Q IWA Publishing 2008 Water Science & Technology—WST | 58.1 | 2008
153
Towards indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
W. H. Traves, E. A. Gardner, B. Dennien and D. Spiller
ABSTRACT
Faced with limited water supply options in the longer term and the worst drought on record in
the short term, the Queensland Government is constructing the Western Corridor Recycled Water
Project which will supply up to 182 ML/day of purified recycled water for industrial and potable
purposes. The project is one of a suite of capital works projects in progress which in the longer
term will supply up to 10% of the region’s potable water supply.
Key words
W. H. Traves
GHD Pty Ltd,
201 Charlotte Street,
Brisbane, Qld,
Australia
E-mail: [email protected]
E. A. Gardner
Queensland Department of Natural Resources &
Water,
80 Meiers Road,
Indooroopilly, Qld,
Australia
E-mail: [email protected]
| advanced water treatment, indirect potable reuse, water recycling
B. Dennien
D. Spiller
Queensland Water Commission,
80 George Street, Brisbane, Qld,
Australia
INTRODUCTION
South East Queensland (SEQ), Australia, is experiencing
in
significant population growth, with a projected increase
factors leading to the decision to implement potable reuse
of 1.2 million residents to a total of 4.0 million by 2026
and the risk management frameworks that are being
(PIFU 2007). Combined with industry growth, this is leading
developed.
October
2008.
It
includes
discussion
of
the
to significant increases in demand for water.
Assessments of yield from existing major sources are
also declining as service standards are reconsidered and the
impacts of the current drought and potential for long-term
climate change are taken into account. As a result, there is a
shortfall in overall supply availability in the next ten years as
REGIONAL WATER SUPPLY ISSUES
Supply– demand balance
well as a more acute short-term requirement to address
The SEQ Water Supply Strategy Stage 1 Report (Depart-
security of supply in current drought conditions—the worst
ment of Natural Resources and Mines 2004) indicated that
in over 100 years of records.
there was sufficient supply available to meet projected
The Queensland Government has responded with a major
capital works program to secure the future water supply for the
demand for water until 2025. It was not known that SEQ
had, by then, started its worst drought on record.
region. This includes the 125 ML/day Tugun Desalination
Three years later, the region is facing severe drought
Plant on the Gold Coast and the 232 ML/day Western Corridor
conditions and many capital works projects are being fast-
Recycled Water Project (WCRWP). Part of the strategy is to
tracked to augment supply. Concurrently, demand has been
augment surface water supplies in the major storage, Wivenhoe
significantly reduced. Provided that demand continues to be
Dam, with purified recycled water from the WCRWP.
managed effectively and the capital works projects are
This paper considers the implementation of potable
reuse from the WCRWP which is planned to commence
doi: 10.2166/wst.2008.635
delivered on time, projections indicate that a shortfall of
supply can be avoided.
154
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W. H. Traves et al. | Indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
Demand management
during the current drought. The Tugun Desalination Plant is
As a short-term drought response, the Queensland Water
Commission has established a demand management program incorporating restrictions and efficiency measures
also under construction on the Gold Coast, to provide an
additional 125 ML/day by December 2008. Further desalination plants are under consideration.
(Queensland Water Commission 2007). “Level 1” water
restrictions started in May 2005 and progressively increased
to “Level 6” by November 2007. Residential demand has
been successfully reduced from around 300 L/person/day
to around 120 L/person/day.
Demand management measures have included use restrictions, a residential water efficiency program (including rebates
for replacement of shower heads, water-efficient washing
machines and rainwater tank systems), and a program
targeting larger commercial water users. Depending on
usage, businesses and other users such as sporting organisations have been required to develop and implement Water
Efficiency Management Plans (WEMPs). This has been carried
Role of recycled water
Part of the suite of augmentation projects is the Western
Corridor Recycled Water Project. The initial stages of the
project are directed at reducing use of raw (dam) water by
power stations, while providing security of supply for
electricity generation. As at September 2007, 15 ML/day
of recycled water is being supplied to the Swanbank Power
Station, and water will be supplied to the Tarong Power
Station by June 2008. The remaining water will be used for
augmentation of surface water supplies in Wivenhoe Dam
and possibly for agricultural use.
out against a background of intensive advertising, culminating
in the very successful “Target 140” campaign to reduce
residential use to less than 140 L/person/day on average.
WESTERN CORRIDOR RECYCLED WATER PROJECT
Overview
The US$2.0 billion Western Corridor Recycled Water Project
Yield assessments
The critical period identified in previous assessments of
historical no-failure yield was the drought between 1899 and
1902. The drought experienced over the last few years,
however, has been worse from a hydrological perspective,
and this has led to a reassessment of water availability from all
of the dams in South East Queensland. Climate change and a
revised “level of service” have also been taken into account,
resulting in a decrease in water available from the five major
storages
from
542 GL/year
(Department
of
Natural
Resources and Mines 2004) to 359 GL/year (Queensland
Water Commission 2008)—a reduction of some 34%.
(WCRWP) is currently under construction, as shown in
Figure 1. Treated effluent will be collected from wastewater
treatment plants and further treated at three advanced water
treatment (AWT) plants incorporating micro-filtration,
reverse osmosis, advanced oxidation and residual disinfection. The initial treatment capacity will be 232 ML/day.
The project also includes approximately 190 km of largediameter pipelines and various pump stations.
In February 2007, the Queensland Government committed to an indirect potable reuse (IPR) scheme using the
purified recycled water produced by the AWT plants. Up to
that time, the project had been progressing on the basis that
it should neither include nor preclude the use of the water
Source augmentation
for IPR. The February 2007 decision committed to IPR
supply by December 2008.
Additional dams are currently planned in the northern and
southern parts of the region. The Traveston and Wyaralong
Dams are proposed to provide an additional 250 ML/day
Project description
of water for the region (Queensland Water Infrastructure
Treated wastewater is collected from six wastewater treat-
2007a,b). While these will contribute to long-term supply,
ment plants operated by two local governments, Brisbane
they will take too long to develop and fill to have any impact
City Council and Ipswich City Council. In total, the
Water Science & Technology—WST | 58.1 | 2008
W. H. Traves et al. | Indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
155
|
Figure 1
Map showing extent of western corridor recycled water project.
wastewater treatment plants service a population of around
History of project development
one million people with an average dry weather flow
(ADWF) of 292 ML/day. The three AWT plants have been
A large-scale reuse scheme has been under investigation since
located adjacent to the major wastewater treatment plants
1998. Prior to 2005, proposals were predicated on the use of
at Bundamba, Gibson Island and Luggage Point. Table 1
recycled water for irrigation and possibly cooling purposes,
shows the flows available from the six wastewater treatment
but not for potable application. None of the previous
plants and the sizing of the AWT plants.
proposals has been workable from an economic perspective,
Table 1
|
Wastewater and advanced water treatment plants
AWT pand capacity by stage
Average dry
Available
Stage 1A capacity
Stage 1B capacity
Stage 2A capacity
Stage 2B capacity
Site
weather flow (ML/d)
effluent (ML/d)
(ML/d) August 2007
(ML/d) June 2008
(ML/d) October 2008
(ML/d) December 2008
Luggage Point
150
128
Gibson Island
45
41
Bundamba
16
16
Oxley
65
65
Wacol
7
7
Goodna
9
9
292
266
66
20
46
20
46
50
50
116
50
156
W. H. Traves et al. | Indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
because full capital and operating costs were expected to be
recovered directly from end users in water charges. Several
studies showed that these proposals were not financially
viable even if only the operating costs were considered. It was
Water Science & Technology—WST | 58.1 | 2008
† Water quality in the Brisbane River and Moreton Bay
should be improved if possible.
† The treatment process is to be considered as part of the
overall management of the water cycle.
only when the region’s broader water resource requirements
were highlighted by the unprecedented drought that the
project not only became viable, but a necessary part of the
region’s future water resource portfolio.
Wastewater treatment
The first step in the process of water recycling is the waste
Accordingly, the project in its current form commenced
water treatment plant (WWTP) that reduces the suspended
in late 2005. A concept report and preliminary business
solids, organic content and nutrients present in the
case were completed in March 2006, and a concept
wastewater. Currently, effluent is discharged from these
for implementation was approved for commencement
plants after treatment to a standard suitable for release to
in July 2006. Procurement, detailed design and delivery
local waterways and Moreton Bay.
commenced in August 2006, and the project is on track
to be completed by the end of 2008.
The WWTPs generally deliver water of a secondary
standard. All of the plants include biological nutrient
removal and achieve typical total nitrogen levels of
Water treatment strategy
5 mg/L or lower. Phosphorus removal varies between the
plants, with total phosphorus averaging around 3 mg/L.
The water treatment strategy is shown in Figure 2. Key
Salinity (TDS) is generally of the order of 500 mg/L but is
constraints that have been taken into account in the
significantly higher at Luggage Point (typically more than
development of the strategy include:
1,000 mg/L and up to 2,000 mg/L) because of tidal ingress
† Treatment must deliver water that is suitable for indirect
that is apparent within the catchment.
† As far as possible, salts should be removed and managed
standard. All of the plants include biological nutrient
potable reuse.
at their source.
Figure 2
|
Overall treatment process.
The WWTPs generally deliver water of a high secondary
removal and achieve typical total nitrogen levels of
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W. H. Traves et al. | Indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
5 mg/L or lower. Phosphorus removal varies between the
MF membrane filtration has become the accepted cost-
plants, with total phosphorus averaging around 3 mg/L.
effective pre-treatment technology for RO on water recla-
Salinity (TDS) is generally of the order of 500 mg/L but is
mation plants. In addition, the MF provides a microbial
significantly higher at Luggage Point (typically more than
barrier. Based on testing conducted for the US EPA and
1,000 mg/L and up to 2,000 mg/L) because of tidal ingress
California Department of Health Services, MF has been
that is apparent within the catchment.
shown to provide at least 4-log (99.99%) removal of
Extensive testing carried out at WWTPs in Queensland
protozoan Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts.
has shown that this treatment step also achieves significant
Therefore, the MF provides microbial removal as well as
removal of many of the synthetic chemicals present in our
pre-treatment for the RO.
wastewater, such as oestrogens and pharmaceuticals. There
The next separation process is the RO membrane which
is substantial on-going work on the characterisation of the
removes dissolved solutes including nutrients, inorganic
effluent, particularly in respect of chemicals of concern such
salts, organic molecules as well as viruses. The nominal pore
as pesticides, herbicides, endocrine disrupting compounds
size (0.0001 – 0.001 mm range) is one to two orders of
(EDCs), volatile organic carbons (VOCs), N-Nitrosodi-
magnitude smaller than virus particles. Removal of organic
methylamine (NDMA) and radionuclides that are not
molecules is considered to be of the utmost importance as it
typically tested for environmental release. This work
is not feasible to measure or identify all the organic
is necessary in respect of the overall risk management
chemicals that can pass through a WWTP. Hence the
framework, to understand the high-risk components that
conservative approach is to drastically reduce the concen-
require ongoing monitoring.
tration of these chemicals as measured by the total organic
All of the WWTPs connected to the WCRWP use an
activated sludge biological nutrient removal (BNR) process,
carbon (TOC) concentration in the AWTP product water, to
values less than 100 mg/L TOC.
with a sludge age of up to 20 days required for biological
Experimental observations at commercial scale oper-
nitrogen and phosphorus removal. The relatively long
ations (. 10 ML/d) using RO membranes report removal of
sludge age in South East Queensland WWTPs results in
pharmaceuticals (Drewes et al. 2005) and volatile organic
the increased diversity of the activated sludge microflora,
compounds, nonvolatile organic compounds and disinfec-
increasing the efficiency of micropollutant removal by
tion by-products (Daugherty et al. 2005) to non detect levels
biodegradation and hydrolysis of complex molecular
(0.1– 2.0 mg/L) giving confidence that the separation pro-
bonds, and the adsorption of hydrophobic chemicals onto
cess is very effective in removing organic and inorganic
the activated sludge. Consequently, many of the synthetic
compounds. As viruses are one to two orders of magnitude
organic chemicals and heavy metals that are of concern in
larger than aqueous salt molecules, they too are very well
PRW are effectively removed in the wastewater treatment
rejected by RO membranes.
process (Gardner et al. 2007).
Confidence in the mechanical integrity of the membranes is of the utmost importance and real time testing
Membrane filtration
with direct (e.g. pressure decay) and indirect (e.g. turbidity
and particle counts) tests will be implemented. In both
The core of the treatment process includes microfiltration
examples the real time test parameter will be converted
(MF) and reverse osmosis (RO). The choice of RO is based
into a critical control point to prevent “out of specifica-
on achieving the organic chemical and TDS targets of the
tion” water from moving further down the treatment
product water. Many of the treatment steps upstream were
processing train.
selected to support the RO process. To prevent excessive
RO fouling and related high costs due to frequent cleaning
and short membrane life, the feed water must be pre-treated
Advanced oxidation
to a high quality (e.g. turbidity , 0.1 nephelometric turbidity
In addition to TDS removal, MF and RO provide removal of
units (NTU) and Silt Density Index (SDI) , 3 SDI units).
many other constituents; however, there is limited rejection
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W. H. Traves et al. | Indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
of some low molecular weight organic chemicals such as
NDMA. To provide surety of removal, the proposed treat-
REVERSE OSMOSIS CONCENTRATE MANAGEMENT
ment approach includes advanced oxidation with ultraviolet
The introduction of the AWT plants provides an opportunity
light combined with hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2) to form
to reduce nutrient loads to the Brisbane River and Moreton
hydroxyl free radicals which are a very strong non-selective
Bay. Phosphorus removal is being achieved through
oxidant. Advanced oxidation is proven to be very effective
chemical precipitation, using ferric chloride dosing at the
at removing EDCs and NDMA. Advanced oxidation also
AWT plant. The Luggage Point and Bundamba AWT plants
provides a multiple barrier approach for inactivation
are using lamellar plate separators, while the Gibson Island
of microbes (protozoa, bacteria and viruses). Perozone
AWTP is using an ActifloY system. It is currently projected
(ozone/peroxide) was an alternative advanced oxidation
that up to 90% of the phosphorus from the various WWTPs
process, but UV/H2O2 was selected since it is less likely to
will be removed from the waste stream, reducing the
form disinfection by-products, is less costly and is proven
phosphorus load into Moreton Bay by a similar amount.
to remove NDMA.
Nitrogen removal strategies are still under consider-
There is some argument that the advanced oxidation step
ation. Originally, the intention was to provide denitrifying
is unnecessary, even for indirect potable reuse applications.
filters on the reverse osmosis concentrate (ROC), but there
To some extent, the inclusion of advanced oxidation is the
are concerns about the operability and stability of filter
best available technology and meets a more practical need to
operation in an environment with relatively high salinity
develop further confidence by the end users.
(TDS up to 8,000 mg/L in the ROC at Luggage Point).
As with MF and RO, real time monitoring configured
Alternatives, including ion exchange, denitrification as pre-
as critical control points is an important part of the
treatment and the use of wetlands, remain under
operation of the advanced oxidation process. This will be
consideration.
achieved by measuring the UV intensity, the UV transmissivity and peroxide concentration (approximately 5 mg/L)
of the water.
Potable reuse framework
The use of treated wastewater effluent, even using RO
treatment, to supply industrial reuse is not unique in
Stabilisation and disinfection
Australia. However, the planned use of recycled wastewater
Due to pH adjustment and TDS removal, the RO product
the world and unprecedented in Australia. Consequently,
water will be very aggressive. Post stabilisation will be
Queensland is a pathfinder in this area in the Australian
provided as lime dosing following by carbon dioxide
context and has leaned heavily on overseas precedent and
injection to control pH. This is followed by chlorination
experience to inform the various government agencies on
to manage any residual ammonia and reduce biological
the relevant design, operation and regulatory processes.
growth in the pipelines.
There is a general agreement that purified recycled water
to augment potable water supplies is relatively unusual in
It may have been preferable not to stabilise the product
requires a multi-barrier philosophy and a seven-barrier
water for cooling at power stations A lower TDS would
approach has been adopted. The concept of the multi
potentially reduce water consumption by increasing the
barrier approach is shown in Figure 3.
number of cycles through the cooling water circuit before
Taken overall, the MF/RO/AOP treatment train of the
the environmental release limit for salts is reached.
AWT plants in the WCRWP is confidently expected to
Stabilisation is required, however, to protect the project’s
consistently and reliably produce pathogen, organic and
infrastructure (concrete tanks, cement lined pipes, etc.) and
(essentially) salt free water which is suitable for drinking
to maximise the flexibility of the system to deliver purified
without further treatment. The technology has been well
recycled water to other users. Chlorine levels will also need
tested in Orange County, Scottsdale and Singapore (see, for
to be managed for end users.
example, Gardner et al. 2007).
159
Figure 3
W. H. Traves et al. | Indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
|
Water Science & Technology—WST | 58.1 | 2008
Schematic of multi-barrier approach (Queensland Water Commission).
As part of the overall risk framework, however,
Trade waste controls are already implemented by the
additional consideration is required of source control, the
Brisbane and Ipswich City Councils to minimise disposal
environmental barrier and water treatment.
of synthetic organic chemicals, heavy metals, salts and
excessive organic material that can affect the functioning of
Source control
In most planned IPR schemes, considerable effort has been
the WWTPs, but may need to be upgraded for the WCRWP
based on detailed measurement of sewer composition and
associated risk assessment (QNRM&E & EPA 2004).
invested to separate domestic sewage from industrial
Pharmaceutical waste from hospitals is of concern to the
sewage—examples range from Windhoek in southern Africa
general public, particularly the potential disposal of cytotoxic
to Montebello in Los Angeles (Gardner et al. 2007). In
and radioactive drugs into the sewer system. Current
contrast, the existing WWTPs in the Brisbane and Ipswich
regulations prohibit the disposal of pharmaceuticals and
areas that will supply water to the WCRWP receive effluent
cancer treatment drugs into the sewer system but a significant
from both domestic and a wide range of industrial sources.
export pathway is non-metabolised drugs in the patient’s
An extensive range of organic and inorganic contaminants
urine. It can be expected that these chemicals will exist in
can therefore be expected to be received at the WWTPs.
sewage influent entering the WWTPs (Carballa et al. 2004).
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W. H. Traves et al. | Indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
Environmental barrier
The buffering storage is another important component of
the multi barrier philosophy in IPR schemes (Figure 3). The
buffer provides dilution and travel time and allows further
natural treatment of the purified recycled water (PRW).
A review of overseas PRW schemes (Gardner et al. 2007)
identified only Windhoek in Namibia where PRW is directly
A limnological study has been commissioned to assess
the nutrient assimilative capacity of Lake Wivenhoe, and
this is expected to continue for 5 years after purified
recycled water is introduced into the lake. This information
will then inform the scheme operators and regulators if
additional treatment is warranted to manage the (then)
quantified risk of algal outbreaks.
connected into the potable water supply. Other schemes
either inject into or recharge an aquifer system, pump into a
reservoir, or discharge into a river system. In California,
the minimum required transit time in the aquifer before reuse
is six months (DHS 2004) with monitoring wells to track
water quality between the injection well and the potable
extraction well. In the Upper Occoquan (near Washington
DC) the recycled water is discharged into a long (32 km)
narrow reservoir and contributes about 10% of the total
Water treatment plant
The Mt Crosby water treatment plant produces the majority of
the potable water consumed in SEQ. The treatment process at
Mt Crosby is quite conventional in its use of flocculation/
sedimentation, granular media filtration and chlorine disinfection to produce potable water. Removing suspended
sediments, and therefore any attached pathogens and chemicals, is a primary treatment goal. However this treatment will
flow entering the reservoir but over 30% of the safe yield
not remove dissolved contaminants including iron, manga-
extracted from reservoir for potable use. In comparison, there
nese and synthetic organic chemicals (Gardner et al. 2007).
is a 40 km reach of the Brisbane River between the Wivenhoe
A small proportion of the water from Lake Wivenhoe
Dam release point and the intake at Mt Crosby Water
is treated and used much closer to the dam to supply the
Treatment Plant which is sunlit and well mixed, and
small rural towns of Esk, Lowood, Gatton and Laidley.
unpublished data (SEQ Water) has reported a substantial
These smaller supplies are likely to involve a higher risk
improvement in nutrient concentrations and turbidity.
because of proximity to the dam and the scale of operations.
The key to managing an environmental buffer is
Consideration will be given to the overall treatment
quantitative information on the travel time from the point
strategies at these sites through a detailed risk analysis.
of release into the reservoir to the point of extraction, and
Upgrades to these plants may be required, perhaps using an
the amount of dilution of PRW with catchment runoff water
ozone/BAC process.
in the reservoir. Preliminary studies suggest a detention
period of more than 6 months in Lake Wivenhoe, although
this is the subject of current limnological and hydrodynamic
Risk management framework
study. However, if one accepts the simplistic assumption of
A “whole of cycle” risk management approach is being adopted
perfect mixing, the contributions from PRW could vary
for water quality management. Not surprisingly, this is focussed
from 10% during normal supply conditions to around 37%
on water quality “at the tap” and requires consideration of the
when the storage is around 10% capacity.
whole cycle, as shown in Figure 3. One of the complications is
Buffering storage also provides assimilative capacity for
that there are multiple entities currently involved in the whole
extra nutrients imported in the PRW. Target nutrient
cycle. A framework has been established between the various
contents are 0.8 mg/L for total nitrogen and 0.1 mg/L for
entities, although this is complicated by a major restructure
total phosphorus with provision for reductions in mem-
of the water industry that is currently in progress.
brane performance. There is some concern that the bio-
The regulatory framework under which the WCWRP
available phosphorus concentration may contribute to an
will operate is being developed by the Queensland
algal outbreak in Wivenhoe Dam, which would be of
Government and will integrate with the new national
particular concern if blue-green species (cyanobacteria)
recycled water guidelines (NRMMC et al. 2007) which
dominated.
were released in draft form for public comment in July
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Water Science & Technology—WST | 58.1 | 2008
W. H. Traves et al. | Indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland
2007. The framework requires the operator to develop a
potable reuse in South East Queensland. A risk management
Recycled Water Management Plan that will include an audit
framework is being implemented to comply with evolving
of the activities that occur in each wastewater catchment
national guidelines and a new State-based regulatory regime.
(i.e. trade waste control), a comprehensive audit of influent
composition and source control, and an evaluation of the
capacity of the wastewater treatment process to reduce the
concentration of chemicals of concern. These data will then
be complemented by water quality monitoring. Real time
monitoring data will be required to ensure the continuous
operation of the various treatment processes and their
commissioning as critical control points to ensure that “out
of specification” water is not released to the next treatment
step (in keeping with the HACCP philosophy).
An independent Expert Advisory Panel incorporating
international expertise has been formed by the Queensland
Water Commission to review water quality standards, the
regulatory guidelines, the validation protocols for the AWT
plants, the operating procedures for the AWT plants and
water quality results as the AWT plants come on line.
CONCLUSIONS
Indirect potable reuse of purified recycled water has been
adopted as part of the long-term water supply strategy for
South East Queensland. Early availability of this supply
has become critical due to the current drought, and the
Western Corridor Recycled Water Project is being delivered
on a fast-track basis as part of a suite of supply and demandside measures to ensure ongoing supply of water to the region.
The first supply of water was achieved in August 2007,
with indirect potable reuse scheduled to commence in
October 2008.
In the first instance, recycled water is being directed to
major industrial consumers of water—power stations—to
release existing raw water supplies for urban consumption.
The balance of available water will be released into
Wivenhoe Dam to augment surface water supplies. It is
anticipated that the region’s water supply, on average, will
include approximately 10% recycled water.
A treatment process including microfiltration, reverse
osmosis and advanced oxidation has been selected as the core
of a seven-barrier whole-of-cycle approach for indirect
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