The Incas
Document 1
The Inca first appeared in what is today southeastern Peru during the 12th century CE, but they did not
truly become an expansive power until the emperor Viracocha took control in the early 15th century.
Supported by two very capable uncles, Viracocha defeated the Ayarmaca kingdom to the south and took
over the Urubamba Valley. In 1438, Viracocha’s son Yupanqui took control, eventually becoming one of the
Inca’s most influential rulers. His military campaigns extended the kingdom hundreds of miles south and
north.
The expanding reach of the Inca state prompted new logistical considerations. Yupanqui is believed to
have been the first Inca emperor to order forced resettlement to prevent the possibility of an uprising from
one ethnic group. In addition, he established a practice in which rulers were prevented from inheriting the
possessions of the previous king, thereby ensuring that successive leaders would continue to conquer new
lands and accumulate new wealth.
Although the Incan empire was comprised of more than 100 distinct ethnic groups among its 12 million
inhabitants, a well-developed societal structure kept the empire running smoothly. There was no written
language, but knotted cords known as quipu were used to keep track of historical and accounting records.
Most subjects were self-sufficient farmers who tended to corn, potatoes, squash, llamas, alpacas and dogs,
and paid taxes through public labor. A system of roadways adding up to approximately 15,000 miles
crisscrossed the kingdom, with relay runners capable of advancing messages at the rate of 150 miles per
day.
Upon ascending to the throne in 1471, Topa Inca Yupanqui pushed the southern border of the empire to
the Maule River in modern-day Chile, and instituted a tribute system in which each province provided
women to serve as temple maidens or brides for celebrated soldiers. His successor, Huayna Capac,
embarked on successful northern campaigns that carried to the Ancasmayo River, the current boundary
between Ecuador and Colombia.
Article from history.com, titled “Inca.” No author listed
Document 2
A gold-sheet mask
representing the sun
god Inti from the La Tolita
part of the Inca empire.
The design is typical of
masks of Inti with zig-zag
rays bursting from the head
and ending in human faces
or figures.
(National Museum, Quito,
Ecuador).
Document 3
Inca roads covered over 40,000 km (25,000 miles), principally in two main
highways running north to south across the Inca Empire, which eventually spread over
ancient Peru, Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. Roads were also built which went
beyond Inca-controlled settlements and led to outside territory, perhaps to facilitate
trade with, or military operations against, neighboring peoples. Inca engineers were
also undaunted by geographical difficulties and built roads across ravines, rivers,
deserts, and high-altitude mountain passes.
Generally, Inca roads are very often more elaborate and well-constructed than was
actually necessary. This attention to detail was almost certainly in order to impress
travelers and conquered peoples of the superiority of Inca culture as felt by the lords
of Cuzco.
The extensive reach of the road network allowed the Incas to better move armies
across their territories in order to further expand the empire or maintain order within
it. Trade goods and tribute from conquered peoples - both goods and people - could
also be easily transported to and from the major Inca centers, typically using llama
caravans and porters (there were no wheeled vehicles). Inca administrative officials
also travelled along the roads in order to dispense justice or maintain records such as
local agricultural production, tribute quotas, and censuses. Ordinary people were not
permitted to use the roads for private purposes unless they had official permission.
They also sometimes had to pay tolls for the privilege, especially at bridges.
Another interesting feature of Inca roads was the use of runners. Moving as fast as
they could, they operated in relays, passing information to a fresh runner stationed
every six to nine kilometers. However, it was not only messages that were carried
between population centers but also such perishable items as fresh fish and seafood
for the tables of Inca nobles. With this system, information (and fish) could travel up
to 240 km in a single day.
Excerpt from an article titled “The Inca Road System” by Mark Cartwright, published on September 8, 2014 on the Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Document 4
Inca society was highly stratified. The emperor ruled with the aid of an aristocratic bureaucracy,
exercising authority with harsh and often repressive controls. Inca technology and architecture
were highly developed, although not strikingly original. Their irrigation systems, palaces,
temples, and fortifications can still be seen throughout the Andes. The economy was based
on agriculture, its staples being corn (maize), white and sweet potatoes, squash, tomatoes,
peanuts, chili peppers, coca, cassava, and cotton. They raised guinea pigs, ducks, llamas, alpacas,
and dogs. Clothing was made of llama wool and cotton. Houses were of stone or adobe mud.
Practically every man was a farmer, producing his own food and clothing.
Article excerpt from “Inca” on the Encyclopedia Britannica, published April 6, 2015. Written by the editors of the Encyclopedia
Document 5
Document 6
Native American art: Inca alpaca
figurine
Inca silver figurine of an
alpaca, c. ad 1200–1400; in the
American Museum of Natural
History, New York City.