994. Report of the exploratory mission to PNG, 14–25
November 1994. Special Program on Food Production in
Support of Food Security in Low-Income Deficit Countries.
Rome, FAO.
FAO. 1995. Potential for increasing staple food production for
food security in low-income food-deficit countries. Item III
of the Provisional Agenda Committee on World Food
Security, 20th Session, 25–28 April 1995. Rome, FAO.
Leng, R.A. 1988. Optimising ruminant production in the
tropics. In: Krebs, G.L., Cridland, S., Nunn, M.J. and Sims,
L.D., eds, Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Society of
Animal Production, Volume 1, Inaugural Conference, 3–14.
Lunven, P. 1985. FAO and nutrition: evolution of strategies.
Food and Nutrition, 11(1), 1–16.
Recommendations
Paul, A.A. and Southgate, D.A.T. 1979. The composition of
foods. 4th Edition of MRC Special Report No 297, HMSO,
UK.
The role of livestock in food security and sustainable
development will depend on strategies to ensure that
low-income subsistence farmers are given every
opportunity to benefit from increased agricultural productivity for self-reliance and improved nutrition. The
following recommendations are aimed at developing
strategies to help alleviate food and nutritional problems in the country.
• Review the contribution and potential of livestock
to increase sustainable food production.
Quartermain, A.R., ed. 2000. Proceedings of the NARI Poultry
Workshop, Forest Research Institute, 26 August 1999.
NARI Proceedings Series, Proceedings No. 1, National
Agricultural Research Institute, PNG.
Vincent, D. and Low, S.G. 2000. A review of Papua New
Guinea’s red meat industry. Canberra, Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), ACIAR
Monograph 66, 71 p.
636
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Broiler Chicken Production:
Experiences from Peri-Urban Areas
Masayan Moat*
Abstract
Smallholder farmers in both peri-urban areas and remote villages raise broiler chickens for fresh meat and live
chickens. This poultry meat subsector is an important component of the poultry industry development because
it provides fresh meat for the rural population and an income-earning opportunity for rural farmers. The
demand for such poultry products is clear in rural areas, with sales of day-old broiler chickens increasing. It is
currently estimated that more than 120,000 day-old chicks of meat birds are sold each week to independent
small farmers.
Apart from the constraint of the high cost of feed, one of the major problems is the consistency of supply of
broiler chickens to meet market demand. Farmers tend to oversupply the market at certain times, while at other
times there is no supply. Chickens are often kept longer than necessary and, as a result, chickens are sold at very
high prices to recover costs or the extra cost of feeding reduces the profit margin. When there is no supply,
farmers miss income-earning opportunities. This paper describes a broiler production system and its
production performance.
Data used to analyse the project performance were taken from farm records of 37 batches of chickens raised
from May 1999 to February 2000. It was calculated that at 53 days old a bird has consumed about 4.73 kilograms
of feed and weighs about 1.85 kilograms. The feed conversion ratio (FCR), which indicates a measure of
production efficiency, is thus about 2.56 (average of 37 batches). Mortality, which may indicate the level of
husbandry management, is acceptable at 2.24% for the first week and 4.84% thereafter. The performances are
positive and promising, suggesting that such a small broiler project could be a model for rural areas.
THE poultry industry in PNG has grown since the early
1980s under the protection of an import ban and, more
recently, a high import tariff. This has resulted in a
high level of self-sufficiency. The industry provides
frozen and fresh chicken meat, mainly to urban
markets and other smaller centres with good transportation systems. In most remote rural areas, however,
these commercial poultry products are not reaching
the people. The poultry meat subsector in rural areas is
an important component of the development of the
poultry industry, which, if developed, would provide
fresh meat for rural populations and an incomeearning opportunity for rural farmers.
In addition to the fresh and frozen commercial
chicken market, there is an increasing development of
broiler chickens that are raised by smallholder farmers
both in peri-urban and rural areas. Areas taking part in
this broiler production are those with access to good
transportation systems for both the day-old chicks and
chicken feed.
There is high demand for live chickens and fresh
eggs in both urban and rural areas. Live chickens, in
particular, command very high prices. Farmers living
around the peri-urban areas have taken advantage of
this high price and raise broiler chickens for meat in
the form of live broiler chickens. In rural areas, where
* Provincial and Industry Support Services, Northern
Region, Department of Agriculture and Livestock,
PO Box 4535, Lae 411, Morobe Province, PNG.
637
Proceedings.book Page 638 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
chicken feed and day-old chicks can be transported by
road or sea, farmers have taken the initiative of raising
broiler chickens for the same purpose—that of
meeting the needs of people in rural areas. The farming
of live chickens has increased significantly and it is
estimated that at present more than 120,000 day-old
chicks of meat birds are sold each week to independent
smallholder growers outside the large-scale commercial production system. Production from this source is
estimated to match the commercial production of
frozen chicken.
Market assurance was one of the major unknown
factors needing proper assessment during the life of
the project. Initial project assessment indicated that
there was high demand for live and fresh chickens
within the surrounding community—between 100–
120 chickens per week. It was also estimated that
during festival events, up to 500 chickens might be
required. This market estimate was the main factor in
the decision that the broiler project was feasible.
Housing and facilities
This poultry subsector is addressing the need for
fresh meat among many rural populations and is
addressing the issue of food security for rural populations. However, because the industry is based on commercial hybrid chickens and formulated stockfeed,
there are problems and constraints associated with
supply and cost. Apart from the high cost of feed, one
of the major problems is the consistency of supply of
product to meet market demand. Broiler chicken
growers tend to oversupply the market at certain times,
then fail to meet demand at other times. As a result,
chickens are sold at a very high price to recover
costs—otherwise farmers do not make a profit. When
there is no supply, farmers miss income-earning
opportunities. This paper describes the experience of a
small broiler production project in the peri-urban area
of Lae, Morobe Province.
Three deep-litter poultry sheds (2 sheds
6 × 32 metres and 1 shed 7 × 30 metres) are used to
raise the chickens. The sheds were constructed with a
treated-post mainframe, open walls with chickenwire
mesh, and an iron roof. Each shed is divided into four
rooms (total of 12 rooms) each with the capacity to
hold up to 300 birds.
Plastic suspension feeders are filled manually with
feed as required and plastic bell-type drinkers are connected to an overhead tank. Bore water is pumped into
the overhead tank, which then supplies water by
gravity.
For brooders, plastic curtains are used to cover part
of the growing rooms from top to bottom. Three
lengths of galvanised iron sheeting (30 × 20 centimetres) are stapled together in a circle to hold young
chicks in the brooder area. Brooder heat is provided
by kerosene lamps. As the chicks grow, the size of the
brooder is increased by enlarging the iron sheet circles. At the same time, the number of lamps used for
heat is reduced.
Peri-Urban Broiler Project
A small broiler chicken project was established within
the peri-urban area of Lae, Morobe Province. The
project raises broiler chickens on a weekly turnover of
between 200 and 300 chickens depending on demand.
The results are promising and the method of operation
could be used as a model to develop the rural broiler
production industry in PNG.
Day-old chicks and feeds
Day-old chicks are purchased from Zenag Highlands Products in Lae, Morobe Province. Chicken
feed is from Associated Mills, Lae. Broiler starter
ration is fed to the birds from day 1 for the first three
weeks and broiler finisher ration from three weeks to
slaughter age. Although there are rations such as
broiler prestarter, broiler starter, broiler grower and
broiler finisher that can be used in sequence, they are
expensive and it is recommended that only broiler
starter and broiler finisher ration are necessary for
small rural projects.
Factors considered in planning the project
There are a number of important factors that need to
be assessed before starting a broiler project. These
include the farmer’s interest in the project, financial
support, market assurance, supply of good broiler
chicks and constant supply of quality stockfeed. In
addressing these factors, it was established that there
was a location/community suitable for the broiler
project, initial financial support, basic infrastructure,
access to a reliable supply of quality stockfeed and a
reliable supply of day-old chicks.
Production schedule and management
The project production schedule follows a multiplestage broiler operation based on a weekly turnover of
between 200–300 chickens depending on the estimated
638
Proceedings.book Page 639 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
demand for the week. The required number of day-old
chicks are purchased and brought to the farm on a
weekly basis. For example, the current stocking is
about 300 day-old chicks per week and each week there
is a new batch of 300 day-old chicks brought to the
farm. Thus, in any one week, the farm has eight batches
of 300 chickens, day-old up to seven-week-old, with
the seven-week-old batch being ready for sale. The
schedule continues in rotation with the use of 12 rooms
within the three growing sheds. With such a system,
each room is rested for at least four weeks before it is
stocked again. This is an important measure to prevent
build-up of pests and disease.
and estimated dressing percentage. Feed conversion
ratio (FCR) was calculated as the ratio of feed intake
per unit weight gain.
Sales/market
The sales of chickens during the season are shown in
Figure 1. The number of sales per week reveals a large
variation in demand associated with extra sales for festival events such as church activities, long weekend
holidays and the Christmas period. Overall, the project
was easily able to sell about 200 chickens per week
during a normal week, about 350 per week during festival events and more than 500 per week over the
Christmas period.
Extra demand for live chickens is commonly related
to seasonal events, such as church functions, community feasts, sporting events and other community and
family gatherings. The project spent considerable time
in assessing such events during the year for the surrounding community and planned in advance by
ordering extra chickens to ensure that there would be
enough for seasonal demand. The project therefore
had more than 300 birds in some batches.
Production performance
Estimates of performance indicators are given in
Table 1. The summary of performance from the
records of 37 batches is very promising.
Feeding broiler starter during the first three weeks
and then broiler finisher thereafter to slaughter age
shows an acceptable pattern of feed consumption of
about 1 kilogram (kg) of starter and 4 kg of finisher
per bird. The large variation shown is primarily due
to the actual feeding practice at the farm. Farm
workers often had to feed birds with whatever feed
was available, depending on stockfeed supplies. For
example, broiler starter may have been fed for more
or less than three weeks. The same was true for
broiler finisher. This practice is likely to hap pen with
smallholder farmers.
It was calculated from the farm records that a bird at
53 days old would have consumed about 4.73 kg of
feed and weigh about 1.85 kg (liveweight). The FCR,
which indicates a measure of production efficiency, is
about 2.56. Both feed consumption and FCR levels are
comparable to those of a contract grower for Niugini
Table Birds.
Broiler mortality, which is indicative of the level of
husbandry and management skills, is acceptable for
the first week at 2.24%. From week 1 onward, mortality is 4.8%, which is higher than expected. One
would expect a higher mortality during the brooding
period (first week) than after brooding. This high mortality indicates management or environmental problems that need to be addressed. However, in general,
an overall mortality of 7.0% per batch is acceptable
considering the intensity of production.
The performances are reasonable and promising,
and this outcome has led to the suggestion that similar
small broiler projects could be developed for rural
areas. The broiler industry is likely to increase in rural
Slaughtering and sales
All live chicken sales are at the farm gate with most
customers coming from a walking distance within the
surrounding community. Fresh chickens are processed
on two days per week. The chickens are manually
slaughtered in a small killing shed that has a fly screen,
a cement floor and hygienic working table. Feathers,
head, feet and intestines are removed at slaughter; all
other organs are included with the whole bird. The
birds are packed in polythene bags, weighed and sold
according to weight.
Production performance highlights
Data and calculation methods
The data used to analyse the project’s performance
were taken from the farm records of 37 batches raised
from May 1999 to February 2000. Average age at
slaughter was taken as the middle age between the start
and the end of the selling period. Feed intake was calculated as the difference between the feed given and
the residues after all birds were sold. Liveweight was
estimated from the recorded dressed weight. A small
sample of chickens was weighed before and after
slaughter and from those records, the dressing percentage was calculated. Liveweight at slaughter age
was then estimated using the recorded, dressed weight
639
Proceedings.book Page 640 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
600
Christmas period
Fresh
500
Live
No. of chickens
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
May
1999
February
2000
Week
Figure 1. Chicken sales, May 1999 to February 2000.
Table 1. Average production performance indicators from 37 batches of broiler chickens produced at the Lae
broiler project.
Performance indicators
Average
SD
Minimum
Maximum
53
5
44
67
– broiler starter
1.03
5.78
0.36
2.62
– broiler finisher
3.70
5.40
1.63
5.29
– total
4.73
5.22
3.50
6.68
– liveweight
1.85
0.13
1.68
2.18
– dressed weight
1.57
0.11
1.43
1.86
2.56
0.34
1.91
3.49
Average age (days)
Average feed intake (kg/bird):
Average chicken weight (kg/bird):
Average FCR
Average mortality (%):
– first week
2.24
5.67
0
– after first week
4.84
5.55
1.60
13.46
– total
7.08
5.39
2.88
17.31
FCR = feed conversion ratio; SD = standard deviation
640
4.81
Proceedings.book Page 641 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
areas as there is an increasing number of day-old
chicks being purchased by smallholder farmers. The
peri-urban project could be used as a model for interested farmers in a particular community to raise broiler
chickens and supply community demand for live/fresh
chicken on a continuous basis.
productivity and increases death rates. Continual use
of the same shed results in microorganism build-up
and the potential for outbreak of disease (Bakau et al.
1992). Other major production issues are the quantity
and quality of water and feed. Feed availability in
certain areas may be a major problem when transportation is difficult. At times, chickens may go without
feed for days, resulting in poor productivity.
Production issues
Before considering any broiler project, a number of
basic issues related to broiler production and development in rural areas need to be addressed. The following are the major issues in brief.
Marketing
The selling price and production costs directly influence profit. Broilers must therefore be marketed
within an optimum period that will give maximum
return. Marketing the birds too late results in birds
being kept longer and the extra cost of feeding reduces
profits, as well as disrupting the schedule for raising
the next batch of chickens. The other major marketing
issue is oversupplying the market, which again leads to
late marketing with a resultant increase in the cost of
production and poor FCRs. It is thus very important
that market assurance is carried out before starting a
broiler project.
Day-old chicks
The cost of day-old chicks is very high. The difference between the cost of chicks from the major poultry
producers and from the distribution point is very large.
At the point of collection by the farmers, the price is
expected to be much higher.
High mortality
High mortality has been experienced by other
farmers after purchase and transportation of day-old
chicks, especially to remote areas. Asiba (2000)
reported up to 50% mortality in some highland areas.
He observed that most of the mortality was related to
transportation stress, lack of proper care when holding
at distribution points and faulty brooder management.
After brooding, most mortality was related to lack of
proper husbandry management.
Proposed Production Model
Experience from the peri-urban broiler project and the
promising results indicate the potential for developing
a production system for rural broiler production. One
of the major factors for consideration is the market.
The demand for both fresh and live chickens has been
expressed explicitly, with increasing numbers of dayold chicks going out to smallholder farmers. This
sector of the broiler industry in rural areas will
increase further when more rural areas have access to
transportation for day-old chicks and feed.
Similar small broiler projects could be developed
and be successful for the benefit of both consumers and
interested farmers in rural areas and small centres that
have no supply of live or fresh chickens. A project to
supply a particular area’s requirement for fresh/live
chickens could be organised with a single farmer, as
described in the peri-urban project, or with a number of
interested farmers within a community. Because most
individual farmers would have resource constraints, a
number of interested farmers could form a group to
supply broiler chickens on a regular basis as required
by their community. For example, if a community
requires about 200 chickens per week, how can a
number of farmers be organised to serve this market?
Assuming that farmers are interested, have the minimal
resources required, husbandry skills and access to day-
High cost of feed
Because most of the feed ingredients are imported,
the prices of feed have increased to about
0.90 PNG kina (PGK)/kg for broiler starter and 0.86
PGK/kg for broiler finisher1. Transportation to rural
areas is difficult and often results in extra cost by the
time it reaches the poultry grower. Unreliable supply
of stockfeed in other centres and remote areas may
lead to poor performance and increased mortality.
Management issues
There are a number of problems with housing management related to the use of faulty materials and inappropriate brooder construction. Brooders that do not
protect birds from cold and heat may cause high mortality during the brooding period (Abdelsamie 1984;
Abdelsamie 1985). Poor housing design and, in particular, poor ventilation for growing birds also decreases
1.
In 1999–2000, 1 PGK = approx. US$0.40 (A$0.60).
641
Proceedings.book Page 642 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Abdelsamie, R.E. 1985. Management of chicken by
smallholders. Harvest, 11(3), 105–108.
Asiba, G.B. 2000. Health maintenance in village flocks. In:
Quartermain, A.R., ed., Proceedings of the National
Agricultural Research Institute Poultry Workshop, Forest
Research Institute, 26 August 1999. Lae, NARI
Proceedings Series, No. 1, 19–20.
Bakau, B.J., Bilong, G.P., Abdelsamie, R.E. and Nano, W.E.
1992. Peri-urban broiler production. In: Levett, M.P.
Earland J. and Heywood, P., eds, Proceedings of the First
Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition Conference:
Changes in Food and Nutrition in Papua New Guinea.
Port Moresby, University of PNG Press and Department
of Agriculture and Livestock, 205–213.
old chicks and chicken feed, a group of farmers could
raise the chickens individually but then work as a group
to supply the community with regular supplies of
broiler chickens. The group could be organised so that
each farmer was scheduled to supply a particular week.
Such a system would enable the group to supply the
market continuously, keep the consumers happy and
increase their farm activities.
References
Abdelsamie, R. 1984. A chicken cold brooder suitable for
the New Guinea Lowlands. Harvest, 10(2), 76–78.
642
Proceedings.book Page 643 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Use of Sweet Potato and Soybean for
Feeding Exotic-Type Pigs
Gariba Danbaro,* G. Vegofi* and A. Kila*
Abstract
Average daily gains (ADGs) were studied for large white (exotic-type) pigs on different diets. Thirty weaned
pigs, 10–14 kilograms liveweight, were randomly allocated to six pens at 5 pigs per pen. The diets studied
included sweet potato at two levels (cooked and dried chips); and soybean meal at three levels, corresponding
to 144, 192 and 240 grams of crude protein (CP) per pig per day, respectively. Other feedstuffs in the diet were
supplied at constant rate to all pigs and water was freely available at all times.
Variation in ADG due to sweet potato and soybean meal diets were found to be statistically significant. ADG
for pigs on cooked and dried sweet potato were 532 and 429 grams, respectively. Pigs on CP diets of 144, 192,
and 240 grams of soybean per day had ADGs of 407, 502 and 532 grams per day, respectively.
SUSTAINABILITY of feeding systems for livestock has
recently gained prominence as a means of ensuring
food security, especially in developing countries
(Preston 1995; Perez 1997). The integrated use of
crops that already form part of well-established
farming systems, as a source of feeds for livestock, is
encouraged under this concept.
Currently, most small and large-scale intensive and
semi-intensive pig producers in PNG keep exotic-type
pigs, or their crossbreds with local pigs, and feed them
diets containing cereal grain as an energy source. Such
diets are expensive, since most of the ingredients are
imported. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the
use of locally produced feeds as an energy source in
such pig-feeding systems.
Sweet potato is by far the most important food crop
in PNG and its tubers are used traditionally as pig feed
(Watt 1972; Bourke 1985). However, feeding of sweet
potato requires a supplementary source of protein concentrate. Grain legume production in PNG is low and
since it has to be imported, protein concentrate consti-
tutes the most expensive part of the diet. The most
cost-effective amount of protein concentrate to use in
conjunction with sweet potato feeding systems therefore needs to be investigated.
The response of pigs to different feeds may depend
on genotype. In PNG, several workers have investigated the use of sweet potato tubers (cooked or raw) and
vines as feeds for village pig breeds (Springhall 1969;
Malynicz 1971; Watt 1972; Rose and White 1980; Rose
1981). Pork meat formally marketed in PNG comes
mostly from exotic-type breeds or their crossbreds with
local breeds of pigs. However, little or no information
gathered within the country is available on the use of
sweet potato for feeding these breeds of pigs.
The main objective of this trial was, therefore, to
study the growth response of weaned, large white pigs
on cooked and raw sweet potato diets with different
levels of soybean meal as the source of protein.
* Department of Agriculture, PNG University of
The trial was performed at the PNG University of
Technology farm (6°41´S and 146°98´E). The site is
65 metres above sea level, with an average annual
Materials and Methods
Technology, PMB, Lae, Morobe Province, PNG.
Email: [email protected]
643
Proceedings.book Page 644 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
rainfall of 3789 millimetres and average daily temperature of 26.3°C.
The experiment was set up as a 2 × 3 factorial
crossed classification with a balanced design. Thirty
weaned, large white pigs (10–14 kilograms liveweight)
were used. Five pigs were randomly allocated to each
of 6 pens where they were group fed for 8 weeks.
The two treatments were: sweet potato of two types
(cooked and dried chips), and soybean meal at three
levels: 300, 400 and 500 grams per pig per day (g/pig/
day). The three levels of soybean corresponded to the
supply of 144, 192, and 240 g/pig/day of crude protein
(CP), respectively. Also supplied to all pigs at a constant rate were: commercial pig grower mineral–
vitamin premix (10 g/pig/day), common salt (10 g/
pig/day), ground limestone (6 g/pig/day) and calcium
phosphate (6 g/pig/day).
A seventh group of 5 pigs in a pen were fed the usual
commercial pig grower diet for the 8-week period of
the experiment. This group was included in the trial
solely for performance and cost comparisons.
Pigs were fed twice daily at 10 hours and 14 hours.
Water was freely available via nipple-type drinkers
throughout the feeding period. Pigs were weighed
weekly but average daily gains (ADG) were calculated
from the difference between the initial and final liveweights measured. The quantity of cooked and dried
potatoes consumed over the experimental period averaged 3.3 kg/pig/day for fresh and 2.4 kg/pig/day for
dried, chipped sweet potato, in addition to all other
ingredients in the diets.
Pigs that were fed on commercial pig grower diets at
the rate normally practised on the farm had an ADG of
488 g/day. Further analyses showed that pigs on
cooked sweet potato diets with 400 g of soybean meal
or more per day, as well as pigs on dried sweet potato
with 500 g/pig/day of soybean meal, had similar or
higher ADG than pigs on the normal commercial diets
fed on the farm.
It therefore appears that the cost of cooking sweet
potato has to be compared with the extra cost of feeding
more than 400 g soybean meal/pig/day to find economic levels of feeding pigs with these two feedstuffs.
If the approach towards feeding on the farm is indicative
of what happens on other small-scale intensive farms in
PNG, then it appears that many small-scale operators
will accept the moderate growth rates of exotic-type
pigs on dried or cooked sweet potato with 192 g CP/pig/
day (equivalent to 400 g soybean meal/pig/day).
Table 1. Analysis of variance for average daily gains
of large white pigs on diets of sweet potato
and soybean meal.
Source of
variation
Degrees of
freedom
Total
29
Sweet potato
1
Soybean
2
42,507.32**
Interaction
2
2326.92 ns
Error
Results and Discussion
Mean of squares
24
80,453.93**
3158.18
** P < 0.001; ns = not significant
Table 1 shows the results of analysis of variance of
ADG for pigs on varied diets of sweet potato and
soybean meal.
Variation in ADG due to sweet potato and soybean
were both found to be highly significant (P < 0.001).
Pigs on cooked sweet potato had significantly higher
ADG than those on dried sweet potato (532 and
429 g/pig/day, respectively). It is widely accepted that
pigs perform better on cooked sweet potato due mainly
to the thermal destruction of anti-nutritional factors
found in fresh sweet potato. However, there is an extra
cost associated with boiling, coupled with possible
adverse environmental consequences of using wood or
fossil fuels as a source of energy.
Table 2 shows ADG of pigs on different levels of
soybean diets. Average growth rates of pigs on 400 or
500 g/day of soybean were similar but significantly
higher than those of pigs on 300 g/pig/day of soybean.
Table 2. Average daily gains (ADG) of large white
pigs on diets of sweet potato and soybean
meal.
Treatment
ADG ± SE (g/day )
Cooked sweet potato
532.1 ± 86.3a
Chipped dried sweet potato
428.6 ± 66.1b
300 g soybean/pig/day
407.1 ± 71.3a
400 g soybean/pig/day
501.8 ± 76.8b
500 g soybean/pig/day
532.1 ± 83.0b
Normal commercial pig
grower diet
487.5 ± 42.6
ADG = average daily gain; SE = standard error
Note: ADGs with different letters indicate figures are
statistically significantly different within treatment group
(P < 0.05).
644
Proceedings.book Page 645 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Acknowledgment
Preston, T.R. 1995. Tropical Animal Feeding: A Manual for
Research Workers, FAO Animal Production and Health
Paper 126. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization.
Rose, C.J. and White, G.A. 1980. Apparent digestibilities of
dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, energy and acid
detergent fibre of chopped, raw sweet potato (Ipomea
batatas (L.)) by village pigs (Sus scrofa papuensis) in
Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Agricultural
Journal, 31(1–4), 69–72.
Rose, C.J. 1981. Preliminary observations on village pigs
(Sus scrofa papuensis) under intensive outdoor
management. Part 1: Dietary intake and liveweight gain.
Science in New Guinea, 8(2), 132–140.
Springhall, J.A. 1969. The use of selected local ingredients
for pig rations in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea.
Papua New Guinea Agricultural Journal, 21(2), 76–87.
Watt, I.R. 1972. Feeding sweet potatoes to pigs. Harvest,
2(4), 138–141.
The authors wish to thank management of Lae Feed
Mills Pty Ltd for supplying all ingredients (except
sweet potato) in the diets.
References
Bourke, R.M. 1985. Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas)
production and research in Papua New Guinea. Papua
New Guinea Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries, 33(3–4), 89–108.
Malynicz, G.L. 1971. Use of raw sweet potato, raw peanuts
and protein concentrate in rations for growing pigs. Papua
New Guinea Agricultural Journal, 22(3), 165–166.
Perez, R. 1997. Feeding Pigs in the Tropics. FAO Animal
Production and Health Paper 132. Rome, Food and
Agriculture Organization.
645
Proceedings.book Page 646 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Growth and Feed Efficiency of Pigs Fed Common
Staples and Protein Supplements
J.B. Duks,* M. Moat† and C. Dekuku*
Abstract
Two feeding trials were conducted to determine the effect of sweet potato and two locally grown corn varieties
on the growth of pigs following the Lehmann feeding system, which involves feeding pigs staples such as
sweet potato and corn with supplements of protein concentrate.
One trial assessed feed intake and growth of native pigs when fed sweet potato with supplements of
formulated protein concentrate (45% crude protein) at 0.45 or 0.50 kilograms per pig per day. Control pigs
received pig grower only. Feed conversion ratios (FCR) and daily weight gains were not significantly different
between the three groups. A second trial studied the effect of two locally grown corn varieties on the FCR and
growth of crossbred pigs. Normal or quality protein corn was fed with protein concentrate at 0.50 kilograms
per pig per day; control pigs were fed pig grower only. Pigs fed quality protein corn had higher weight gains
than control pigs or those receiving normal corn.
The results showed that satisfactory growth in fattening native and crossbred pigs could be achieved using
locally available staples and supplements of protein concentrate. Weight gains of 600–629 grams per day in
crossbred pigs confirmed the potential of the Lehmann feeding system for smallholder pig growers.
PIGS are traditionally the most important animal in
PNG society, although production indicators are generally poor. These include quantitative traits of slow
growth rate, poor feed efficiency, small litter size and
high mortality. Generally accepted reasons relate to
both environmental factors, such as poor nutrition and
husbandry skills, and genotype (Purdy 1971; Malynicz
1973; Wenge 1985).
Past research on pig production in PNG has generally found that nutrition is a major determinant of performance in subsistence production systems (Malynicz
1971; Wenge 1985). Thus, diets have been formulated
using local feed ingredients (e.g. tubers, peanut, fruit
kernel, coconut products), agricultural byproducts (e.g.
copra meal, brewers grain, oil palm fruits, pyrethrum,
maize, cocoa pod, coffee pulp) and some legumes (e.g.
cowpea, mung bean, puraria) as green feed. The aim
was to develop simple methods of feeding using local
ingredients. This led to a modified Lehmann feeding
system being recommended by Watt et al. (1975).
Malynicz (1971) reported the use of soybean as a
concentrate in feeding native pigs. The feed conversion
ratios (FCR) and daily weight gains were 2.6–3.0, and
240–270 grams per pig per day (g/pig/day), respectively. The Lehmann feeding system recommends
giving pigs a fixed amount of protein supplement from
weaning to slaughter, with a starch staple fed to appetite. Although this system showed promising results
and seems to be appropriate to subsistence pig production systems, there is little evidence of the technology
being adopted.
* Food Security Branch, Erap, Department of Agriculture
and Livestock, PO Box 1984, Lae 411, Morobe Province,
PNG.
† Provincial and Industry Support Services, Northern
Region, Department of Agriculture and Livestock,
PO Box 4535, Lae 411, Morobe Province, PNG.
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Proceedings.book Page 647 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
In this study, two trials were conducted using a modified Lehmann feeding system to determine the FCR
and daily growth of pigs. The first trial used native pigs
fed sweet potato and protein concentrate as the base
ingredients. The second trial used crossbred pigs
(native × large white) fed normal and quality protein
corn mixed with protein concentrate as base ingredients. The quality protein corn contains high levels of
two essential amino acids (lysine and tryptophan) that
are important in pig nutrition.
concentrate, respectively. Sweet potato tubers were
chipped, cooked, drained of excess water and mixed
with protein concentrate before being fed to pigs. Feed
intake was calculated based on sample dry matter from
the fresh feed and residues. Daily feed intake and
weekly body weight data were collected and were analysed using analysis of variance.
Trial 2
Twelve female crossbred pigs (mean weight 18 kg;
aged 8–10 months) from two litters were allocated at
random to three treatments (four pigs per treatment)
and housed with one pig per pen. Each group was
given one of the feeding treatments. Treatment 1 was
commercial pig grower (18% crude protein) from Lae
Feed Mills Pty Ltd as control; treatment 2 was based
on normal corn (25% crude protein); and treatment 3
was based on quality protein corn (25% crude protein)
with various formulations (Table 2). Pigs in treatments
2 and 3 were supplemented with 0.50 kg/pig/day
village pig concentrate.
The piggery was constructed from bush materials
and was laid out with pens on either side of a 1-metre
walkway. The floor was laid with sand and gravel. Pens
Materials and Methods
Trial 1
Twelve weaner native pigs were assessed in this
feeding trial. The pigs were allocated at random to
three groups of four animals each. Each group was
given one of the feeding treatments, based on the
Lehmann feeding system (Table 1). Treatment 1 (control) was commercial pig grower (18% crude protein)
from Lae Feed Mills Pty Ltd. In treatments 2 and 3,
sweet potato was fed, with supplements of 0.45 or
0.50 kilograms per pig per day (kg/pig/day) of pig
Table 1. Example of the Lehmann feeding system.
Pig type
Age (months)
Weight (kg)
Concentrate
(kg/pig/day)
Staple
(kg/pig/day)
Weaner
2
13.5
0.45
1.8
Grower
3–4
27–45
0.45
3.6
Fattener
4–6
45–72
0.45
6.8
Adult growing
10–20
112–180
0.45
9.0
Adult maintenance
20–36
112–180
0.45
6.8
Lactating
20–36
112–180
0.90
9.0
Source: Watt et al. (1975)
Table 2. Composition of ingredients for trial 2 treatments (per cent).
Ingredients
Treatment 1
Treatment 2
Treatment 3
Normal corn
–
50
–
Quality protein corn
–
–
50
Copra meal
–
20
20
Mill run
–
30
30
Pig grower
100
–
–
Total (%)
100
100
100
– = not included in treatment
Note: Treatments 2 and 3 were supplemented with village pig concentrate at 0.50 kg/pig/day.
647
Proceedings.book Page 648 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Results
were partitioned with welded mesh wire at a spacing of
2 metres and were 1 metre in length. Dried grass was
used as bedding and was replaced regularly. Corn was
hammer milled; pig grower was crushed finely before
feeding. Feed intake was calculated based on sample
dry matter from the fresh feed and residues. Daily feed
intake and weekly bodyweight data were collected and
analysed manually using completely randomised
design as a statistical tool (Minitab 1989).
Trial 1
Feed intake and weight gain of native pigs are
shown in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Pigs given
commercial pig grower ate significantly more than
those fed treatment 2 (P < 0.05). However, there was
no significant difference (P < 0.05) in energy intake
Table 3. Feed intake in native pigs under different treatments (trial 1).
Treatment
Daily feed intake
(g/pig)
Crude protein intake
(%)1
Energy intake
(MJ/day)1
Feed conversion ratio
1
1020a
18
3.9
4.3a
2
940b
21
2.7
4.4a
3
980ab
23
2.8
4.1a
MJ = megajoules
1 Calculated values
Note: Results with the same letter (within the same column) are not significantly different (P < 0.05)
Table 4. Weight gains in native pigs under different treatments (trial 1).
Treatment
Initial weight (kg)
Final weight (kg)
Total gain (kg/pig)
Daily gain (g/pig)
1
20.8
38.7
17.9a
256a
2
20.0
35.7
15.7a
224a
3
18.5
36.7
14.2a
260a
Note: Results with same letter (within the same column) are not significantly different (P < 0.05)
Table 5. Mean growth, feed consumed and cost of production in crossbred pigs (trial 2).
Treatment 1
Pig grower
Treatment 2
Normal corn
Treatment 3
Quality protein corn
Initial weight (kg)
18
18.5
18
Final weight (kg)
60
61
62
Weight gain (kg)
42a
42.5a
44a
Daily gain (g)
600a
607a
630a
Feed consumed (kg)
149.3
143.3
150.8
Feed conversion ratio (FCR)
3.5a
3.4a
3.4a
Feed cost/pig (PGK)
73.5
68.9
70
PGK/kg gain
1.75
1.6
1.6
PGK = PNG kina. In May 2000, 1 PGK=approx. US$0.4 (A$0.6).
Note: Means with same letter (within the same row) are not significantly different (P < 0.05).
648
Proceedings.book Page 649 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
and FCR between treatments (Table 3), or in total and
daily weight gain (Table 4). These findings agree with
those of Malynicz (1971), in which FCR and daily
gains were similar when pigs were fed soybean in the
Lehmann feeding system.
method that could be easily taught by agronomists and
adopted by village pig farmers.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Ms T. Moses and Mr T. Niriuia for
their valuable assistance in data collection.
Trial 2
The performance of crossbred pigs on feed intake
and weight gains are shown in Table 5. The crossbred
pigs had weight gains of 600 g/pig/day on control pig
grower, while the normal and quality corn treatment
groups gained 607 and 630 g/pig/day, respectively.
The higher average daily gain in treatment 3 may have
been due to the higher levels of lysine and tryptophan
in quality protein corn. There was no significant difference (P < 0.05) between the treatments in weight
gains, daily gains and FCR (Table 5). The results
showed that it is cheaper to produce pigs using local
feed resources such as corn.
References
Purdy, D.J. 1971. Changing patterns in pig production in
Papua New Guinea. Australian Veterinary Journal, 47,
482–484.
Malynicz, G.L. 1971. Use of raw sweet potato, raw peanuts
and protein concentrates in rations for growing pigs.
Papua New Guinea Agricultural Journal, 22(3), 165–166.
Malynicz, G.L. 1973. Growth and carcass measurements of
indigenous and exotic pigs raised in two housing systems
in PNG. Papua New Guinea Agricultural Journal, 24(1),
23–25.
Minitab 1989. Minitab statistical software, Minitab Inc.
Watt, I.R., McKillop, R.F., Penson, P.J. and Robinson, N.A.
1975. Pig Handbook No.5. Rural Development Series.
Port Moresby, Department of Agriculture, Stock and
Fisheries.
Wenge, C.K. 1985. Review of Smallholder Pig Growers
Efficiency. Monogastric Research Centre, Labu,
Department of Primary Industry, Papua New Guinea. 52.
Conclusion
The results confirm the recommendation by Watt et al.
(1975) that the Lehmann feeding system can be an
alternative to commercial feeds for growing pigs. The
Lehmann feeding system is a simple and practical
649
Proceedings.book Page 650 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Performance of Rabbits on Deep Litter
Gariba Danbaro* and Ecky Yaku*
Abstract
The growth performance of fryer rabbits on deep litter in coastal regions of PNG was studied. Feed intake (FI)
and feed conversion rate (FCR) of these rabbits were studied at three stocking densities (0.15, 0.20 and 0.25
rabbits per square metre). A total of 45 Canberra half lop rabbits, weaned between 30 and 35 days, were fed
on a commercial rabbit grower pellet ad libitum. Liveweights and feed intake were measured at weekly
intervals over a 7-week period. FI was calculated as total feed consumed per rabbit per week, whilst FCR was
calculated as the ratio of weight gain in a week to feed intake in a week, averaged over the 7-week period.
Analysis of variance showed no significant differences in either FI or FCR due to treatments. For stocking
densities of 0.15, 0.20 and 0.25 rabbits per square metre, the average FI was 702, 678 and 702 grams per rabbit,
respectively, and the FCR was 3.9, 3.7 and 3.6, respectively.
THE latest introduction of rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) into PNG in 1993 by Dr Ian Grant and his team
working from the PNG University of Technology has
been very successful. The aims were to establish a
meat rabbit industry and improve the diets and income
of subsistence farmers, including women. By 1998,
there were around 1000 village farmers keeping
12,000 to 15,000 rabbits all over the country (I. Grant,
PNG University of Technology, pers. comm.).
To further popularise the keeping of rabbits, especially by subsistence farmers, cheap but efficient
housing and methods of management need to be
studied and introduced under the farming systems
peculiar to different parts of the country. For subsistence farmers, the most limiting factor in starting a rabbitry is probably the cost of cages. While alternative
housing systems have been used elsewhere (King
1974), they still remain to be tested in the tropics of
PNG. One cheap method of housing for rabbits is on
concrete floors with deep litter. Some advantages are
that materials for deep litter are locally available, are
low cost and could be readily processed into manure for
use in food gardens afterwards.
The objective of this trial was to study the growth
performance of fryer rabbits on deep litter under the
hot, humid coastal conditions of PNG.
Materials and Methods
The trial was performed at the PNG University of
Technology farm (6°41′ S and 146°98′ E). The site is
65 metres above sea level, with an average annual
rainfall of 3789 millimetres and average daily temperature of 26.3°C.
The experiment was laid out as a randomised block
design. The main treatment was stocking density at
three levels (0.15, 0.20 and 0.25 rabbits/square metre)
with three replicates for each level, randomised in
three blocks. Due to constraints in obtaining materials
and animals, these densities were achieved by fixing
space at about 1 square metre and varying the number
of rabbits. A total of 45 Canberra half lop rabbits,
weaned between 30 and 35 days of age, were used.
Housing was in an iron-roofed shed protected on the
sides by wire mesh and with concrete floor covered
with dried wood shavings 7 centimetres deep.
* Department of Agriculture, PNG University of
Technology, PMB, Lae, Morobe Province, PNG.
Email: [email protected]
650
Proceedings.book Page 651 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Rabbits were fed on a commercial rabbit grower
pellet ad libitum. Water was freely available from bitetype nipple drinkers. The response variables measured
were liveweight gains and feed consumption. Liveweight and feed intake were measured at weekly intervals over a 7-week period. Feed intake (FI) was
calculated as total feed consumed per rabbit per week,
averaged over the 7-week period. Feed conversion rate
(FCR) was calculated as the ratio of weight gain in a
week, divided by feed intake in a week, averaged over
seven weeks.
The statistical model used to describe observations
(FI and FCR) was:
Table 1. Feed intake (FI) and feed conversion rate
(FCR) in fryer rabbits kept at three stocking
densities on deep litter.
Stocking density
(per square metre)
FI(g)±SE
FCR±SE
0.15
701.6 ± 104.0
3.9 ± 0.7
0.20
678.1 ± 34.5
3.7 ± 0.4
0.25
701.9 ± 5.5
3.6 ± 0.6
ANOVA
ns
ns
ANOVA = analysis of variance; SE = standard error;
ns = not significant (P < 0.05)
Yij =µ +Ti + Bj +eij
The results of this study therefore suggest that
weaner rabbits could be kept solely for meat production on deep litter over a range of stocking densities up
to 0.25 rabbits per square metre rather than in cages.
This method of keeping rabbits could be a means for
subsistence farmers to overcome the relatively high
initial capital required for cages. Other advantages
include the easy availability of materials and greater
sustainability of production in the long run. The main
precaution to be taken with rabbits on deep litter is the
proper maintenance of the litter to minimise the onset
and spread of diseases.
where:
Yij is an observation on either FI or FCR
µ = overall mean
Ti = treatment effect, i = 1,2,3
Bj = random block effect, j = 1,2,3 and
eij = error term.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows averages of FI and FCR for the three
stocking densities. Treatments (stocking densities) did
not contribute significantly to variation in either FI or
FCR (P < 0.05).
Furthermore, it was observed that weight gains in
this experimental group were comparable to those of
rabbits kept in normal cages elsewhere on the farm
(results not presented).
References
King J.O.L. 1974. Rabbits. In: The UFAW Handbook On
the Care and Management of Farm Animals. UK,
Longman Limited.
651
Proceedings.book Page 652 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
The Productivity of Domestic Rabbits for
Subsistence Farming Families of PNG
D. Askin,* I. Grant,† D. Kulimbao,‡ P. Taul# and A. Thomas†
Abstract
Domestic rabbits were introduced to PNG in 1993 to provide meat, manure and small business opportunities
for villagers. The PNG University of Technology, the Department of Agriculture and Livestock , the Canada
Fund, the Targeted Community Development Project, Baptists of Aotearoa New Zealand Aid and
Development (BANZAid) and other nongovernment organisations have supported rabbit farming research and
extension. In PNG, there are now about 1500 farmers with 15,000–20,000 rabbits producing an estimated
120 tonnes of meat per year.
The majority of rabbits in PNG are fed forages with a pelleted supplement containing copra meal, millrun and
soybean meal. Pellets have been shown to improve growth of young rabbits fed forages from 5–8 grams per
day (without pellets) to 20–30 grams per day (with pellets). In Western Highlands Province, where rabbit
pellets are widely used, 28% of rabbits, out of a total of 987 born, died. From 221 rabbit births in Sandaun (West
Sepik) Province, there was 41% mortality, mostly due to poor nutrition and inadequate care of young rabbits
in the first week of life.
For remote sites, where airfreight costs prevent feeding pellets, research is needed to develop local diets for
rabbits that allow reasonable levels of productivity. The first task is to identify and establish forage plants that
provide high-quality forage for livestock yet require a minimal labour input. The second need is to identify crops
in each location that provide additional energy. The preference is to use a crop, such as cassava, which is
currently underused, rather than more expensive staples such as sweet potato. Training and research into
appropriate feeds and better husbandry will improve the performance of rabbits in villages.
RABBIT farming is promoted in PNG as a worthwhile
component of integrated gardens where people, trees,
food crops and livestock are combined in a sustainable garden system. The main reasons for using rabbits
are to:
• develop sustainable meat production for villagers
without access to refrigeration;
• provide employment in the village, especially for
school-leavers;
• provide small business opportunities for rural
families; and
• encourage improved soil and land management.
Rabbits are preferred over other small livestock
because they can be fed primarily on forages growing
in waste areas and gardens; they have a potentially
high reproductive performance and produce skins,
meat and manure.
This paper provides data from field extension visits
that show large differences in rabbit performance.
Poor nutrition and nest box management, and an inadequate understanding of how to get the best from this
small animal contribute to failure. On the other hand,
* 12 Barker St, Lincoln, New Zealand 8152.
Email: [email protected]
† Australian Contribution to the (PNG) National
Agricultural Research Systems (ACNARS) Project, C/o
National Agricultural Research Institute, PO Box 1639,
Lae, Morobe Province, PNG.
‡ C/o Baptist Union of PNG, PO Box 705, Mt Hagen,
Western Highlands Province, PNG.
# PO Box 62, Telefomin, Sandaun Province, PNG.
652
Proceedings.book Page 653 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
some farmers are very successful. These farmers are
likely to be important to successful extension programs. The paper discusses these issues and provides
suggestions for the future in terms of research and
farmer liaison.
Table 1. All farmers, apart from nine in Sandaun
(West Sepik) Province, fed at least some purchased
concentrates, such as chicken pellets, copra meal and
rabbit pellets, in addition to forages and sweet potato
tubers.
Figure 1 shows that it took about one year from their
first introduction for some rabbits to be consumed. By
14 months after first introduction, there was a rapid
increase in number of cages, and farmer enthusiasm
for keeping rabbits was high.
Rabbit Breeding Performance
Data on the breeding performance of rabbits, collected
by extension officers in various locations, are shown in
Table 1. Rabbit breeding and performance data for some sites in PNG.
Site
No. of litters
Young rabbits
born/litter
Young rabbits
reared/litter
% Mortality
Managalase Plateau
25
6.8
4.5
33
Bundun Conference Centre
39
5.5
4.4
21
BANZAid, Lae
25
6.6
5.3
24
5
7.6
6.8
12
PNG University of Technology,
Lae (copra meal and forages)
340
5.4
3.0
44
Baiyer Valley, Western
Highlands Province (28 farmers)
141
7.0
5.0
28
Tabubil (Ok Tedi breeding
centre)
23
5.7
4.6
19
Sandaun Province (9 farmers
feeding no pellets)
31
6.1
3.3
46
Sandaun Province (1 farmer
feeding pellets)
5
6.4
5.4
16
5.9
3.8
36
Kimbe High School
Total litters
634
Average of litters
BANZAid = Baptists of Aotearua New Zealand Aid and Development
300
250
Number
Live rabbits
200
150
Eaten
No. of cages
100
50
0
0
5
Months from first introduction
Figure 1. Uptake of rabbit farming in Eastern Highlands Province.
653
14
Proceedings.book Page 654 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
From 1996–98, the Sustainable Garden and Village
Livestock Project provided training, in particular to
farming families in the Baiyer Valley of Western
Highlands Province and villages surrounding Telefomin in Sandaun Province. There is much to learn
from the experiences of these two groups. In the
Baiyer Valley (Table 1) most families had access to
rabbit pellets.
Figure 1 shows a rapid increase in the number of
cages owned by farmers in Eastern Highlands Province since rabbits were first introduced. This enthusiasm may lead families into an unproductive pattern
of having too many does with inadequate nutrition and
poor performance. An extension visit report from
Western Highlands Province demonstrates this, with
one farmer having 17 does and 8 bucks but only 17
young. If properly managed, we would expect approximately 85 young with this number of does.
Farmers must remember that feeding, breeding and
killing are all part of rabbit farming. With traditional
animals like pigs, farmers are used to an animal
growing larger and increasing in value, year by year.
This is not the case with rabbits. It is very important to
structure the operation for quick growth rates, which
implies adequate feed of the right kind and regular
breeding, together with sales and eating.
The data in Table 1, which relate to new farmers in
Sandaun Province, show a number of problems that
are likely to be encountered, especially by farmers
who live in remote areas well away from access to
rabbit pellets. First, there is a reluctance to kill excess
does and bucks. Far too often, new farmers see expansion as the goal—increasing the number of breeding
stock despite lacking the ability to manage and feed
the extra animals. This often results in poor nutrition
and high mortality rates. Second, it takes some time for
farmers to realise the crucial importance of keeping
dogs away from cages and the provision of nest boxes
for breeding does. The second farmer in the Sandaun
group is the main trainer in the area. This family has
acceptable mortality rates with animals fed on some
pellets. They were selling and eating rabbits. Since
then they have dramatically reduced the number of
animals and rely only on garden forages because of the
very high cost of purchased feed. Further research is
needed on how to provide adequate nutrition for
rabbits from gardens only. Farmers in remote areas
need to plant legumes specifically for soil-fertility
building and forage for animals.
Cages, theft and live fences (hedges)
Rabbits need protection from theft and dogs. Different cage designs are available. A good cage must
keep out rain, sun and dogs. Locks reduce the ease
with which thieves can steal rabbits. Strong mesh
floors are best for cleaning and to reduce accidental
death from animals falling through the floor. Appropriate techniques are needed to kill borer in villages so
that bamboo can be used successfully in cages.
Strong cages built close to home, with watchdogs
and live fences (hedges) all reduce the ease of theft.
Involving the whole community will also help to
reduce theft.
A number of species are available for live fences,
for example rosewood (Pterocarpus indicus), mulberry, quickstick (Gliricidia sepium), willow (Salix
spp.), tanget (Cordyline fruticosa) and Indian coral
tree, balbal (Erythrina variegata).
Mortality is often very high in rabbitries. High mortality rates are often accepted by local farmers who are
used to seeing a chicken or duck hatch 12–13 eggs,
with only 1–5 of the young surviving after
two months. In all cases, there are simple ways to
reduce rabbit mortality. Nest box management is
crucial in the first week after birth. Good farmers feed
regularly, manage nest boxes to keep the young rabbits
dry and cull does that continue to give trouble. Less
successful farmers experience high mortality rates
because they do not feed well, forget to manage nest
boxes and fail to cull effectively. Training should now
be based on the methods used by successful farmers.
Marketable products—skin tanning
Many farmers are looking for high value products to
sell to distant markets. Tanned rabbit skins are worth
between 50–100 PNG kina (PGK)1 per kilogram,
depending on the products to be made. The skins do
not deteriorate in storage.
Various chemicals are used for tanning (tannachrome-S, aluminium sulfate) and natural tannins (rosewood bark) that produce acceptable skins. Research
and training are needed in this area.
Simple techniques can help to reduce rabbit mortality and reduce delays with nonpregnant does. For
example, the nest box should be put in when a doe is
mated, not one week before she is due, so that the presence of a box indicates that the manager thinks that the
doe is pregnant.
1.
654
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Proceedings.book Page 655 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Rabbits in the family
Culling needs to be stressed—any genetic fault in a
litter means that all siblings should be killed when they
are big enough to eat.
There is the potential for a successful rabbit farmer
to be viewed critically by the extended family. This is
an important issue.
Rabbits in the garden system
Farmers are encouraged to view the rabbit not as a
project where a donor provides everything, but rather
as something they choose to invest in. The real test
has been whether or not people are prepared to use
their own resources for establishing businesses. In a
12-month period, 12,000 PGK was invested in rabbit
farming by farmers in four provinces. However,
farmers may forget the primary reasons for rabbit
farming— to provide their family with some fresh
meat and manure for kitchen gardens. Although
many women are enthusiastic rabbit farmers, there is
a need for gender-disaggregated studies to assess
management work, power over animal slaughter, sale
and workload.
Rabbits can provide environmental benefits, both
directly by reducing hunting pressure and indirectly
where fallow land management is improved. Rabbits
need lots of high-quality forage and this requirement
can be used to encourage farmers to plant legumes that
will provide food while improving fertility and weed
control. Tree planting early in the life of a garden
needs to be considered with full villager involvement.
Indeed, simple experiments can be managed by
farmers to assess the benefits and costs of planting
trees. Tree seedlings or cuttings grown towards the end
of a garden cycle will provide firewood and, more
importantly, poles for all kinds of building needs. We
also need to consider the effects on rainforests if
straight young saplings are continuously harvested
from forests close to home.
The competition between tree seedlings and food
crops can be reduced by side pruning of young trees. A
range of species should be considered, in particular
casuarina, rosewood (Pterocarpus indicus), Erythrina
spp., Gliricidia spp. and other native species,
depending on villager needs.
Farmers, young and old, need to be aware of the
wasteful and damaging consequences of regular
burning of old gardens and kunai grassland. Regular
burning destroys soil fertility and causes increased
erosion, as well as killing young regenerating trees.
Swept up leaves close to rabbitries can be placed under
cages to mix with urine and manure to form useful
compost for leafy vegetables.
Breeding and killing for meat
It is normal for farmers to be reluctant to kill young,
healthy, potential breeding animals. We must not
forget that many villagers in PNG have to work for
2–10 days to earn enough money to pay for one live
chicken or, in the future, one rabbit for a meal. By
comparison, if this project was in an average rural
town in Australia and each animal was worth
2–10 days wages, it would be worth A$144–720,
based on a minimum wage of A$9 per hour with no
allowance made for tax. It is little wonder, therefore,
that people are reluctant to kill and eat their rabbits.
Thus, it is important to make good use of skins as these
can encourage people to kill and eat their rabbits.
655
Proceedings.book Page 656 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Integrating Crops with Livestock to Maximise
Output of Smallholder Farming Systems
Pikah J. Kohun* and Joel G. Waramboi*
Abstract
The National Agricultural Research Institute of PNG focuses research at the smallholder semisubsistence level
on the development of appropriate farming systems. This includes integration of food crops, alternative cash
crops, leguminous fodder and tree crops with small animals. Integration provides a means of establishing
sustainable farming systems that optimise resource use and spread risks. Integrated crop–livestock farming
systems should lead to improved land-use practices, thus sustaining crop and livestock production in the long
term to combat malnutrition, generate rural employment and increase rural income. Sheep and goats could play
a prominent role as components of these farming systems because they do not compete directly with people and
other animals in the village for food sources, and because they provide meat, milk and a range of other animal
products. Research should aim to improve the sustainability of integrated farming systems to support long-term
production of food crops, other crops and livestock.
PNG has been identified by the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) as a country that has food security
problems because of the levels of food imports and the
per capita energy supply. For meat, the 1998 value of
imported beef and sheep meat was estimated at
130 million PNG kina (PGK1) (Vincent and Low
2000). In 1993, the import value of red meat was estimated at 60 million PGK of which about 63%
(37.8 million PGK) was for lamb and mutton. The
import of sheep meat rose from about 8000 tonnes in
1983 to 40,000 tonnes in 1993. This was equivalent to
an increase in intake from 2.5 kilograms (kg) per
person in 1983 to 10 kg per person in 1993. Demand is
expected to grow at about 5% per year, so the consumption of sheep meat per person will be about 12 kg per
year in 2010. It is often argued that this consumption
pattern is of particular concern because there is no sig-
nificant local meat production. Also, it is often claimed
that cheap sheep meats, especially lamb flaps, are
‘dumped’ in the country, causing a health hazard due to
their high fat content. Local production of sheep meat
in 1993 was estimated at 68 tonnes (0.17% of domestic
demand). Local goat meat production is much less than
that of sheep. Estimates of local production in 1998
were 15 and 9 tonnes for sheep and goat meat respectively (see Potential for Producing More Meat from
Small-Scale Livestock Production by A.R. Quartermain, in these proceedings). These data suggest that
there was a significant decrease in local sheep production between 1993 and 1998. It is therefore important to
encourage meat production from sheep and goats
within PNG, particularly at the semisubsistence smallholder level which includes most of the population and
where the problem of malnutrition is most serious.
Meat consumption will improve the quality of the
predominantly starch-based diets in many rural
communities—diet quality has an important effect on
food intake as it is known that the presence of specific
amino acids stimulates appetite. Depressed food
* National Agricultural Research Institute, Livestock
Program, Labu, PO Box 1639, Lae 411, Morobe Province,
PNG. Email: [email protected]
1. In 1998, 1 PGK = approx. US$0.49 (A$0.77).
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intake, a cause of malnutrition, is a common feature of
low-protein diets in mammals. Thus, increasing the
consumption of meat and other animal products should
help to correct this problem because these products
supply specific nutrients including certain amino acids
and vitamins not supplied by vegetables. Also, encouraging meat production will promote self-reliance and
increase smallholder cash-earning opportunities.
choice of lifestyle. The concept of sustainability must
take into consideration present-day aims, values, economic conditions and diverging interests of the population, while also taking ecological aspects into account
(e.g. scarce resources and limits set by nature) because
environmental destruction will heavily constrain, if not
prevent, future land-use possibilities.
In PNG, it is well recognised that some traditional
land-use practices must be changed because they are
either inefficient or destructive to the land and the
overall environment. With the population and the
demand to participate in the cash economy increasing
rapidly, there is not only less land available for food
production but also much more pressure on that land,
leading to continuous land use in some areas. This can
rapidly deplete soil nutrients, resulting in low production potential, and/or alter the physical balance of the
land to an extent that makes it susceptible to erosion and
other problems such as acidity. Fortunately, many vulnerable areas, particularly in the highlands, can be identified through the PNG Resource Information System
and the Mapping of Agricultural Systems Project databases, and corrective measures taken (Hanson 1999).
Joint research with farmers is urgently needed to
develop and implement more efficient land-use strategies that allow improved recycling of nutrients back to
the land to sustain long-term crop and animal production. Cooper et al. (1995) have reviewed this subject
and other related issues based on research and experiences in the humid and subhumid African tropics.
Some species of livestock are suited to the smallholder production environment and, of these, sheep and
goats rank highly and should be strongly promoted.
These small ruminants can play an important role in
smallholder mixed-farming systems, as they produce a
number of products and do not compete directly with
people, pigs or poultry for available food resources.
Multipurpose animals are invaluable elements of production systems because of their capacity to meet the
very wide range of farmers’ requirements in tropical
conditions (Vaccaro 1989). Improving the existing
livestock production systems based on multipurpose
animals, rather than specialised milk and meat production, is therefore the most economic way to meet the
increasing demand for milk and meat in developing
countries (Preston and Leng 1987). Also, multipurpose
livestock are better suited than specialised animals to
survive and produce in the tropics using local inputs.
This paper outlines the need to change farming systems
that are inefficient or destructive to the environment,
and develop and adopt systems that make better use of
available local resources and improve land sustainability, thus supporting long-term crop and livestock
production. We emphasise the need for applied
research into integrating food crops, alternative cash
crops and leguminous fodder and tree crops with sheep
and goats to increase the potential of crop and meat production at the smallholder level.
The Case for Integrated Farming
Systems
On a worldwide basis, there is much information available about the opportunities and constraints of integrated farming systems (e.g. McDowell 1979;
McDowell and Hildebrand 1980; Preston and Leng
1987; FAO 1991; Qureshi 1992; Dzowela and
Kwesiga 1994; Cooper et al. 1995). Integration of food
crops with cash crops, leguminous cover crops or tree
crops and livestock will lead to more efficient use of
available local resources, recycle nutrients back to the
land to improve sustainability, reduce land degradation and produce a range of products for domestic or
other uses. The choice of components of integrated
crop–livestock farming systems depends on the environment, farmer or community preferences and attitudes, available resources and other considerations.
Thus, integrated farming systems are not appropriate
for all environments.
The Need for Sustainable Farming
Practices
The term ‘sustainability’ has become a buzzword in
many fields over the last 25 years or so. Although the
term has a wide range of definitions, these generally
include the demand for a long-term use of resources
and responsible management that maintains the environment for future generations. According to the 1987
report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development (Pflaumbaum et al. 1994), sustainability
and sustainable development should meet the requirements of today’s generation without endangering the
possibilities and needs of future generations and their
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Proceedings.book Page 658 Monday, September 17, 2001 11:30 AM
Integration of food and other crops with
livestock
For the livestock component, it is difficult to introduce technical innovations in livestock production at
the level of the smallholder, because without adequate
knowledge of taboos, customs and the sociology of
village communities, the researcher has little hope of
establishing methods to improve traditional systems
(Preston and Leng 1987). These authors, as well as
others, point out that livestock production under smallholder integrated farming systems is different from
that in industrialised countries, with separate and
highly specialised systems producing only a single
product such as beef, wool or milk. In integrated
farming systems, livestock production is one of
several components of a much broader strategy that
places emphasis on many issues, not just those related
to the biological or economic efficiency of livestock.
The breeds of animals used must be multipurpose, producing a number of products as well as being a readily
available source of capital. Other benefits of integrated
systems are maintenance of soil fertility with
minimum inputs, and the creation of employment
opportunities for all members of the extended family
through varied activities on the integrated farm.
Crop–livestock integration is an established practice in many countries and the benefits are well documented. Some examples of the improvement in
productivity that is possible from integrated
crop–livestock systems are given below. In Bali,
Indonesia, Nitis et al. (1990) developed the threestrata forage system involving grasses and ground
legumes (first stratum), shrub and legumes (second
stratum) and fodder trees (third stratum). Cattle and
goats are used to harvest the residues of the cash crop
and the other fodders in the system. Over eight years,
the project demonstrated increased forage biomass
production, higher stocking rates and animal performance, increased fuelwood supply, reduced soil erosion
and increased income for farmers. Data from
Sumatra, Indonesia (Devendra 1993) clearly show
that animals contribute significantly to the development of a crop–animal system, with animals contributing 17% (a gain of US$825 per hectare per year) of
smallholder income following the system’s introduction. In Malaysia, integrating goats and cattle with oil
palm cultivation to make use of the herbage undergrowth indicated that, compared to the ungrazed area,
this process was advantageous in terms of increased
yield of fresh fruit bunches and total economic benefit
(Devendra 1991).
An overview of the opportunities of integration of
ruminants in plantation crops of South-east Asia and
the Pacific is given by Shelton and Stür (1991).
Advantages of the system include: increased and
diversified income, better use of scarce land resources,
soil stabilisation, and potential for higher plantation
crop yield through better weed control, nutrient recycling and nitrogen accretion.
Integration of food crops with legumes
In many countries, leguminous food crops, cover
crops or trees are used as part of the food and plantation crop production systems. A few examples of
improvement in food crop production due to integration with legumes are given below. In agroforestry
research, food crop yields below Acacia albida were
reported to be 56% higher than yields in areas without
the trees (Poschen 1980). Felker (1978, cited by AttaKrah 1989) reported that, in the infertile sandy soils of
the Senegalese groundnut (peanut) basin, crop yields
of groundnut and millet increased from 500 to 900 kg
per hectare when grown under A. albida. Similar
results have been reported from India with Prosopis
cineraria (Mann et al. 1981, cited by Atta-Krah 1989).
If tree legumes are used in food gardens then, in addition to providing shade, creating a microclimate for
plants, animals and soils, preventing wind and water
erosion and thus maintaining soil fertility and productivity, they also provide fodder, firewood, poles for
building and fencing, live fences, fibre, human food
(fruits, spices, fats), medicines, dyes and tannins.
Integrated Farming Systems in PNG
Integration of food crops with other crops
Mixed-farming systems have been used in this
country for many generations, but are limited mainly to
food crops where many species (usually 6–12 crops)
are grown in one garden. However, if leguminous crops
are not used in this system, then there is no benefit to
the soil or the other crops in terms of nutrient recycling,
and the land must be fallowed in order to recover.
Mulching and composting is common in many parts of
the country to enhance nutrient supply to crops, particularly food crops. Deliberate use of leguminous cover
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crops or trees on fallow land (e.g. Casuarina oligodon
in the highlands) or integrated with other crops, especially cash crops (e.g. growing vanilla vines on leucaena or gliricidia trees), has become a more common
practice in recent times.
Other multipurpose tree species that are used in this
way here or overseas include Leucaena leucocephala,
Albizia spp., Calliandra calothyrsus, Gliricidia
sepium, Cajanus cajan, Sesbania grandiflora,
S. sesban, Desmodium rensoni and Flemingia macrophylla. Shelton et al. (1995) discuss the use of fodder
tree legumes in farm gardens in PNG and indicate that
those accessions of L. diversifolia, L. pallida, Calliandra calothyrsus and S. sesban which demonstrate
cool tolerance may be useful in the highlands.
The Department of Agriculture and Livestock
(DAL), the Forest Research Institute (FRI) and other
institutions, provincial governments and nongovernment organisations (NGOs) are evaluating some of
these multipurpose tree species for their potential in
agriculture and agroforestry. For example, the Agriculture Department at the University of Technology is
involved in a major Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research (ACIAR) project to evaluate a
number of tree species (mainly lines of leucaena) in different ecological zones of the country for a whole range
of characteristics and uses, including their suitability as
livestock feed. Problems due to secondary compounds
such as condensed tannins and hydrolysable polyphenolics that reduce digestibility and nutrient absorption
in animals are being investigated as part of the project.
The results of the project, as well as results from other
research, are expected to increase the use of these trees
for different purposes. An information kit on Pacific
agroforestry was produced by the Pacific Regional
Agricultural Program (PRAP) in 1999.
better land-use strategies involving food crops, alternative cash crops, legumes and livestock must be developed with the help of farmers, and then tested and
implemented if they are proven to be beneficial. Thus,
there is a crucial role for farming systems research
using multidisciplinary teams to gain an understanding
of the different components that make up the whole
system and its application to agriculture in PNG. The
FAO Special Country Programme for Food Security
emphasised the need for a better approach to resource
management and food production, including development of integrated crop–livestock systems (FAO 2000).
Some concepts of crop–livestock integrated
farming systems being used or promoted in the
country include:
• food crops, pigs, ducks and rabbits—Lutheran
Training Centre, Bundun, Morobe Province;
• rice, vegetables, pigs, ducks and fish—Japanese
Project, Warangoi, East New Britain Province;
• rabbits, ducks and food gardens—National Rabbit
Research and Training Centre, University of
Technology;
• food crops, cash crops and sheep—farmers, mainly
in highland areas; and
• ruminants and plantation crops—farmers, mainly
in mainland coastal and island areas.
Importance of sheep and goats in
crop–livestock farming systems
The use of small ruminants such as sheep and goats
as components of integrated farming systems has not
received much attention in PNG. However, in the highlands, sheep are used to graze in food gardens, old
garden sites and fallows, and their manure is used in
gardens or under tree crops. These species should be
used more intensively because they have advantages
over pigs, poultry, rabbits, fish and other animals in
crop–livestock production systems, in that they do not
compete with people and other animals and provide a
wide range of products. In addition to their size, hardiness and fertility, sheep and goats can use food sources,
including crop residues and weeds, that cannot be fed
to other species, therefore complementing the other
species to optimise resources at the smallholder level.
If properly managed and fed supplemented diets, sheep
and goats can convert crop residues, fibrous feeds and
weeds into protein of high biological value for human
use. This characteristic may make it more attractive for
smallholder farmers to adopt some of the concepts of
sustainable land management such as crop rotation,
planting of leguminous fodder crops and hedgerows,
Integration of food crops with other crops
and livestock
In the highlands, pigs are used as part of the food
garden system but their role is said to be mainly to do
with breaking up and aerating the soil before gardening.
There are no deliberate management practices that
allow collection of pig dung and urine to improve
nutrient supply in food gardens. The use of other livestock, especially small ruminants, as part of food or
plantation crop production is not currently widespread,
although in the late 1960s and early 1970s cattle production was integrated with coconut plantation in many
parts of the mainland coastal and island regions. With
increasing pressure to grow more food and other crops,
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and fallowing, because they know that some of these
crops and trees can be used as feed for their livestock.
ANZDEC (1994) suggested that a major effort
should be directed into small-scale commercial and
subsistence production of sheep and goats with particular emphasis on the integration of these animals into
mixed-farming systems and the use of goats for subsistence and of sheep for commercial production.
However, in PNG, these species are often kept under
low levels of nutrition and management and, as a
result, their growth rate, mature body weight and
carcase characteristics are inferior to other tropical
meat breeds (Kohun 1988; Benjamin et al. 1992).
Improvements in nutrition, management and parasite
and disease control, and a program of upgrading or
systematic crossbreeding, should improve these
important meat traits. The introduction of exotic genes
into the local population should be considered. Good
candidates for this would be the Boer goat, a meat
breed recently introduced into Australia, and the Fiji
sheep, which has been bred for the tropics.
nutrients to support both efficient rumen fermentation
and high animal productivity. In some areas farmers
may have access to supplements such as copra meal, oil
palm expeller cake or fish and meat meals, where these
are readily and cheaply available. However, in most
areas, particularly in remote islands, inland coastal and
highland areas, these supplements are not available or
are too expensive to use, so growing protein supplements on the farm is the only way to improve animal
productivity. The use of leguminous trees and shrubs is
particularly appropriate where feed is cut and carried to
tethered or permanently housed livestock, and is a
common practice in the humid tropics. Tree fodder
may also be browsed directly on-tree or after lopping
by the farmer. Evidence suggests that some tree fodder,
such as gliricidia, may be wilted prior to feeding to
enhance intake. No attempts are made to process or
conserve fodder by smallholder farmers, which is
partly a reflection of the lack of management in the use
of tree fodder and may also result from labour constraints for such activities. The trees should be assessed
in terms of their ability to provide the above factors and
research should focus on factors limiting their use.
Selected leguminous fodder trees can be grown as
part of crop rotation, in food gardens, on fallow land,
among other trees or cash crops, along riverbanks, roadsides etc. By planting leguminous cover crops or trees
as part of the system, farmers are helping to control
erosion and contributing to soil fertility maintenance
because the trees fix nitrogen, which can be used by a
subsequent crop. Most importantly, legumes provide
animals with a fodder supplement that supplies fermentable nitrogen, other nutrients for the rumen
microbes, readily fermentable cellulose and bypass protein. Evidence from Malaysia showed that improving
the nutrition of goats led to increases of 54%, 79%,
47%, 108%, and 83%, respectively, in the live weight at
slaughter, hot carcass weight, weight of meat, weight of
forequarter and weight of hind leg, compared with
goats on unimproved nutrition (Devendra 1993).
Management of animals
Several simple management systems can be used to
keep sheep and goats under integrated farming systems. Because only a small number of animals are
kept, tethering or herding during the day and night
housing or permanent housing are the most suitable
management systems to use. Experience has shown
that small animals must be housed at night for protection against rain, predators such as dogs and theft.
Housing animals permanently or at night also:
• reduces the amount of land required to keep
animals;
• allows better management and care of the young
between birth and one week of age when mortality
rates are high (Kohun 1985);
• allows animals to be split up into groups based on
age or sex for provision of supplementary feeding;
• concentrates the dung in one place, making it easier
to collect and apply to food gardens or tree crops
either directly or after composting; and
• reduces the energy requirements and incidence of
disease, both of which lead to improved animal
performance.
Concluding Comments
Sheep and goats have the potential to benefit a large
number of rural families by providing meat as well as
contributing to long-term sustainable agricultural production through integration with traditional gardening
and tree crops. Improving the management, health and
nutrition of animals through research should lead to
improvements in growth rate, mature bodyweight and
amount of meat on the carcase. A system of upgrading
the genetic potential of these animals by introducing
Feeding of animals
Sheep and goats can use grasses, herbaceous plants,
shrubs, small trees and other vegetation and weeds,
which are not used by other animals, around gardens,
along roadsides and drains and under tree crops. But
these sources of food do not contain the balance of
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exotic genes should result in further improvements in
meat production and consumption in rural households.
This will improve the overall welfare of rural families
by helping to combat malnutrition and enhance
employment and cash-earning opportunities.
Kohun, P.J. 1988. Reproductive performance of Priangan
ewes in Lae. In: Krebs, G.L., Cridland, S., Nunn, M.J. and
Sims, M.D., eds, Maximising Animal Production in Papua
New Guinea. Proceedings of the PNG Society of Animal
Production Inaugural Conference. Lae, University of
Technology, 1, 160–164.
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