REGULATORY FRAMEWORK TO PREVENT
UNDERAGE DRINKING: A REVIEW
July 2013
Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................3
Setting age limits—an overview .........................................................................................................3
Approaches to enforcement and prevention .......................................................................................5
Enforcement ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................. 7
Industry-supported prevention measures ................................................................................................ 8
Server training and retailer education ................................................................................................ 10
Programs focusing on legal age limits................................................................................................. 10
Programs for parents .......................................................................................................................... 11
Age-verification schemes .................................................................................................................... 11
School-based programs ...................................................................................................................... 11
Alcohol-free events ............................................................................................................................. 12
Effectiveness of age-limit legislation and prevention......................................................................... 12
Further considerations and conclusions ............................................................................................ 14
Notes and references ....................................................................................................................... 16
Figures and tables ............................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 2. Considerations for setting policies around legal age limits for alcohol ................................... 20
Table 1. Minimum age limits worldwide ................................................................................................ 21
Table 2. Countries without formally defined on- or off-premise age limits, by region .......................... 26
2
Introduction
The prevention of drinking by young people is one of the key areas of emphasis for alcohol policy, of
concern to governments, public health professionals, communities, families, and also the alcohol
beverage industry. As a point of departure, governments of many countries have developed a regulatory
framework to help to address youth drinking through legislation governing the age thresholds at which
young people are legally permitted to purchase and consume alcohol beverages. This regulatory
framework provides an important backdrop for prevention activities to prevent drinking by young
people, with particular emphasis on individuals below the legally mandated age limits, or “underage
drinkers.”
In October 2012, the chief executive officers of 13 major producers of beer, wine, and spirits1
committed to undertaking action in five key areas to combat the harmful use of alcohol over a five-year
period commencing in 2013.2 The first of these five Commitments aims to help reduce underage
drinking and consists of two mutually reinforcing parts. First, the signatory companies agree to actively
seek to assist government to enforce existing regulations relating to underage purchase and
consumption in countries where they operate; where no such laws exist, signatories commit to
encourage governments to introduce them, thus setting legal thresholds for the purchase of alcohol
beverages. Secondly, they agree to work with other stakeholders to develop effective educational
programs and materials to prevent and reduce underage drinking.
This paper focuses on the first half of this Commitment. It takes stock of the regulatory measures
currently in place at country level that address minimum age limits, including how the effectiveness of
such regulations has been evaluated. It provides an overview of initiatives currently in place aimed at
the enforcement of age limits. Examples of initiatives undertaken by the alcohol industry (producers,
social aspects organizations [SAOs], trade associations, and retailers) are provided for illustration. The
paper also offers a roadmap for further action and proposes areas where industry stakeholders can play
a key role in developing initiatives to support the Commitments addressing underage drinking.
Setting age limits—an overview
Governments around the world set age thresholds for the consumption and/or purchase of beverage
alcohol. In most cases, laws relating to age thresholds have several distinct components: a legal
minimum age for the purchase of alcohol in retail outlets (off-premise purchase); a threshold for
consumption on-premise in serving establishments (on-premise service); and an age threshold above
which alcohol may be legally consumed, such as in the home [1].
1
The signatory companies to the Global Commitments are Anheuser-Busch InBev, Bacardi, Beam Global, Brown-Forman, the
Brewers Association of Japan, Carlsberg, Diageo, Heineken, Japan Spirits & Liqueurs Makers Association, Molson Coors, Pernod
Ricard, SABMiller, and UB Group.
2 Reducing Harmful Use of Alcohol: Beer, Wine and Spirits Producers’ Commitments outlines all five areas and can be accessed in
its entirety at http://www.global-actions.org/pdf/Reducing%20Harmful%20Use%20of%20Alcohol.pdf.
3
There is currently no international consensus regarding optimum age limits for the consumption and
purchase of alcohol beverages. Age limits vary between countries, and, in some cases, within countries,
reflecting culture and custom, attitudes towards alcohol, as well as societal attitudes towards young
people. In some parts of the world, alcohol consumption is viewed as an exclusively “adult” activity,
while in others occasional, modest, and carefully circumscribed drinking by children and adolescents
under the supervision of adults is viewed as normative, and serves to introduce them to alcohol in a safe
environment as part of meals and celebrations [2-4]. These differences in societal values are clearly
reflected in the rules imposed by government around legal access to alcohol.
Most existing legal age limits pertaining to alcohol converge on 18 years of age, which is also the most
common standard age of legal majority. However, some countries set threshold ages for alcohol as low
as 15 or as high as 25 years of age. Table 1 offers an overview of current on- and off-premise age limits
around the world. The data were derived from research conducted by the International Center for
Alcohol Policies (ICAP) for its policy tables [5] and also reflect information found in WHO’s Global
Information System on Alcohol and Health (GISAH) database [6]. As this table shows, accessing reliable
information on age thresholds is by no means straightforward. There are significant discrepancies for a
number of countries, both in terms of where age limits are set and also with regard to whether they
exist at all. A first challenge to be overcome, therefore, is the need for a systematic and in-depth audit of
the accuracy of available information on legal age limits. This is essential for informing any further work
in this area.
A second challenge is the disparity around how age limits are defined. While some sources (and research
studies) refer to Minimum Legal Drinking/Purchase Age (MLDA and MLPA), others present the
information in terms of “drinking age” and “off-premise/on-trade purchase age,” while still others
categorize the information as “on-premise service” and “off-premise purchase” ages. Given the
distinction between the various ages at which beverage alcohol may be (1) consumed at all, (2)
purchased in supermarkets and off-licenses, and (3) purchased for consumption on-premise, there is a
need for standardizing the terminology so that information can be reconciled. For the purposes of this
analysis, “on-premise” and “off-premise” age requirements are discussed, as well as legally mandated
thresholds, which almost universally apply to purchase, rather than to consumption alone.
Legal age thresholds for the purchase and consumption of alcohol are usually set by governments at the
national level, but in some cases may be defined at the subnational or state level. In India, for example,
alcohol policies, including age thresholds, are set by individual states. Where alcohol consumption and
purchase are permitted, age limits vary between 18, 21, and 25 years of age. In the United States, a
purchase age of 21 applies universally, but is legislated at state level. Similarly, age limits in Canada are
mandated by provincial governments, some of which set them at 18 and others at 19 years of age. In
Switzerland, cantons have the discretion of setting their own on- and off-premise thresholds, defined as
either 18 or 19 years of age.
Another source of variation relates to where on- and off-premise age limits are set relative to each
other. While most countries use the same threshold for both, there are some exceptions, notably in a
4
few European countries. Where such distinctions are made, the age for on-premise service (and
consumption) is usually higher than the age for off-premise purchase in a supermarket, off-license, or
other similar retail outlet. These variations are reflected in Table 1.
Different age thresholds at times also apply to the type of alcohol beverage being purchased. These
differences exist primarily in some European countries, and where they do, the threshold is higher for
spirits than for wine and beer. For example, Austria and Belgium set both on- and off-premise ages at 18
for spirits and at 16 for wine and beer, while the ages in Finland are 20 and 18, respectively. Denmark,
on the other hand, sets a limit of 18 for on-premise service, but differentiates between 18 for spirits and
16 for wine and beer for off-premise purchase. In some countries, such as Vietnam and Ukraine, the age
threshold for wine and spirits both on- and off-premise is 18, while there is no minimum age limit for
beer. The United Kingdom adds yet another layer of complexity, setting its off-premise purchase age at
18 across the board, but differentiating between on-premise ages as follows: 16 for wine, beer, and
cider if consumed with a meal in the presence of an adult (who is also purchasing the beverages); 18 for
other on-premise contexts and for spirits.
There has been discussion, particularly within Europe, about setting the same age for purchase and
consumption regardless of beverage type. In 2009, France raised its age limit for beer and wine to 18,
matching that for spirits [7], with a similar change pending in the Netherlands. The notion of
harmonizing age thresholds across the European Union has also been raised [8].
According to WHO’s GISAH database [6], around 11% of all countries currently have no mandated legal
age limits at national level. This figure does not include those Islamic countries where the possession,
sale, and purchase of alcohol are prohibited altogether, making age thresholds moot [9]. The reasons for
the absence of age limits vary, but may reflect the low priority that alcohol occupies on the regulatory
and public health agendas in some countries. There are also cases where legislation may apply to onpremise service and purchase, and not to off-premise sales.
Table 2 (below) offers an overview of those countries that do not have legally mandated thresholds for
on- and off-premise sales of alcohol beverages.
Approaches to enforcement and prevention
For the purposes of policy and prevention, the most useful age thresholds relate to the purchase of
alcohol, both on- and off-premise. These are also the thresholds that can reasonably be enforced and
where sanctions for noncompliance can be applied. However, while most countries legislate age
thresholds, the mere existence of such limits does not mean that they are actually adhered to. The
enforcement of age limits requires a multi-pronged approach. First, efforts are needed that address
those who sell and serve alcohol beverages, whether in formal retail outlets or in informal settings.
Second, efforts aimed directly at young people are also needed, in order to prevent them from
purchasing or consuming alcohol before they are legally permitted to do so. Third, given that underage
access to alcohol is often through adults, additional measures are needed to address their involvement
in facilitating access to alcohol and otherwise breaking existing laws.
5
Enforcement
A range of approaches to help enforce legal age limits exist around the world, carried out by
governments, civil society and NGOs, and producers and retailers of alcohol beverages. Perhaps the
most straightforward approach to the enforcement of age-limit laws is through a requirement for
identification at points of sale, such as national identity cards, passports, driver’s licenses, or proof-ofage cards specifically designed for this purpose. The prerequisites for this approach are that such
identification be commonly used, and that it be required for service or sale to those who may appear to
be below the legal age limit or some other, higher age threshold. In the United States, identification is
required in retail outlets, usually in the form of a driver’s license. Some venues and retailers request
identification from all those who appear to be younger than a particular age, while others require
identification of all customers, regardless of age.
However, not all countries require government-issued identification, and in some there is cultural
resistance to the mandatory use of national identity cards, which complicates the ability to enforce legal
age threshold laws. In order to circumvent this problem in the United Kingdom, an initiative has been
set up to offer reliable identification for those over the age of 18 that enables them to purchase alcohol.
PASS, the Proof of Age Standards Scheme, is supported by the Home Office, the Association of Chief
Police Officers, and the Trading Standards Institute and is actively encouraged and enforced by various
retailer groups, according to the PASS website [10]. PASS assists with age-limit compliance in on- and
off-trade.
The second component of the enforcement of age limits involves putting in place and applying punitive
measures for noncompliance with legally mandated age thresholds. In some countries, age-limit laws
themselves specify penalties that apply to those found to be in breach of the regulations. For example,
in France, sale of alcohol to an underage person is associated with a specified monetary fine [7]. A
similar law applies in Chile [11]. In the United States, underage sale and service is considered a
misdemeanor and carries a monetary fine. For retailers, sale to those below the age of 21 may also
involve the loss of a license to serve alcohol, and is covered by “dramshop” liability laws, which vary
from state to state.
Punitive measures may also be aimed at underage drinkers themselves. Breaking the law can lead to
penalties, monetary and otherwise. In the United States, underage drinking and purchase may result in
fines, community service, or referrals to mandatory treatment and education programs [12, 13]. In some
states, delaying, revoking, or suspending driver’s licenses may be used as penalty for the possession,
consumption, or purchase of alcohol below the legal age limit [13, 14]. This applies even if offenders
were not operating a motor vehicle at the time.
While regulations around enforcement and punitive measures are generally associated with formal
retail outlets, they may also apply to service of alcohol in informal settings, including in the home, to
those below the legal age limit. In Canada and some U.S. states, “hosting laws” or “social host liability
laws” accompany dramshop laws and make it a crime to provide alcohol to those below the legally
mandated age. Under these laws, adults can be responsible for service of alcohol in their homes,
6
whether or not they are physically present at the time. Penalties for violation of social hosting laws may
involve imprisonment. Similar laws also exist in other countries. In Taiwan, for example, fines apply to
parents, guardians, and other adults who provide alcohol to individuals below age 18. Failing to prevent
drinking or serving to those below the age limit is punishable by law and carries with it an administrative
fine [15]. Finally, penalties may also be in place for those caught providing alcohol to individuals below
the legally mandated age limit, or those purchasing it for underage persons.
The ability to enforce age limits requires evidence that the law is being broken. The engagement of
police is a common means to ensure compliance with legislation and involves monitoring licensed
premises, at times undercover [12, 16, 17]. Another approach used to monitor compliance is through
the use of third-party “mystery shoppers.” Young people over the legally mandated age limits, but who
may appear younger, are sent to purchase alcohol in on- and off-premise outlets and to monitor
whether identification is requested for them to complete the purchase. The Swiss Federal Office of
Public Health (FOPH) provides an overview of mystery shopping in 16 European countries [18]. In
Finland and the Netherlands, mystery shopping is not statutory but is carried out by NGOs and watchdog
groups. In Germany, individual municipalities may conduct their own mystery shopping initiatives, and
similar autonomy is afforded to individual cantons in Switzerland. In Sweden, these efforts are
undertaken by NGOs and also by the state-run alcohol monopoly, Systembolaget, to ensure compliance
with age limits [19].
Prevention
In addition to enforcement of legislation around age thresholds for the sale and consumption of alcohol,
there is a wide range of nonlegislative initiatives that are intended to help prevent alcohol purchase and
consumption by those below the legally mandated age limit. These efforts have been implemented at
different levels and address the issue of underage purchase in a variety of ways.
Many programs in this area are implemented at a community level with support from national or local
governments. While some focus exclusively on preventing underage purchase and consumption, others
cover a wider range of issues and can be part of efforts to support and apply national alcohol policies.
The following examples illustrate some of the approaches that have been taken.
Addressing off-premise sales to those below the legally mandated purchase age is among the main
objectives of such initiatives. The initiatives include elements such as helping to enforce compliance with
age-limit regulations, as well as raising awareness among retailers, young people, parents, and the
broader community. For example, the Finnish community-based alcohol prevention program “Local
Alcohol Policy” (PAKKA), led by the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, was designed to help limit
access to alcohol by adolescents and young people but was also aimed at changing problematic drinking
patterns and influencing attitudes and norms. It combined law enforcement and training in responsible
service and sales with media advocacy. The program involved broad cooperation between local
authorities and alcohol retailers. When the program was evaluated for its impact after three years of
implementation, results showed an increase in refusals to sell alcohol to those below the legal age limit,
as well as an increased perception among young people that alcohol is difficult to purchase. Other
7
outcomes included changes in views among parents about whether offering alcohol to young people
during family celebrations was acceptable.
Enforcement of minimum-age requirements in off-premise retail outlets is supported through programs
that emphasize monitoring and compliance checks of retail practices, particularly age verification. The
“Auckland Regional Community Action Project” (ARCAP), a community-based program aimed at
reducing underage drinking, monitors alcohol sales made without age identification from off-premise
outlets, using such data for media advocacy and direct contact with alcohol retailers, and also works
with enforcement staff to increase compliance. The initiative was implemented as a partnership among
several public and private organizations. Results of an evaluation based on pre- and post-project surveys
showed that sales to those below the purchase age decreased from 60% to 46%.
Compliance with minimum-age requirements was also the focus of a program conducted by the police
department in the city of Conway, Arkansas, in the United States. The initiative involved compliance
training for off-premise outlets, coupled with compliance checks whose results were made public
through the media. Broadcasting the results of these checks was an incentive to retailers to take the
class and to support enforcement of laws with greater rigor. As a result, an increase in the frequency
with which identification was checked was reported, along with a reduction in sales to those below the
legal age.
Research has shown that much of the alcohol consumed by those below the legal age limit is obtained
from adults, including individuals who are solicited by young people outside retail outlets to purchase
alcohol for them. Prevention of this practice is the goal of the “Decoy Shoulder Tap Program,”
implemented by the California Alcoholic Beverage Control in partnership with law enforcement. The
initiative involves young people below the age limit acting as decoys outside of retail outlets and asking
entering adults to purchase alcohol for them. Anyone caught purchasing alcohol receives a citation and
a monetary fine.
In addition to off-premise purchase, on-premise sales are also the target of various initiatives intended
to support minimum-age legislation around alcohol. Numerous efforts at community level exist in this
area, such as the “Stockholm Prevents Alcohol and Drug Problems” project, which involves the licensing
board, law enforcement, local government, the National Institute for Public Health, as well as restaurant
owners and associations. This comprehensive community project is intended to help reduce problems
related to underage drinking and intoxication in on-premise outlets. Elements include responsible
service, monitoring, as well as enforcement and the application of sanctions and fines. According to
evaluation results, there was a significant decrease in service to underage youth as a result of this
program. In 1996, 45% of underage youth in on-premise establishments were being served alcohol; by
2007 the proportion had dropped to 8%.
Industry-supported prevention measures
The prevention of underage consumption and purchase of alcohol beverages is a high priority for
members of the alcohol industry and a core element of good corporate citizenship. Producers and
8
related organizations such as SAOs and trade associations, as well as distributors and retailers, support a
wide variety of efforts aimed at supporting age-limit legislation and preventing underage consumption
and purchase in many of the markets in which they operate.
In 2012, ICAP compiled a comprehensive database that includes industry-sponsored programs around
the world aimed at reducing harmful drinking. The first results of the analysis of the data from 3,206
industry initiatives were reported in 2012 [20]. Since the initial report was released, the number of
initiatives included in the database has continued to grow.3 Of the programs included in the database as
of 2012, 1,100 were aimed at preventing underage drinking in some fashion, with 265 programs
focusing specifically on age limits. For the purposes of this analysis, this final group of 265 programs was
reviewed.
A review of the programs included shows that industry-supported initiatives that address legal age limits
or underage drinking and purchase can be found across the world. However, as expected, most of the
programs have been implemented in the countries of Western Europe and North America, as well as in
Australia and New Zealand. While programs are also in place elsewhere, including in developing
countries and emerging markets, they are less prevalent and are often concentrated in particular
countries. In Africa, for example, most programs have been implemented in South Africa, although they
can also be found elsewhere, including in Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, and Nigeria. South American
countries where programs are in place include Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
Guyana, Mexico, and Venezuela. In Asia, industry-sponsored programs exist in China, Japan, the
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Most of the 265 programs specifically addressing age limits can be categorized into six groups, as shown
in Figure 1. They include those initiatives that specifically and exclusively address legal age limits, as well
as server training, programs aimed at parents, age-verification schemes, school-based programs, and
alcohol-free events. The following is an overview of the general categories covered by these programs,
with specific examples highlighted in each.
3
The full database of industry initiatives to address alcohol-related harm, including to prevent underage drinking,
can be accessed at http://initiatives.global-actions.org/.
9
Figure 1. Categories of industry-supported programs addressing legal age limits.4
1%
Focus on legal age limits
12%
Server training / Retailer
education
28%
5%
Programs for parents
15%
Age verification schemes
School-based programs
39%
Alcohol-free events
Server training and retailer education
Initiatives involving server training and the education of retailers are the single largest category of
programs aimed at supporting age limits and regulation, and make up 39% of all programs reviewed. All
major producers of beverage alcohol support some form of initiative in this area. Some programs
involve the development of training materials, while others support server training in “bar academies,”
and still others involve the establishment of server-training programs targeted at specific audiences.
Included in these programs is training for retailers, which involves elements such as the production of
point-of-sale signage and informational materials, or training in how to recognize false age
identification.
For example, in Brazil, Puerto Rico, and Mexico, Diageo has launched a joint initiative with Walmart to
remind shoppers that the sale of alcohol is permitted only to individuals over the age of 18. The
campaign includes point-of-sale material, age verification at checkout, and training for retail staff.
Another model for retailer education in the United States has been developed and implemented by the
Responsible Retailing Forum with the support of Brown-Forman, Diageo, and MillerCoors, and also relies
on community support for reducing underage sales.
Programs focusing on legal age limits
Programs included in this category are primarily aimed at children and adolescents below the legally
mandated age threshold, and focus on raising awareness about legal age limits and the need to observe
them as a primary component. Examples of such programs include “Alcohol, Under 16: Of course not!”
4
Information included in the industry initiatives database is updated on an ongoing basis. The number of initiatives
and the relative proportion devoted to particular issues reflect data available up to May 2013.
10
by STIVA, the Dutch Foundation for the Responsible Use of Alcohol; “Curbing Sale of Alcoholic Beverages
to Minors” by the SAO the Sense Group in Malta; and “Good Idea, Bad Idea,” which is in place in South
Africa and run through the Association for the Responsible Use of Alcohol (ARA). This category accounts
for 28% of all programs.
Programs for parents
Various programs aimed at educating parents about drinking by their children have also been
developed. They include efforts intended to help parents speak with their children about underage
drinking specifically, and address legal age limits in the country in which they are implemented. Fifteen
percent of initiatives fall into this group. The most comprehensive of them provide interactive training
and engaging resources, and stress the importance of setting a good example for children, as children
are likely to emulate parental behavior.
One of the most comprehensive efforts in this area is the “Strengthening Families Program” (SFP), first
developed in the United States. Implementation of SFP has been supported by Diageo in a number of
countries, including Greece, Poland, Russia, Spain, and the United Kingdom, and includes emphasis on
preventing underage purchase and drinking. Other programs that address the prevention of underage
drinking through engagement of the family and parents, in particular, include Anheuser-Busch InBev’s
“Family Talk About Drinking” and DrinkWise Australia’s “Kids and Alcohol Don’t Mix,” which aims to
delay the age at which teenagers begin to drink.
Age-verification schemes
Initiatives in this area support the actual enforcement of minimum-age legislation and make up 5% of all
programs reviewed in this analysis. Included here is direct support for the installation and use of
scanning devices to check age identification, signage in retail outlets that points to legal purchase age
limits, as well as initiatives aimed at events. For example, Heineken has used AgeBand, a wristband
identification system, at the AmsterJam music festival it sponsors in New York City. AgeBands are issued
to those attendees aged 21 or older, in accordance with the legal age limit for the United States.
Another example is the MillerCoors “Respect 21” program, developed with Brandeis University and the
Responsible Retailing Forum in the United States. It is intended to help communities raise awareness
about underage purchase and drinking and to improve retailer practices. The program also includes
mystery shoppers to test the extent of age verification and enforcement. In Brazil, Anheuser-Busch
InBev has partnered with community NGOs to develop the “Responsible Youth” program, aimed at
minors and storekeepers in low-income communities to help prevent access to alcohol, consumption,
and alcohol misuse by minors.
School-based programs
Twelve percent of all programs reviewed are carried out in schools and generally provide materials for
teachers and others that can be used in the classroom or integrated into the curriculum. Included in
these programs are facts about alcohol, tips for resisting peer pressure that can help with refusing to
drink, and web-based and other resources. One example is the “ESPACE” school-based education
11
program in France, intended to teach life skills and self-esteem to 11–13-year-old students. Supported
by the French SAO Entreprise et Prévention in collaboration with the education authorities in the city of
Limoges, the spirits industry, and high-level stakeholders from government and education, the program
involves teachers and parents and has been independently evaluated by the Regional Office of Public
Health (ORS).
Alcohol-free events
Finally, there is a group of programs intended to promote alcohol-free events, highlighting to young
people that it is possible to enjoy oneself without alcohol. For example, ARA in South Africa supports the
“Be Your Best Rock” challenge, which brings young people together in a fun learning environment to
embrace health, education, and the performing arts. The events are jointly organized by ARA and the Be
Your Best Foundation. A similar event, hosted by Diageo and Moët Hennessy in Thailand, is the alcoholfree REDioactive Songkran Festival held in Chiang Mai. This type of initiative makes up 1% of all relevant
industry-supported programs.
Effectiveness of age-limit legislation and prevention
Age limits around alcohol consumption and purchase, penalties for those breaking the law, and
prevention measures aimed at raising awareness among young people and those who might sell and
serve them alcohol are of limited use without proper enforcement. To date, there has been little by way
of a systematic evaluation of the relative rigor with which regulations around legal age limits are
enforced at country and local level, and a significant proportion of all studies have been carried out in
the United States. One recent randomized trial involving 36 communities in the United States tested the
combined effectiveness of five interrelated intervention components designed to reduce underage
access to alcohol. The study showed that the implementation of laws is likely to reduce underage
purchase and consumption. However, the determining factor was the perceived likelihood that these
laws would be enforced and thus that underage consumers would be deterred by perceived
inconveniences and/or sanctions to which they might be subjected [21]. Similar results have been found
elsewhere, notably in smaller studies from Australia, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom.
One area that has received particular attention with regard to assessment of impact is the raising of the
legal age limit in the United States to 21, mandated through the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of
1984. This law was initially implemented in an effort to reduce alcohol-related road traffic crashes. Of
the available scientific studies that examine the effectiveness of legal age limits, many focus specifically
on this change in U.S. policy and its impact on young people’s alcohol consumption, drink driving, and
alcohol-related traffic fatalities. These studies have generally found that increasing the age threshold
from 18 to 21 reduced young people’s alcohol consumption and the incidence of drink driving and
alcohol-related road traffic crashes [22-29]. However, studies conducted elsewhere have failed to show
consistently that raising age limits for alcohol was similarly able to reduce consumption, harmful
drinking patterns later in life, and drink driving [30-33].
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One of the main challenges to minimum-age legislation is the general lack of proper enforcement, both
in developed and developing countries. While additional studies need to be conducted to examine the
effectiveness of introducing and changing minimum age limit laws, there is consensus that no matter
what the policy, enforcement is a key element and crucial for success [34, 35]. Studies of enforcement
carried out in the Netherlands and Norway found that age restrictions tend to be loosely enforced by
retailers [36, 37]. Research from the United States showed that between 30% and 70% of retail outlets
were likely to sell to those below the legal age limit [38]. The same study also showed that those below
the legal drinking age are likely to obtain their alcohol from adults—parents, siblings, friends,
acquaintances, and other third parties—which makes enforcement more difficult than on licensed
premises.
The United Kingdom’s alcohol strategy, Safe, Sensible, Social, issued in 2007 by the Home Office and
Department of Health, cites similar figures for that country. According to the report, 84% of underage
drinkers who attempted to purchase alcohol from licensed premises were successful. Among those aged
16 or 17, the rate is even higher, with virtually all having successfully purchased alcohol from shops
(96%) or pubs (98%) at least once. The report also shows that, like in the United States, a large
proportion (48%) of underage drinkers obtained alcohol from their parents [39].
One additional challenge is the need for uniformity in enforcing legal age limits. As a study from Thailand
shows, when minimum age limits were raised and the rigor of enforcement improved, underage
consumers simply switched to venues and retailers with weaker enforcement [40].
An assessment of the impact of prevention measures has not been carried out in a systematic way, as
most programs have not been evaluated. This applies equally to interventions implemented by
members of the beverage alcohol industry, as well as to those undertaken by civil society groups or
NGOs. The evaluation of government-sponsored programs is also often poorly undertaken. Among those
programs that have been evaluated, of note are those involving compliance checks and mystery
shoppers, or increased law enforcement to ensure that retailers request identification and help prevent
underage sales. Evaluations of these programs show a positive impact on increasing retailer compliance
and reducing underage sales [41-51]. In some cases, these evaluations also show an impact on reducing
underage consumption, binge drinking, and drink driving [21, 50, 52-55].
Initiatives that involve the training of servers and/or management of licensed premises have been
evaluated to some extent. Very few studies have examined the effectiveness of training, and, while
results indicate a potential for reducing underage sales and consumption, results have been minimal or
have failed to show statistical significance of measured changes [43, 48, 56]. Some studies have
examined programs with advocacy or informational components. These programs often encourage
consumers to provide identification during purchases, and/or encourage retailers to request
identification. Evaluation has generally shown promising results, including decreases in underage sales
and consumption. However, advocacy and informational efforts are often used in combination with
strengthened enforcement or training, making it difficult to determine which component of the program
is responsible for observed changes [43, 47, 57].
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Further considerations and conclusions
The application and enforcement of legislation on legal age limits are the two central components in a
many-pronged approach to preventing underage access to alcohol. However, like all regulation, they
must be bolstered through other, “softer” measures that include education, raising awareness, and
public support. Figure 2 (below), adapted from the ICAP Blue Book module on legal age limits [58],
outlines the various elements that are required for the implementation, enforcement, and broader
support for policies relating to age limits around alcohol.
To be relevant and enforceable, alcohol policies aimed at underage access to alcohol are best aimed
specifically at the purchase of alcohol. Drinking-age limits, unless consumption occurs in licensed
premises, are more difficult to enforce. Laws around age thresholds have to be pragmatic and tailored
to the realities and needs of the societies for which they are designed. Some cultures have a permissive
attitude to the consumption (or purchase) of alcohol by young people, and, while laws are on the books,
they may be seldom enforced. In other instances, enforcement is challenged by the lack of resources to
carry it out effectively. Therefore, as a first requirement, age-limit legislation should be accompanied by
an infrastructure that enables effective enforcement of those limits and their uniform application by law
enforcement, producers, retailers, and servers.
A second requirement is the creation of awareness among the general population as much as among
retailers about age thresholds and about any penalties for breaking the law around sale to underage
persons. This presupposes, of course, that such legal measures will be applied with rigor. Raising
awareness should be based on education measures aimed at the general public, as well as at young
people themselves, about legal age limits. Cultural and social considerations play an important role and
need to be reflected in the way information is imparted and messages are crafted.
One challenge in enforcing legal age thresholds is in compliance by retailers themselves, particularly
where there is little leverage through the use of licenses to ensure that age limits are upheld. In many
countries around the world (including European countries such as Germany, Austria, and Spain), there is
no licensing requirement for the sale of beverage alcohol, which also means that retailers may pay little
attention to age-limit enforcement as there is no threat to their license to do business.
Furthermore, drinking and alcohol policies may not be as high a priority in many developing countries as
certain other issues that are more central to survival and often the main focus of governments. Since
the enforcement of age-limit regulations largely falls into the domain of law enforcement, corruption
may mean that those responsible for upholding regulations may turn a blind eye where compliance is
weak or lacking. While these are significant challenges to any age-related regulations, the absence of
formal safeguards for enforcing such laws also provides a strong argument in favor of involving retailers
in enforcing age limits. Where official stakeholders are unable (or unwilling) to ensure compliance,
servers and retailers have an opportunity to do so and should be encouraged in such efforts.
Legislation around age limits, from the standpoint of whether or not it can be enforced, is best aimed at
purchase, not drinking, and needs to apply to both on- and off-trade. Similarly, the reality of underage
14
drinkers needs to be acknowledged. Some governments have addressed this through “zero tolerance”
policies—no drinking before the legally mandated age has been reached. However, some critics have
argued that this is a political solution, and neither sound in its foundations nor practical in cultures
where families allow underage exposure to alcohol.
And, finally, the practicality of age-limit regulations should also be measured by the likelihood that they
may result in unintended and potentially harmful outcomes. Research shows that the age-21 limit in the
United States, for example, has resulted in cross-border traffic to Canada and Mexico, both of which
have lower age restrictions. This disparity in age limits has resulted in alcohol-related road traffic
fatalities and violent incidents as a direct result of young people seeking out jurisdictions with lower
limits, and has led to the coining of the phrase “blood border” [59-61].
Therefore, it should be recognized that the effective enforcement of legal age limits can only be
achieved through the involvement of stakeholders in addition to the official ones that set and enforce
the laws. Those who produce, sell, and serve alcohol beverages are uniquely and well positioned to play
this role. Their engagement is essential and not only forms part of a legal obligation to comply with
minimum age legislation, but is part of an ethical role in society at large. There is a similar moral (and
legal) imperative for parents, families, legal guardians, and other adults to ensure compliance with laws
around underage alcohol consumption and purchase, and to instill in young people a sense of respect
for the law. On a more general level, there is an obligation for all members of society to make sure that
any regulatory framework designed to safeguard the wellbeing of young people is appropriately
supported and upheld.
15
Notes and references
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Legislation specific to drinking age limits exists in a few countries. In the United Kingdom, for
example, this age is set at 5 years and applies to any consumption within the home and under
the supervision of parents and legal guardians.
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non-Muslim populations, tourists and foreign expatriates. For example, the Gambia sets an age
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19
Figures and tables
Figure 2. Considerations for setting policies around legal age limits for alcohol
(Adapted from the ICAP Blue Book.5)
Setting policies for legal age limits
In developing policies and approaches, consideration of a number of key elements is required. While some may
be necessary at a minimum and under most conditions, others may not be appropriate in all cases, or may be
difficult to implement. The list below offers a menu of areas that need to be addressed, based on effective
approaches that have been implemented elsewhere.
Policies
Set clearly defined legal threshold for purchase on- and off-premise.
 Set realistic age limits compatible with drinking culture and practices.
 Consider societal views on age and alcohol consumption.
 Consider relevance to age of majority and legal age for other activities (e.g., employment, voting,
marriage, military conscription/enlistment, and driving).
 Ages for purchase and consumption may be identical or different.
 Evaluate appropriateness of age identification cards or proof-of-age schemes.
 Consider the issue of consistency with legal age in neighboring jurisdictions.
Education and prevention
Create awareness around legal drinking and purchase age.
 Promote knowledge of legal age limits in general population.
 Promote knowledge about penalties for breaking drinking and purchase age laws in general
population, those under the legal age, and servers and retailers of beverage alcohol.
Provide education for those serving or selling beverage alcohol.
 Implement responsible hospitality practices for recognizing and dealing with underage patrons.
 Implement efforts in cooperation with producers, retailers, and servers.
Enforcement
Implement clearly defined punitive measures.
 Define penalties for breach of age laws when serving, selling, and purchasing alcohol.
 Regulate fines for noncompliance with laws or revocation of licenses in establishments.
 Ensure awareness that breaches will be punished.
Ensure visible and consistent enforcement.
 Require identification in serving establishments and retail outlets.
 Ensure appropriate police presence and surveillance.
 Encourage community organizations to watch troubled areas.
 Share responsibility for enforcement with families, educators, hospitality industry, law enforcement,
community groups, and young people under the drinking age themselves.
5
http://www.icap.org/PolicyTools/ICAPBlueBook/BlueBookModules/12LegalAgeLimits/tabid/173/Default.aspx#4
20
Table 1. Minimum age limits worldwide
Age limit information has been gathered from research conducted by ICAP and information available
from WHO.6 Where a single entry is given, the accuracy of the information has been verified by ICAP
with in-country key informants. Where discrepancies exist among the different sources, all are cited. In
these cases, the information is being verified by ICAP.
Country by Region
AFRICA
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
On-premise
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Cote d'Ivoire
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
18
15
18
18
18
16, unless accompanied by parents
ICAP: 18
WHO 2008: 21
18
18
18
18
18
No information available
21
18
Eritrea
18
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
18
18
18
18
18
None
18
18
18
Illegal
16
18
18
Illegal
18
ICAP: None
WHO 2008: 18
18
18
18
Cameroon
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
6
Off-premise
18
15
18
18
18
16, unless accompanied by parents
21
18
18
18
18
18
No information available
21
18
ICAP: 18
WHO 2008: 0
18
18
18
18
18
None
18
18
18
Illegal
16
18
18
Illegal
18
ICAP: 16
WHO 2008: 18
18
18
18
Data sources include ICAP (http://www.icap.org/Table/MinimumAgeLimitsWorldwide),
WHO 2008 (http://www.who.int/gho/alcohol/policies/age_limits/en/index.html),
WHO 2011 (http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/profiles/en/index.html),
and the Swiss Government (http://www.bag.admin.ch/themen/drogen/00039/10172/12019/index.html?lang=en).
21
Country by Region
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome and Principe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania, United Republic of
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
18
18
None
18
18
18
Illegal
18
Illegal
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
On-premise
18
18
None
18
18
18
Illegal
18
Illegal
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
AMERICAS
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
16
No information available
16
No information available
Argentina
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Canada
Cayman Islands
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
18
18
18
18
18
18
18/19 (set by province)
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
None
18
16
18
18
18
18
18
18
18/19 (set by province)
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
None
18
16
Mexico
18
18
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Puerto Rico
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Martin
18
18
20
18
18
18
None
16
18
18
20
18
18
18
None
18
22
Off-premise
Country by Region
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
18
18
18
21
18
18
On-premise
18
18
18
21
18
18
ASIA/PACIFIC
Afghanistan
American Samoa
Australia
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China, People’s Republic of
China, Republic of (Taiwan)
Cook Islands
French Polynesia
Guam
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kiribati
Illegal
21
18
21
None
18
Illegal
None
18
18
18
18
21
18 to 25, depending on state
21
Illegal
18
18
20
18
21
Illegal
21
18
21
None
18
Illegal
None
18
18
18
18
21
18 to 25, depending on state
21
Illegal
18
18
20
18
21
ICAP: 18
WHO Report 2011: No information
available
19
No information available
18
Korea, Democratic Republic of (North
Korea)
No information available
Korea, Republic of (South Korea)
Kuwait
Lao People's Democratic Republic
19
No information available
18
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nauru
Nepal
New Zealand
ICAP: 18
18
Illegal
No information available
21
21
18
No information available
25
18
Nive
No information available
Northern Mariana Islands
Oman
21
21
23
Off-premise
ICAP: 18
18
Illegal
No information available
21
21
18
No information available
25
18
ICAP: 18
WHO Report 2011: No information
available
21
21
Country by Region
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Qatar
Samoa
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Solomon Islands
Sri Lanka
Syria
On-premise
ICAP: Illegal (21 for non-Muslim
population)
WHO Report 2011: Illegal
21
18
18
Subnational
21
Illegal
18
21
21
No information available
Off-premise
ICAP: Illegal (21 for non-Muslim
population)
WHO Report 2011: Illegal
21
18
18
Subnational
21
Illegal
18
21
21
No information available
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Tokelau
Tonga
Tuvalu
20
None
No information available
18
No information available
20
None
No information available
18
No information available
United Arab Emirates
No information available
No information available
Vanuatu
Vietnam
Yemen
18
None
No information available
18
18 for wine and spirits; none for beer
No information available
18
18
18
16/18 In 6 of the 9 states, the LPA is
18 for spirits and drinks mixed with
spirits
18
18
18
Azerbaijan
18
18
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Georgia
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
18
16 for beer and wine; 18 for spirits
16
18
18
17
18
18
18
18
18
18
16 for beer and wine; 18 for spirits
18
18
20
18
18
18
18
18
16 for beer and wine; 18 for spirits
16
18
18
17
18
16
18
18 for beer/wine; 20 for spirits
18
18
16 for beer and wine; 18 for spirits
None
18
20
18
18
18
18
Pakistan
EUROPE
Albania
Andorra
Armenia
Austria
24
16/18 In 6 of the 9 states, the LPA is 18
for spirits and drinks mixed with spirits
Country by Region
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic of
Malta
Monaco
Moldova
Montenegro
On-premise
18
17
18
16
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
San Marino
18
17
18
18
No information available
16, but 18 for spirits that have an ABV
of over 15%
18, but 20 for spirits defined as 22%
ABV
18
16 for beer and wine, 18 for spirits
18
18
No information available
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
18
18
18
16 for beer and wine, 18 for spirits
Sweden
18
Netherlands
Norway
Switzerland
Tajikistan
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Uzbekistan
16/18, depending on the canton, for
beer and wine; 18 in all cantons for
spirits
No information available
18
18
18
16 for beer, cider, and wine if with
meal and bought by and accompanied
by adult - does not apply in Northern
Ireland; 18 for spirits
20
25
Off-premise
18
None
18
16
18
17
18
18
18
16, but 18 for spirits that have an ABV
of over 15%
18, but 20 for spirits defined as 22%
ABV
18
16 for beer and wine, 18 for spirits
18
18
No information available
18
18
18
16 for beer and wine, 18 for spirits
20, but 18 for beer with ABV of 3.5% or
less
16/18, depending on the canton, for
beer and wine; 18 in all cantons for
spirits
No information available
18
18
18
18
20
Table 2. Countries without formally defined on- or off-premise age limits, by region
Unless otherwise indicated, no age thresholds apply.
Region
AFRICA
Country
Remarks
Djibouti*
Eritrea*
No off-premise age threshold
Sao Tome and Principe*
AMERICAS Haiti7
St. Lucia
ASIA
Bangladesh
Korea, DPR*
Timor-Leste
EUROPE
Vietnam
No threshold for beer
Greece
No off-premise age threshold
Liechtenstein*
No off-premise age threshold
* Information is being verified
7
On 20 November 2013, a draft law for a minimum legal purchase age was introduced.
26