Investigating the West African Climate System
Using Global/Regional Climate Models
BY
GREGORY S. JENKINS, ANDRE KAMGA, ADAMOU GARBA, ARONA DIEDHIOU,
VERNON MORRIS, AND EVERETTE JOSEPH
A three-day workshop at Howard University examined scientific and social issues
associated with climate research in West Africa. Climate variability land-use,
climate change, and capacity building were discussed.
A
three-day workshop took place at Howard
University in Washington, D.C., from 27 July
through 29 July 2000 to examine scientific and
social issues associated with climate research in West
Africa. This workshop was funded by the National
Science Foundation’s (NSF) International and Atmospheric Science programs. It was hosted by faculty
members from the Pennsylvania State University’s
Department of Meteorology and the Howard University Center for the Study of Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Atmospheres (CSTEA) and Graduate Program in Atmospheric Sciences. West African scientists
were represented from Senegal, Cameroon, Niger,
Nigeria, Botswana, and Zambia. American scientists
from a host of university and research settings were
also participants in this workshop (Fig. 1).
BACKGROUND AND RATIONAL FOR THE
WORKSHOP. West Africa has experienced a
downward trend in rain amounts during its wet period (May–October) over the past 30 yr (Nicholson
et al. 2000). While a primary cause for reduced rainfall has not been found, West Africa climate variabil-
AFFILIATIONS: JENKINS—Department of Meteorology, The
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania;
KAMGA—UCAR Visiting Scientist, NCEP-African Desk, Camp
Springs, Maryland; GARBA—EAMAC School of Meteorology,
Niamey, Niger; DIEDHIOU—IRD-LTHE-ENSHMG, Grenoble,
France; MORRIS—Atmospheric Sciences Program and
Department of Chemistry, Howard University, Washington,
D.C.; JOSEPH—Atmospheric Sciences Program, and Department
of Physics, Howard University, Washington, D.C.
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Gregory S. Jenkins, Department
of Meteorology, 503 Walker Building, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, PA 16802
E-mail: [email protected]
In final form 1 October 2001
©2002 American Meteorological Society
AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY
FIG. 1. American and West African scientists listen to a
presentation at Howard University.
APRIL 2002
| 583
ity has been shown to be related to anomalous Atlantic or global sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies,
and the interdecadal trend in Northern and Southern Hemisphere SST anomalies (Lamb 1978; Palmer
1986; Rowell et al. 1995). Furthermore, model studies indicate that land-use change can reduce rain
amounts in West Africa (Charney 1975; Xue and
Shukla 1993; Zheng and Eltahir 1998; Wang and
Eltahir 2000). Anomalous atmospheric circulation has
also been associated with negative precipitation
anomalies during the main rainy season (Lamb and
Peppler 1992; Newell and Kidson 1984). In addition
to climate variability and land-use change there is the
potential for changes in the mean climatic state of
West Africa from anthropogenic greenhouse forcing
(Jenkins et al. 2002). Global climate models (GCMs)
and regional climate models are good tools for understanding how each factor can impact the regional climate of West Africa. However, before any conclusions
can be drawn from climate model sensitivity studies,
the simulated mean state and the intraseasonal variability of the West African wet season must be
evaluated.
There are several atmospheric features during the
West African rainy season that must be correctly
simulated in order to have confidence in GCM sensitivity studies related climate variability or climate
change. One feature, the 200-mb tropical easterly jet
(TEJ), originates in India and is associated with reduced (enhanced) rain amounts in West Africa when
it is weaker (stronger) than normal. Another feature,
the 700–600-mb African easterly jet (AEJ), is driven
by the north–south thermal gradient of surface temperatures in West Africa (Cook 1999) and is associated with reduced (enhanced) rain amounts when it
is stronger (weaker) than normal (Newell and Kidson
1984). This means that the surface temperature gradient in West Africa as well as the upstream conditions over India must be simulated correctly. Finally,
GCM data are used to drive regional climate model
simulations at the lateral boundaries and should compare favorably to observations or poorly simulated
regional climate simulations will result because of
systematic lateral boundary errors (Jenkins and
Barron 2000).
There are social factors affecting West African scientists that demand examination, discussion, and reflection. The scientific career of the West African
scientists may be influenced by various social–
economic–political factors that are unlikely to be experienced by their counterparts in the United States.
The most likely outcome of these various factors is isolation from the rest of the scientific community. This
584 |
APRIL 2002
negative impact is greatest to the individual scientist,
West African universities, or laboratories, but is also
felt in the larger community. New ideas, theories,
methods, and insights may never reach the larger
community. This workshop aimed to increase the
awareness of these various social–economic–political
factors while seeking ways to increase U.S.–West
African collaboration.
The goal of this workshop was to provide a forum
for participants to discuss critical issues of climate
variability and climate change in West Africa and to
stimulate collaboration between West African and
American scientists.
The specific objectives of this workshop were as
follows:
• to discuss current and cutting-edge issues in the
atmospheric sciences as they relate to the West African climate system,
• to examine the ability of global/regional climate
models to capture the mean characteristics of the
West African climate system with particular emphasis on the wet season,
• to examine and discuss the strengths and limitations of the various data sources available for model
validation,
• to formulate strategies for overcoming barriers that
limit research and capacity building in West
Africa,
• to develop collaborative working groups of West
African and American scientists for pursuing research topics,
• to discuss new techniques and areas of research for
climate studies in West Africa (e.g., Web-based
collaboration, ensemble modeling, downscaling
techniques, and hydrologic modeling), and
• to discuss how the output of global/regional climate
models can be applied to other disciplines or for
particular applications (e.g., water resource management, agriculture, and sustainable development).
The meeting opened with welcoming addresses
from Dr. Don Coleman, provost of Howard University; Pat Tsuchitani, of the International Division at
NSF; and the two cohosts of the workshop, Dr.
Vernon Morris, deputy director of the CSTEA and
associate professor of chemistry, and Dr. Gregory S.
Jenkins, assistant professor of meteorology at The
Pennsylvania State University.
Following the welcoming addresses, there was a
tribute to the late Dr. Siemon Fongang, who suddenly
became ill and died in January 2000, and his efforts
at the Laboratory for Atmospheric Physics (LPA),
Cheik Anta Diop University Dakar, Senegal. Dr.
Fongang, who was born in Cameroon, possessed a
true sense of integrity, vision, creativity, ingenuity,
and adaptability in order to maintain a first-rate laboratory and served as a positive role model for many
West African students who studied at LPA and for
many outside of LPA. Dr. Fongang was known
throughout the continent of Africa in the discipline
of atmospheric sciences and collaborated with numerous researchers in Europe.
Dr. Amadou Gaye of LPA (Fig. 2) summarized the
types of research activities in LPA that had been initiated by Dr. Fongang including:
1) rainfall estimation by radar and satellite;
2) dynamics and climatology of West African climate;
3) study of convective systems, including mesoscale
convective system (MCS) trajectories, MCS behavior (decay, genesis, lifetimes, diurnal effect),
interactions with synoptic systems like easterly
waves, influence of monsoon, topography, and
ocean;
4) water vapor climatology (satellite data and models);
5) monsoon variability in West Africa;
6) model validation and predictability of West African climate;
7) ocean–atmosphere interactions;
8) numerical simulations; and
9) aerosols and atmospheric pollution.
In June 1999, Dr. Fongang and LPA hosted the
West African Monsoon and Prediction (WAMAP)
international meeting in Dakar, Senegal. The
WAMAP meeting was sponsored by the National
Science Foundation (NSF), the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the
American Meteorological Society (AMS). The meeting focused on theoretical, simulated, and observational aspects for various spatial–temporal scales of
the West African monsoon system. Participants came
from West Africa, Europe, and the United States. The
ideas, interactions, and spirit of the WAMAP meeting and the tireless effort of Dr. Fongang served as a
source of motivation for the workshop at Howard
University.
WORKSHOP SESSIONS. GCM simulations of the
mean climate state of West Africa. The purpose of this
session was to examine the mean state and
interannual variability of West African climate in
various GCMs and the NCEP reanalysis. A topic discussed in this session is the common problem in
AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY
FIG. 2. Dr. Gaye of LPA describes the work of the late
Dr. Fongang.
many GCMs of accurately simulating the rainfall
maximum just off the coast of West Africa. The most
likely cause of poorly simulated rain is due to the
smoothing of orography (Guinea Highland). Further,
the GCMs inability to properly simulate stratiform
rain could also be a source of error. Other presentations included the underlying causes for the structure of simulated precipitation in West Africa, simulating interannual and interdecadal trends of
precipitation anomalies, and simulating the annual
cycle of rain in West Africa and its subregions
(Guinea, Sahel). A sample of presentations in this session include the following: A Comparison of Precipitation Processes over West Africa in the NCEP Reanalysis and a GCM (Dr. Kerry Cook), Interannual
Variability of the West African Monsoon in the
NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis II (Dr. Wassila Thiaw), and
Circulation and Rainfall Variability over West Africa
as Simulated by the ECHAM 3.6 Forced with Observed SSTs 1950–99 (Dr. Neil Ward).
GCM simulations–analysis of easterly waves. A major feature of the West African climate system on daily
timescales is the easterly wave (Burpee 1972). Easterly
waves have typical wavelengths of 2000–2500 km, lifetimes of 2–5 days, and serve as important rain-bearing
systems. Easterly waves are associated with baroclinic
and barotropic exchanges of energy as they track westward from continental to oceanic areas (Norquist
et al. 1977). They are also associated with tropical disturbances (depressions, storms, hurricanes) especially
during the latter part of the wet season. It is still unclear what role easterly waves may play in future climate
change (Druyan et al. 1999). Furthermore, there are
the 6–9-day waves that have been identified in West Africa that might affect convection (Diedhiou et al. 1999).
APRIL 2002
| 585
Presentations in this session focused on 1) ECMWF
analysis and NCEP reanalysis representation of easterly waves, 2) wavelet analysis for examining changes
in the wave activity during the rainy season and 3)
GCM simulations of easterly waves from an Atmospheric Modeling Intercomparison Project (AMIP)
simulation. Accurately simulating easterly waves in
GCMs is important because they represent a significant fraction of the internal variability in the West
African climate system (Fyfe 1999). Moreover, easterly waves probably play a direct or indirect role in
the interannual variability of rainfall (Druyan 1998).
In regional climate model simulations over West Africa, easterly waves propagate through lateral boundaries and have a direct bearing on the simulation
(Jenkins 1997; Druyan and Fulakeza 2000). A sample
of presentations in this session includes the following: Spectral Wavelet and Filter Analysis of African
Easterly Waves (Dr. Andre Kamga), Evidence of Easterly Wave Activity in the Community Climate Model
(Dr. Gregory Jenkins), and GCM Simulations–
ECMWF Analysis–NCEP Reanalysis of Easterly
Waves (Dr. Arona Diedhiou).
Mesoscale–regional climate model simulations of easterly waves and/or squall lines in West Africa. Mesoscale
model simulations offer the potential to increase our
understanding from GCM studies on the topics of
intraseasonal, interannual, and interdecadal variability, land-use change, and climate change. Mesoscale
models can resolve orographic features, lakes, coastlines, and sharp gradients in vegetation, temperature,
and soil moisture better than GCMs. Moreover, mesoscale models can resolve the synoptic-scale easterly
waves and apply appropriate physical parameterizations to mesoscale features.
While easterly waves are the primary synoptic feature during the rainy season, mesoscale convective
systems (MCSs) in the form of squall lines (Fortune
1980; Rowell and Milford 1993) or mesoscale convective complexes (MCCs) (Laing and Fritsch 1993;
Hodges and Thorncroft 1997) are frequently associated with easterly waves and responsible for a significant fraction of the total rain in West Africa (D’Amato
and Lebel 1998). In this session, mesoscale simulations
from four different mesoscale models using grid spacing that ranged from approximately 5–150 km were
presented. The timescales represented in these simulations ranged from days through seasons. The simulations were driven at the lateral boundaries by
ECMWF analyses, NCEP reanalysis, and GCM output. In simulating squall lines, high-resolution simulations (<20 km grid spacing) using ice physics were
586 |
APRIL 2002
presented. A sample of presentations in this session
included the following: Limited Area Model (LAM)
Simulations of a Squall line Associated with an African Easterly Wave (Dr. Mariam Diop), The Influence
of SST Anomalies on West Africa Precipitation in a
Mesoscale and a Global Climate Model (Dr. E. Vizey),
Initiation of an African Squall Line and its Interaction
with the Large-Scale Environment (Dr. Aida Diongue),
and Regional Climate Model Analyses of Phenomena
over West Africa (Dr. Matthew Fulazeka).
The interplay between chemistry and climate: Issues in
chemical meteorology. Chemical measurements and
modeling in West Africa have been ignored for the
most part with the exception of a few field experiments. In West Africa, biomass burning occurs from
November through April leading to the production
of aerosols and indirectly to tropospheric ozone.
Aerosols and tropospheric ozone have the potential
to affect both the longwave and shortwave radiation
and therefore regional climate. Marufu et al. (2000)
estimates that biomass burning emissions produce 9%
of the total tropospheric ozone. Africa represents the
largest contribution to the production of tropospheric
ozone accounting for approximately 35% of the total
through biomass burning. In this session, the several
presentations examined the key chemistry—climate
questions for West Africa (Fig. 3). Dr. Anne Thompson discussed the production of ozone through biomass burning, NOx production from lightning, aerosol transport and radiative forcing, and results from
a recent ship experiment in the tropical Atlantic
(Thompson et al. 2000).
From November through March when biomass
occurs in West Africa, some of the constituents are
likely transported equatorward toward deep convection. The vertical transport of these constituents can
lean to the production of ozone in the tropical Atlantic. However, there are many open questions about
the vertical transport of ozone and ozone precursors
from the planetary boundary layer into the free troposphere (Jonquieres et al. 1998). A number of these
questions related to transport and the production of
ozone can be answered only through direct measurements (Logan 1999). If ozonesonde measurements
can be obtained just downwind of the biomass fire in
West Africa, it would link chemistry to meteorology
and climate regional scales.
Data limitations and validation of GCM–mesoscale
models. The objective of this session was to discuss the
various data needs for GCM and regional climate
model studies with respect to West Africa. The dis-
native to offset the data costs. There is also station data
available for the 1987–95 period from NCEP and Hydrologic Atmospheric Pilot Experiment (HAPEX)–
Sahel data for the 1992 period. Satellite data at 30 min
to daily timescales are a critical source of information
for squall line and easterly wave studies and can be used
for identifying and analyzing evolving MCSs. Satellite
images can be compared to simulated regional climate
model precipitation and cloud fields. Geostationary
satellite data are available from the European
Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological
Satellites in Germany.
FIG. 3. Dr. Anne Thompson of NASA Goddard Space
Flight Center lectures on a recent ship campaign in the
tropical Atlantic.
cussion included spatial and temporal scales of observed data, availability, and cost of observed data.
GCM STUDIES. For GCM studies there was a consensus that observed data with a minimum spatial scale
of 2.5° latitude × 2.5° longitude was sufficient for comparison and validation. However, the temporal scale for
validation could vary from monthly to daily timescale
for examination of easterly waves in the GCMs.
REGIONAL CLIMATE MODEL STUDIES. For regional climate or
limited area modeling studies there was a general
agreement that global analyses and observational data
on relatively short timescales (3–12-h temporal
resolution) were needed for initialization, updating lateral boundary conditions, and verification of model
simulations. For the initialization and boundary conditions the NCEP reanalysis or ECMWF analyses are
generally interpolated to the regional model grid spacing. However, in order to verify model simulations, station reports (surface and upper air) for West Africa
are needed. The most likely source of station data is
the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). However,
the benefits associated with station data that would
make West African–U.S. collaboration a viable alterAMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY
OTHER ISSUES RELATED TO OBSERVED DATA. Access to data.
The researchers at the workshop were interested in
station data, the NCEP reanalysis, and the ECMWF
analyses for their research interest. Station data from
West Africa are often difficult to obtain because it can
be considered a “natural resource.” Moreover, it may
take personnel to retrieve archived data leading to
additional cost. In order to study the large-scale circulation or synoptic-scale features such as easterly
waves, access to gridded analyses (ECMWF or NCEP)
are necessary. The ECMWF analyses are not freely
available to many West African researchers. The
NCEP reanalysis are generally free, but several researchers in West Africa found that there was a charge
for downloading the data via the Web. There are also
some costs associated with having the NCEP data
shipped to Africa on CD-ROM.
Availability of data over the Web, and Internet capability of West African institutes. Accessibility to data
over the Internet is the most feasible way for West
African researchers to obtain data for research purposes. However, a stable Internet platform that allows
for the transfer of data over extended periods of time
is necessary. Therefore, it is mandatory that the
Internet capability is reliable in West African research
laboratories or departments if U.S.–West African collaboration has any chance of being sustained for the
long term.
Understanding and overcoming barriers that inhibit productive research for West African scientists. In this session, there was dialogue between the West African
participants and the rest of the group to discuss the
various obstacles that researchers in West Africa may
encounter. This discussion was broken up into a number of pragmatic issues, which follow.
CRITICAL MASS. The number of West African scientists
actively researching some aspects of the climate sysAPRIL 2002
| 587
tem (atmosphere, ocean, biosphere) is relatively small
and they are situated in various countries (based on
discussions and the number of published authors). In
the atmospheric sciences, only a small number of
West African institutions of higher learning produce
graduate or undergraduate degrees in meteorology.
In particular there is the LPA in Dakar, Senegal, which
is a research laboratory where graduate students complete their Ph.D. work. There is also L’Ecole Africaine
de la Météorologie et de l’Aviation Civile (EAMAC)
school of meteorology in Niamey, Niger that provides
B.S. degrees in meteorology. There may be several
schools in Nigeria that have an emphasis in the atmospheric sciences but offer degrees in other majors (geography for example).
OPPORTUNITIES FOR PH.D. RECIPIENTS. Because of the
small number of institutions of higher learning that
have programs in the atmospheric sciences in West
Africa, there are not many opportunities for recent
graduates with Ph.D. degrees in West Africa. This
means that West African scientists are left with few
options including 1) working at an operational meteorological center in West Africa, 2) fleeing one’s
country to find opportunities at universities in other
countries (Africa or elsewhere), or 3) serving as a
perpetual postdoc in Europe, Canada, or the United
States for numerous years until another opportunity
presents itself. This raises an important question: Is a
Ph.D. in the atmospheric sciences a viable option for
aspiring students in West Africa? There were several
responses: 1) atmospheric science institutions (university departments, centers) in West Africa should
undertake research projects that have a practical application so that the work can be perceived as useful
to a particular country in the eyes of the government;
2) while applications are useful, the field of atmospheric sciences is not solely based on applications,
but includes observation, experimentation, theory,
and simulations—by considering only applications,
West African scientists are excluded from making
important contributions and pushing the discipline
forward; and 3) there should be an effort to build capacity in West African institutes of higher learning,
which would allow for research with practical applications and basic research while also providing for the
educational needs of tomorrow’s scholars in West
Africa.
This discussion raised other relevant issues. First,
some participants felt that there is a perception that
West African scientists lack the basic skills for undertaking research and therefore must be trained in European or American institutions. This false percep588 |
APRIL 2002
tion has existed for some time, but in reality a major
problem is the lack of internal and external resources
directed toward the education process in West Africa.
The presentations by West African researchers gave
some indications that cutting-edge research projects
are being pursued helping to eliminate any false perceptions among the U.S. workshop participants.
Second is the question of why there are so few graduate atmospheric science programs in West Africa.
One view was that due to colonialism, meteorologists
were trained mainly for observation and not necessarily for undertaking independent research. This
created an imbalance and stunted the development of
research institutes in West Africa. Ultimately, operational meteorological centers were considered as the
focal point of activities. A similar pattern occurred in
the United States at historically black colleges and
universities (HBCUs). These institutions were slated
for pedagogy and not research from their inception
through to the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s.
Special efforts were necessary to change this original
mission statement to one that considers research as
an important activity in HBCUs.
It is important to identify the factors that are critical for sustaining a graduate program/department. A
solid academic program with a strong research component that is recognized for scientific excellence attracts good students, faculty, and researchers.
Presently, there are very few departments/programs
in the atmospheric sciences in West Africa that have
a global reputation for producing large quantities of
scholars or publishing scholarly research and that
have excellent facilities for sustaining research. In the
United States, HBCUs have focused on capacity building as a strategy for sustaining long-term research.
Similarly, atmospheric science programs in West Africa can capacity build for long-term sustainability,
but they need help from internal and external sources.
COMMUNICATION. Reliable mediums of communication
must exist in order for individual or institutional collaborative research to effectively take place. The
Internet offers the best possibility for communicating ideas and results between research partners. While
a number of West African universities have Internet
capability (e-mail, ftp, World Wide Web) many have
only limited Internet capacities such as e-mail.
Limited Internet capacity inhibits collaborative research, since scientific activities that involve large
quantities of data cannot be shared easily with West
African colleagues. Hence, at the beginning of the
twenty-first century a major obstacle to collaboration
between U.S. and West African scientists is the modes
of communication. Thus on some scale, capacity
building must include increasing and enhancing
Internet capabilities in West African institutions. A
second obstacle to collaboration is language. This artifact from colonialism can inhibit collaboration between West African scientists from francophone
countries and scientist in the United States. It can also
reduce the amount of collaboration between West
African scientists from anglophone and francophone
countries.
INTERINSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES. Because of limited resources, tension can arise between the traditional meteorological centers and atmospheric science departments in West Africa. Creative measures should be
taken to ensure that there are ample opportunities for
both groups to interact with each other on various
scales. For example, operational meteorologists and
university researchers can work on various projects
as team members and publish the results. Operational
meteorologists can take additional courses or help to
develop new courses because of their experience at
meteorological centers, thereby aiding both communities. Students, faculty, and operational meteorologists can take part in field experiments promoting new
knowledge for the global community.
PERCEPTION OF UNIVERSITY RESEARCH IN WEST AFRICA.
Weather forecasts have an obvious application and
benefit to the short-term conditions that face a given
society. This is usually not the case when considering
the research that is done at a university. While there
are benefits and applications from research it usually
occurs on a longer timescale for developed or developing countries. This perspective should be clarified
so that funding government agencies can see the university department as an asset for developing future
scholars and as a facility for investigating scientific
problems that are of interest to West Africa or the
global community.
Parallels between West Africa institutes and historically
black colleges and universities. In the United States a
parallel to the difficulties experienced by West African scientists exist at HBCUs. In this session, we compared and contrasted the similarities and differences,
the various obstacles (lack of resources, mission statements, sense of isolation), and strategies for producing successful research efforts. This session also provided an opportunity for several scientists in
atmospheric sciences programs at HBCUs to describe
the research that was being undertaken in order to
encourage collaboration with West African scientists.
AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY
The representatives from the HBCUs were Dr.
Vernon Morris and Dr. Everette Joseph of Howard
University and Dr. Ali Omar of Hampton University.
These schools have graduate programs in the atmospheric sciences. The faculty members at Howard
University described the various areas of active research—which include atmospheric chemistry, remote sensing, and radiative transfer—and the intention of expanding into the area of regional climate
modeling. They also discussed the continuous process of making a transition at HBCUs from the original mission statement of teaching to one that allows
for competitive research programs at Howard University. At Hampton University the research programs associated with aerosol measurements from
spaceborne platforms in addition to traditional measurements using lidar were described. New research
initiatives in the coming years were described with
the hopes of increasing collaboration with West African scientists.
Understanding and overcoming barriers inhibiting collaborations between West African and U.S. scientists.
PROGRAMS WITHIN THE NSF. In this session, the programs for international collaboration at NSF along with
programs that have been initiated elsewhere were
described. At NSF there is an international program
that provides support for American scientists that are
traveling to West Africa for research purposes.
Currently, funds cannot be used to capacity build educational institutes (human resources, infrastructure,
and computer equipment) in West Africa.
PROGRAMS IN WEST AFRICA THAT FOSTER COLLABORATION.
Two programs leading to opportunities for West African scientists while increasing collaboration between West African and European scientists were
described by M. S. Boulahya, director of African Centre of Meteorological Applications and Development
(ACMAD) in Niamey, Niger. ACMAD has the longterm goal of increasing meteorological applications
for sustainable development while also assisting national meteorological services to develop collaboration with its data users.
The Fonds d’Incitation à la Recherche Météorologique en Afrique (FIRMA)-ACMAD program is
a central fund for meteorological research in Africa.
This effort is funded by the French government (the
French Cooperation). This is done by providing resources to different research teams for undertaking
multidisciplinary research such as weather prediction,
seasonal forecast, and applications for agriculture and
water resource management, and health.
APRIL 2002
| 589
The Prévisions Saisonnières pour l’Afrique de
l’Oest (PRESAO) program develops seasonal forecast
with applications for food security in West Africa. It
has gone through various stages (implementation, development, and maturity) over a 6-yr period. There
have been extensive training programs associated with
PRESAO at the national meteorological centers.
Dr. Adedodyin from the University of Botswana
suggested that the “Edward Bouchet” conferences that
have taken place in Africa and the United States over
the last decade can serve as a mechanism for increasing expertise and promoting capacity building in Africa. This conference brings together Africans and
African Americans in the areas of physics for several
days of presentation. Dr. Edward Bouchet, who was
the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in physics (1876 for Yale University) has served as a source
of inspiration for scientists of African descent.
Through creative measures associated with this conference it may be possible to provide West African
graduate students with the opportunity to undertake
research at sister universities in the United States.
WORKING GROUP SESSIONS. There was a breakout session
with three working groups given the responsibility of
discussing the following areas:
• collaborative research and capacity building
(working group 1),
• scholarship and dissemination of research activities (working group 2), and
• academics and capacity building (working group 3).
Working group 1 was asked to consider the following:
1) how to ensure that collaborative research could be
undertaken with the goals of equal partnership;
2) the challenges of communication including language, and modes of communication between collaborators (Internet, fax, telephones);
3) the challenges of technology issues including the
differences in technology and technology transfer;
4) assessing capacity building within the existing
framework of universities and institutions in West
Africa and identify the challenges, barriers, and opportunities for capacity building; and
5) identifying potential sources of funding to facilitate capacity building in West Africa.
The working group found that the most difficult
issues were related to existing institutions and capacity
building within these institutions. They thought that
there was a need to do a realistic assessment of the
590 |
APRIL 2002
existing institutions in West Africa that would serve
as an ideal institute for scientific collaboration with a
U.S. institution. After such an assessment is done,
there might exist the possibility of working toward a
memorandum of understanding (MOU) between
those institutions in West Africa and the United
States. Other points included the following.
• Communication is one of the greatest barriers facing scientific collaboration; therefore, an assessment of the capacity to communicate must be done
at an early stage.
• Any capacity building must leave the West African institutes with the ability to conduct their own
independent research with the available equipment
after some initial phase.
• Workshops should be conducted so that West
African collaborators can remain up-to-date with
recent changes in scientific methodology and
technology.
• West African institutions that are involved in collaboration with U.S. institutes should work to develop user-end products. This could be in the areas of seasonal variability, climate variability, or
climate change.
Working group 2 was asked to consider the following questions.
1) What specific factors are limiting the publishing of
scientific manuscripts by West African scientists
(especially in U.S. journals)?
2) Are there simple solutions to fix the problem?
3) What factors are limiting the presentation of research at conference (especially in the United
States) by West African scientists?
4) Are there simple solutions to fix the problem?
5) Is there an awareness of these issues within the meteorological community?
A summary of the proposed solutions to these questions can be found in Jenkins and Diongue (2000).
Working group 3 was asked to consider the following questions.
1) What are the key elements that have limited the
number of academic programs (meteorology) in
West Africa?
2) Are there pathways to either increase the number
of academic programs in West Africa or
strengthen existing programs?
3) Are there U.S. exchange programs in West Africa
that relate to meteorology? Is the postdoc path the
only way to have collaboration with West African
scientists?
4) What is necessary to start an exchange program?
5) How can we ensure that faculty/instructors in West
Africa have up-to-date textbooks for instruction?
6) Will it be possible to share courses over the
Internet in the near future? Is it possible now?
Where?
This working group came to the following conclusions.
• The key element that limits meteorology departments in West Africa is the lack of awareness and
the importance that these departments may play
in understanding weather and climate related issues. There is also a lack of collaboration between
other institutions in a particular country and West
African atmospheric sciences/meteorology departments. Finally, the lack of employment after obtaining a graduate degree not only discourages
those pursuing these degrees, but ultimately leads
to “brain drain” as these scientists find work outside of the country.
• The primary educational institutions in West Africa where the study of atmospheric sciences/
meteorology are being taught or undertaken is
EAMAC in Niamey, Niger, for operational meteorologists, and LPA in Dakar, Senegal, where research is being undertaken for graduate degrees.
However, at LPA there is not a formal graduate
degree program with university-approved courses
in place.
• There were no exchange programs between West
African and U.S. institutes that were identified, but
informally there have been individual scientists
that have tried to foster collaboration (P. Lamb,
University of Oklahoma; S. Nicholson, Florida
State University).
• Because faculty positions in West Africa are difficult to obtain, we must look to strengthen the ties
between West African and U.S. educational institutes. Faculty and student exchange programs are
the easiest paths to strengthening West African–
U.S. relationships. Moreover, U.S. scholars should
try to spend time in West Africa teaching and helping to develop meteorology courses in addition to
undertaking collaborative research.
• If an atmospheric science department does not exists, then in order to start such a department or
program, it will be necessary to develop support
from within the country, stressing the importance
of such a program to the social, economic, and educational welfare of that country. Such a program
AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY
will need support from outside institutions in promoting this perspective by helping to demonstrate
how the department’s contributions are linked to
other international programs or research efforts.
• In order to ensure that faculty/instructors have upto-date textbooks efforts should be made to donate
textbooks and journal, and to seek funding from
professional organizations or private foundations
for text books. Universities should also work with
existing organizations such as ACMAD with the
purpose of securing funding for textbooks.
• It is currently possible to share courses over the
Internet if West African educational institutes have
Internet capability. This capacity should only increase in the future. It is also possible to use institutions such as ACMAD as a resource to deliver
these courses to target institutions. For World Wide
Web–based courses that currently exist, West African institutes will need to contact the developers.
New research opportunities for the West African climate
system. The presentations from this session were directed toward interdisciplinary research associated
with hydrology, biosphere–atmosphere interactions,
a recent field experiment in West Africa, and examining easterly wave activity.
HYDROLOGY AND BIOSPHERE–ATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONS.
While there has been a downward trend for rain in
West Africa, extreme events associated with heavy
precipitation and above normal seasonal precipitation
in West Africa occurred during 1998 and 1999. The
floods of 1998 were associated with fatalities, loss of
property, and the displacement of many individuals
in Nigeria and affected the neighboring countries of
Niger, Burkina Faso, and Senegal. Research efforts to
forecast short-term-to-seasonal streamflow along the
Niger River were presented. Streamflow forecasts are
produced from satellite-derived precipitation rates;
soil and land-cover parameters are used as input into
hydrology models.
While early scientific studies examined the role of
deforestation and desertification (Charney 1975) in
relation to negative precipitation anomalies in West
Africa, these studies did not incorporate realistic biosphere–atmosphere schemes, until the late 1980s and
early 1990s (Xue and Shukla 1993, 1996). Even these
simulations did not consider the two-way interaction
between atmosphere and the biosphere, but rather
only the impact of the biosphere on the atmosphere.
Studies presented in this session with one- and twoway atmosphere–biosphere interactions show that not
only can changes in vegetation cover produce decadal
APRIL 2002
| 591
reductions in the precipitation, similar to those observed (Wang and Elthair 2000), but they also partially explain the increase in surface temperatures that
has been observed. Moreover, simulations without
two-way feedback cannot determine how the natural
land-cover is affected by anthropogenic land-use change
in West Africa. A sample of presentations from this session includes the following: Short-Term-to-Seasonal
Forecast of Flood Risk in the Lower Niger River Basin (challenges and prospects; Dr. James Adegoke),
Modeling the Regional Climate over West Africa (the
importance of biospheric feedback; Dr. Guiling
Wang), and Examining The Effects of Land-Surface
Processes in the Center for Ocean–Land–Atmosphere
(COLA) and NCEP GCMs (Dr. Yongkang Xue).
EXAMINATION OF EASTERLY WAVES THROUGH WAVELET ANALYSIS AND THE JET2000 EXPERIMENT. Easterly waves are important synoptic features in West Africa because of
the production of rain. Moreover these easterly waves
can lead to the generation of tropical disturbances in
the tropical Atlantic basin. Therefore, it is necessary
to have a thorough understanding of the genesis and
evolution of these waves as they propagate across West
Africa. Atmospheric motions on different timescales
and easterly wave activity can be examined through
wavelet analysis. This technique can be used to examine the seasonal activity of easterly waves by analyzing lower-troposphere (700, 850 hPa) meridional
winds, geopotential height or vorticity. Dr. Andre
Kanga provided the theoretical background and application of wavelet analysis. A short but potentially useful field experiment entitled (JET2000) was undertaken
in West Africa during the period of 25–29 August 2000
to examine the middle to lower troposphere with aircraft and surface meteorological measurements. The
interaction of the AEJ with westward-propagating
easterly waves and a host of other measurements were
studied in this field experiment with a summary of the
results expected in 2001 (www.env.leeds.ac.uk/
JET2000). Dr. Miriam Diop described the goals and
objectives of the JET2000 experiment.
Closing discussion. A number of topics were discussed
in this last but informal session. They included the
following.
F UNDING CHALLENGES . There is a need to identify
potential funding sources (federal, international, and
nonprofit foundations) for capacity building of West
African institutes. LPA is one such institute that
deserves a high priority, since it is one of the few
institutes in West Africa where research is undertaken
592 |
APRIL 2002
and doctorate degrees are generated. However, it does
not have a strong teaching component, but hopefully
a partnership with a U.S. university (such as Howard
University) could alleviate this problem through the
use of visiting scholars in the development and teaching of courses in atmospheric sciences.
NSF does not currently have specific programs to
help in the capacity building process; however, it does
not have to remain this way. NSF could generate new
initiatives that stimulate collaboration between U.S.
and West African scientists and thereby promote capacity building over short to midterm periods with
specific research goals in mind. Moreover, NSF programs that promote faculty and student exchange
programs can provide rich and meaningful experiences for all participants. African American faculty
and students who have strong historical ties to West
Africa could benefit significantly from such a program. NSF programs that promote technology transfer would accelerate capacity building efforts in West
Africa.
While the discussion related to research activities
remains unresolved, in the short term, researchers
should make an effort to apply their work toward
an end user. This will allow national governments
to see the practical usefulness of a particular type
of research. Moreover researchers that are examining
climate variability should try to relate their research
to the Climate Variability and Predictability
(CLIVAR) program in Africa. This may allow
government or funding agencies to see a particular
research program in the context of international
efforts.
EDUCATION CHALLENGES. There are several universities
(LPA in Senegal, EAMAC in Niger, Minna University of Technology in Nigeria) that offer undergraduate or graduate studies in the atmospheric sciences
(through traditional meteorology programs or geography programs) that should be considered as possible
members/affiliates, through some creative measures,
to the University Cooperation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR). This would allow West African atmospheric science programs to have a better understanding of the current status of meteorology
programs in the United States. UCAR might also facilitate in developing exchange programs (curriculum
details) and provide assistance for future workshops
in the United States or West Africa. Finally, efforts
should be made to assess the current status of all West
African departments or programs in related atmospheric science areas as a first step toward building
West African–U.S. education partnerships.
AN
U.S.–WEST AFRICAN SCIBecause of the interaction
that scientists enjoyed over the 3-day period we felt
that it was necessary to form an organization that will
allow for continued interaction. This transatlantic
organization would include scientists from the
United States and West Africa (including those
working or studying in Europe) in the atmospheric
sciences. Through the use of the Internet, it would
be possible to post recent news (new Ph.D. graduates, upcoming field experiments, graduate or
postgraduate opportunities), create a database of relevant publications, and announce upcoming workshops or conferences. This organization could also
serve as a mechanism of carrying various issues in a
cohesive manner to the larger community. Working
groups (GCM, regional modeling, applications of
data) could use this Web site for planning experiments, posting results, and exchanging in-progress
manuscripts.
ORGANIZATION TO FOSTER
ENTISTS RESEARCH INTERESTS.
A proposed plan for capacity building. A serious attempt
to identify West African institutions and potential
partnerships between West African–U.S. institutions
(educational, research) should be pursued. Because
of the important environmental factors that exist in
West Africa (land-use change, climate variability,
climate change, atmospheric chemistry), an educational institute that has demonstrated the capacity or
has the potential to create a department/program that
is research oriented should be sought. It is important
that this center serve as a facility where atmospheric
research is conducted. But an equally important
mission of this institute is the need for it to serve as
the learning center where West African faculty members guide future generations of West African students in the atmospheric sciences. Faculty and students from such an institute will add to the body of
knowledge in the evolution of atmospheric sciences
on a global basis. The operational meteorological
center cannot be left out of this process, but must
work closely with this educational center since many
of its students may ultimately have careers in the
operational meteorological services. While it is not
absolutely necessary that the potential institute becomes an atmospheric science department or program, this institute should be linked to the educational processes. Such a institution should also be
linked to existing institutions in West Africa (e.g.,
ACMAD) and ultimately institutions in other regions
of Africa.
Why is such a center important to the global
community?
AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY
• It serves as a site where long-term collaboration
could take place.
• In the case of field experiments in West Africa or
central Africa, it can serve as a command and control center. Moreover, faculty, students, and researchers who are associated with these institutes
can take part in any measurements and in their
analysis, and submit scientific publications. This
center can reduce the uncertainty in the logistics
of planning field experiments in West Africa since
the facilities and personnel would be a fixed
parameter.
• Over the past few years and during this decade, a
number of satellites will be launched primarily by
the National Aeronautics Space Administration
(NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA)
that will monitor and measure processes that drive
the climate system (precipitation, aerosols, radiation), affect the global chemistry (trace gases such
as O3, CO, NO, aerosols, lightning), and identify
changes in the land surface. For any such investment, there must be some way of comparing remotely sensed values to measured values at the
ground. This aspect has been largely ignored with
respect to Africa—a continent where remotely
sensed observations are valued, especially in
sparsely observed or economically depressed areas.
This institute could serve as a site where ground
validation and data processing could take place.
While the concept of a research–education center
in West Africa might be a good idea, the question of
funding such a center, and the proper management
to ensure that it can survive over long periods of time,
is challenging. Funding for such a center will need to
come from both within and outside of the institution’s
country. Funding and expert advice from government, industrial, and nonprofit organizations are necessary to build such a center. The short-term and
long-term benefits of such a center must be properly
demonstrated to potential contributors. The benefits
include education, employment, contributions of research from the West African scientific community,
a research base for field experiments, and technology
transfer that will increase future collaboration.
The facilities for such a center could be built from
the ground or developed from existing facilities. The
facilities will need to consider some of the obstacles
that were discussed in this workshop. Communication
is a critical need, with phone, fax, and Internet capability being required. Such a center should have classroom facilities and conference capabilities, with language translation equipment when international
APRIL 2002
| 593
workshops or conferences are held. Computer facilities for research (for example, clusters of PCs with
LINUX-based systems for short-term forecasts, and
GCM and regional climate model studies) and laboratory facilities are required. Finally, such a center
should be developed with the understanding of
changing technology and therefore built with the capacity to change and upgrade without much difficulty
and with minimal costs.
Such an institution should not develop in isolation, but should be linked to other institutes in the
United States (for example NCAR, universities, and
the American Meteorological Society) and Europe.
This institution should have an advisory board from
external institutions that have minimal political or
economic stakes to help steer it in the initial stages.
If this institution is an atmospheric science department or program, it could help itself by finding a
sister institution (e.g., Howard University or Hampton University) or a set of sister institutions. The
sister institution(s) could help to develop the curriculum, participate in sponsoring workshops,
promote student and faculty exchange programs,
undertake collaborative research, and seed funding
for joint institutional research efforts. The ultimate
goal of this center would be to become self-sustaining
through research projects with international collaboration and support from institutions in West
Africa (government and private sectors) while also
providing graduate school opportunities for future
generations of West Africa citizens in the atmospheric sciences.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This research was supported
by the International Division at the National Science Foundation under Grant INT-9987639.
REFERENCES
Burpee, R. W., 1972: The origin and structure of easterly waves in the lower troposphere of North Africa.
J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 77–90.
Charney, J. G., 1975: Dynamics of deserts and drought
in the Sahel. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 101, 193–202.
Cook, K. H., 1999: Generation of the African easterly jet
and its role in determining West African precipitation. J. Climate, 12, 1165–1184.
D’Amato, N., and T. Lebel, 1998: On the characteristics
of the rainfall events in the Sahel with a view to the
analysis of climatic variability. Int. J. Climatol., 18,
955–974.
Diedhiou, A., S. Janicot, A. Viltard, P. de Felice, and H.
Laurent, 1999: Easterly wave regimes and associated
594 |
APRIL 2002
convection over West Africa and tropical Atlantic:
Results from the NCEP/NCAR and ECMWF reanalyses. Climate Dyn., 15, 795–822.
Druyan, L. M., 1998: The role of synoptic systems in the
interannual variability of Sahel rainfall. Meteor.
Atmos. Phys., 65, 55–75.
——, and M. B. Fulakeza, 2000: Regional model simulations of African wave disturbances. J. Geophys. Res.,
105, 7231–7255.
——, P. Lonergan, and T. Eichler, 1999: A GCM investigation of global warming impacts relevant to tropical cyclone genesis. Int. J. Climatol., 19, 607–617.
Fortune, M., 1980: Properties of African squall lines inferred from time-lapse satellite imagery. Mon. Wea.
Rev., 108, 153–167.
Fyfe, J. C., 1999: Climate simulations of African easterly
waves. J. Climate, 12, 1747–1769.
Hodges, K. I., and C. D. Thorncroft, 1997: Distribution
and statistics of African mesoscale convective
weather systems based on the ISCCP Meteosat imagery. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 2821–2837.
Jenkins, G. S., 1997: The 1988 and 1990 summer season
simulations for West Africa using a regional climate
model. J. Climate, 10, 1255–1272.
——, and E. J. Barron, 2000: Regional climate simulations over the continental United States during the
summer of 1988 driven by a GCM and the ECMWF
analyses. Global Planet. Change, 25, 19–38.
——, and A. Diongue, 2000: Workshop discusses problems of Africans publishing research. Eos, 81, 578, 581.
——, G. Adamou, and S. Fongang, 2001: The challenges
of modeling climate variability and change in West
Africa. Climatic Change, 52, 263–286.
Jonquieres, I., A. Marence, A. Maahes, and F. Rohrer,
1998: Study of ozone formation and trans atlantic
transport from biomass burning emissions over
West Africa during the airborne tropospheric ozone
campaigns TROPOZI and TROPOZII. J. Geophys.
Res., 103, 19 059–19 073.
Laing, A. G., and M. J. Fritsch, 1993: Mesoscale convective complexes in Africa. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 2254–
2255.
Lamb, P. J., 1978: Large-scale tropical Atlantic surface
circulation patterns associated with sub-Saharan
weather anomalies. Tellus, 30A, 240–251.
——, and R. A. Peppler, 1992: Further case studies of
tropical Atlantic Surface atmospheric and oceanic
patterns associated with sub-Saharan drought. J. Climate, 5, 476–488.
Logan, J. A., 1999: An analysis of ozonesonde data for the
troposphere: Recommendations for testing 3-D models and development of a gridded climatology for tropospheric ozone. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 16 115–16 149.
Marufu, L., F. Dentener, J. Lelieveld, M. O. Andrea, and
G. Helas, 2000. Photochemistry of the African troposphere: Influence of biomass-burning emissions.
J. Geophys. Res., 105, 14 513–14 530.
Newell, R. E., and J. W. Kidson, 1984: African mean
wind changes between Sahelian wet and dry periods.
J. Climatol., 4, 27–33.
Nicholson, S. E., B. Some, and B. Kone, 2000: An analysis of recent rainfall conditions in West Africa,
including the rainy seasons of the 1997 El Niño and
the 1998 La Niña years. J. Climate, 13, 2628–2640.
Norquist, D. C., E. E. Recker, and R. J. Reed, 1977: The
energetics of African wave disturbances as observed
during phase III of GATE. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 334–
342.
Palmer, T. N., 1986: The influence of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans on Sahel rainfall. Nature,
322, 251–253.
Rowell, D., and J. Milford, 1993: On the generation of
African squall lines. J. Climate, 6, 1181–1193.
——, C. K. Folland, K. Maskell, and M. N. Ward, 1995:
Variability of summer rainfall over tropical North
Africa (1906–92): Observations and modeling.
Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 121, 669–704.
Thompson, A. M., and Coauthors, 2000: A tropical Atlantic paradox: Shipboard and satellite views of a tropospheric ozone maximum and wave-one in January–
February 1999. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3317–3320.
Wang, G., and E. A. B. Eltahir, 2000: Ecosystem dynamics and the Sahel drought. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27,
795–798.
Xue, Y., and J. Shukla, 1993: The influence of land surface properties on Sahel climate. Part I: Desertification. J. Climate, 6, 2232–2245.
——, and ——, 1996: The influence of land surface properties on Sahel climate. Part II: Afforestation. J. Climate, 9, 3260–3275.
Zheng, X., and E. A. B. Eltahir, 1998: The role of vegetation in the dynamics of West African monsoons. J.
Climate, 11, 2078–2096.
The Father James B. Macelwane Annual Award
AMS UNDERGRADUATE AWARD
The Father James B. Macelwane Annual Award was established by the American Meteorological Society
to honor the late Rev. James B. Macelwane, S.J., a world-renowned authority of seismology, who was a
geophysicist and Dean of the Institute of Technology, Saint Louis University, until his death in 1956. The recipient
of the Father James B. Macelwane award will receive a stipend of $300.
The purpose of this award is to stimulate interest in meteorology among college students through the
encouragement of original student papers concerned with some phase of the atmospheric sciences. The student
must be enrolled as an undergraduate at the time the paper is written, and no more than two students from any
one institution may enter papers in any one contest.
Submission of Papers:
To consider papers for the Macelwane Award, the AMS Committee of Judges must receive the following:
1) an original plus four copies of the paper; 2) a letter of application from the author, including contact
information, stating the title of the paper and the name of the university at which the paper was written; 3) a
letter from the department head or other faculty member of the major department, confirming that the author
was an undergraduate student at the time the paper was written, and indicating the elements of the paper that
represent original contributions by the student.
The above information must be received at the American Meteorological Society, Attn: Donna Fernandez,
45 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02108-3693 by 14 June 2002. The evaluation of the papers occurs during the
summer. Announcement of the award recipient is made in October of 2002.
AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY
APRIL 2002
| 595