Evidence of women's empowerment in India: a study of socio-spatial disparities
Author(s): Kamla Gupta and P. Princy Yesudian
Source: GeoJournal, Vol. 65, No. 4, Placing Gender/Making Policy (2006), pp. 365-380
Published by: Springer
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GeoJournal(2006) 65: 365-380
DOI: 10.1007/S10708-006-7556-Z
© Springer2006
Evidenceof women'sempowerment
in India: a studyof socio-spatialdisparities
Kamla Gupta1'*& P. PrincyYesudian2
Institute
Department
of Migrationand UrbanStudiesand NationalFamilyHealthSurvey,International
for PopulationSciences(UPS), Deonar,Mumbai,400 088, Maharashtra,India; 2NationalFamilyHealthSurvey(NFHS-2),
*
International
Institute
for PopulationSciences(UPS), Deonar,Mumbai,400 088, Maharashtra,India; Author
for
Fax: 0091-22-25563257;E-mail:[email protected])
(Tel.; 0091-22-25563254-56;
correspondence
Key words:woman,status,empowerment,
autonomy,ideologyand mobility
Abstract
to emVariousnationaland international
communities
have addressedwomen'sissuesand takenvariousefforts
activities.
The Indian
powerthemso as to enhancetheirsocial and healthstatusand involvethemin developmental
to studywomen'sempowerment
DHS survey(NationalFamilyHealthSurvey,1998-1999)providesan opportunity
on severaldimensionsof women'sempowerment
from90,303 everin India. The surveycollectedinformation
marriedwomen(ages 15-49), fromall the statesof India. Utilizingthesedata sets, fourindices- household
autonomyindex,mobilityindex,attitudetowardsgenderindexand attitudetowardsdomesticviolenceindex- are
constructedto measurethe different
dimensionsof empowerment.
Using these indices,the spatial and sociosome
economicand culturaldisparitiesthatexistwithinIndia are analyzed.Finally,an attemptis made to identify
determinants
forwomen'sempowerment
analysis.The resultsshowthat
important
usingmultiplelogisticregression
at thenationallevel,43% of thewomenhave highhouseholdautonomy;23% of thewomenhave highfreedomto
moveoutsidetheirhome;40% of thewomenhave no genderpreference
attitude;and only43% of thewomendefy
across the
domesticviolence.But thereare significant
divergencesin these indicesof women's empowerment
different
statesand socio-economicand culturalsettingswithinIndia. Women'seducationallevelsemergedas an
mediaexposureand age
predictorforall thefourdimensionsof women'sempowerment.
Additionally,
important
have emergedas theimportantpredictorsforsome dimensionsof woman'sempowerment.
Women'sempowerment
and development
In recentyears,therehas beena growingrealizationthat
developmentgoals cannot be realized unless gender
inequalitiesare removedand womenare empoweredto
choose and decideabout theirown welfare,thewelfare
oftheirfamilies,
and thecommunities
in whichtheylive.
The importanceof women's empowermenton the
international
developmentagenda is amplyclear from
the policystatements
made at such highlevel international conferences
as BeijingPlatformforAction,the
Beijing+ 5 Declarationand Resolution,the Cairo Programmeof Action,theMillenniumDeclarationand the
Conventionon the Eliminationof All Forms of Discriminationagainst Women. All these forumshave
identifiedgender equality both as a development
objectivein itself,as wellas a meansto promotegrowth,
reduce poverty, and promote better governance.
Women'sempowerment
is essentialforensuringnotjust
theirpersonalor householdwelfare,but also the wellThis paper was presentedby Prof.Kamla Gupta at the InternationalGeographicalUnion Conference(IGU), held in Canada, 2002.
beingof theentiresocietyas womenare seen to be the
primaryguardiansresponsiblefor alteringthe quality
and quantityof humanresourcesavailablein a country
to promote sustainable developmentin the coming
generations(UNFPA, 2005). In 2000, at the United
NationsMillenniumDeclarationGeneralAssembly,the
UN identifiedeight,MillenniumDevelopmentGoals
(MDG) to be achievedbyyear2015. Promotinggender
equality,one of the eight MDG goals, is the key to
achievingtheothersevengoals (UNFPA, 2005).
of womenis a necessityforthe very
Empowerment
developmentof a society,since it enhancesboth the
qualityand the quantityof humanresourcesavailable
for development.There are several vital reasons for
evaluating,promotingand monitoringthe level of
women'sempowerment.
Enhancingwomen'sstatusand
theirempowerment
can play a decisiverole in the success of manydevelopment
and bringabout
programmes
is necpositivesocial changes.Women'sempowerment
essaryforensuringnotjust theirown healthand welfare
butalso thewell-being
of theentirehousehold.Theyare
the primarymeans by which social normsare transmittedto theirchildrenand thusare placed in a critical
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366
has
The conceptualization
ofwomen'sempowerment
position to inculcate attitudesin favour of gender
authorshave defined
equalityamong theirchildrenand households.Addi- remaineda challengeand different
ways (Malhotra et al., 2002).
tionally,if theyhave egalitarianattitudestowardsgen- the conceptin different
means
to
allocate
their
decisions
this
orientation
enhances
der,
literally
"give power to" or "to
Empowerment
definition
resourcesto theirchildrenwithoutgender investwithpower".The mostcomprehensive
empowerment
and the most apt for this study,is
discrimination.From this perspective,an individual of empowerment
theempowerment proposed by Batliwala (1995) who definedempowercould trigger
woman'sempowerment
and societallevels mentas "theprocess,and theoutcomeoftheprocess,by
processat thehousehold,community
and thuschallengeprevailing
patriarchalgendernorms. whichwomen gain greatercontrolover materialand
Discrimination
againstwomenis also a violationoftheir intellectualresources,and challengethe ideology of
and thegender-based
discrimination
basic humanrightsas it hamperswomen'sabilitiesto patriarchy
against
of society".
womenin all theinstitutions
and structures
realizetheirfullpotential.
Gender inequalityis rooted in social stratificationIndividual empowermentincludes both control over
and ideology(intrinsic).
Inherentin
based on the rolesand responsibilities
assignedto men resources(extrinsic)
and womenand thedifferential
valuationof theseroles. this definitionare two importantideas, firstthat
is not just the power over others,but
is empowerment
Thus women'spositionand degreeof empowerment
determined
gender powerto achievegoals and ends so as to challengethe
by the ways that genderidentities,
discrimination
and gender-based
rolesand genderrelationsare conceivedat the family, ideologyof patriarchy
and societal levels.The differ- against women. Additionally,the growingintrinsic
household,community
and the innertransential valuationof the tasks performedby men and capability,greaterself-confidence,
womenremainstherootcause of attitudesthatresultin formationof women's consciousness,enable themto
in menand womenwithregardto overcomeexternalbarriers(Batliwala, 1995; Mayoux,
differential
investment
suchdevelopmentforcesas seculareducation,skillfor- 2000; MkNelly and McCord, 2001). Batliwala (1995)
mation,and incomegeneratingactivities.The crux of and Schülerand Hashemi(1993), have statedthatthe
has to begin in a woman's
the problemin genderrelationslies in the fact that process of empowerment
genderroles,rightsand obligationsare notjust differentindividualconsciousnessand laterhas to be externalized
remunerbut theyare highlyunequal. In almosteverysphereof throughgreaterautonomy,physicalmobility,
in India,therolesdefinedforwomen ated labor, and a strongrole in the household.The
humanfunctioning
are subordinatedto thosedefinedformales,the rights beliefs,thought,conscienceand attitudesmay or can
womenand men'smoral,ethical
thanthoseof contributeto fulfilling
forwomenare feweror less emancipating
thesefactorsmay
men,and women'sobligationsare more limitingthan and spiritualneeds,or alternatively,
in genderdisparity
at everylevel, hamper the realizationof women's full potentialin
thoseof men,resulting
may have a
cuttingacrossall typesof class and caste powerlessness society.However,any formof extremism
(Malhotraet al., 2002).
negativeimpacton womenand can lead to violenceand
have attemptedto define,concep- discrimination(United Nations, 1995b). The beliefs
Many researchers
tualizeand measurewomen'spositionsin thefamilyand about appropriateroles and activitiesof men and
and suitable women and the behavioursand statusresultingfrom
in societyusing appropriateterminology
indicators.A numberof termsand conceptshave been thesebeliefscan be alteredif womenare intrinsically
proposedto explainthe positionof womenacross dif- empoweredin an egalitarianway. In thiscontext,focus
on women's
the constraints
ferentsocio-cultural
groups.Earlystudiesused a more is not only on eliminating
and
generalterm"women'sstatus"to bringinto focusthe access to resourcessuchas education,information,
also
on
women's
with
but
and
women
existed
between
men
that
roles,
income,
decision-making
disparities
theirmobility,and their
respectto developmentindicatorssuch as education, theireconomic self-reliance,
and protecinheritance
occupational structure,mortality, legal rightsto equal treatment,
work-participation,
and health. Later studies(Mason, 1998; Mason and tion againstall formsof discrimination
(Germainand
Smith,2000; Jejeebhoy2000) have used status,auton- Kyte,1995; UnitedNations,1995).
interThe threeimportantcomponentsof empowerment
omy, empowermentand gender stratification
changeablyand withoutmuchconceptualclarity.There included in much of the literatureare "resources",
authors
is a more "agency"and "achievements",
is a growingconsensusthat"empowerment"
thoughdifferent
termswith respectto these three
relevant and appropriate term than "status" or have used different
"autonomy"(Malhotra and Mather, 1997; Govindas- components.Resourcesare enablingfactorsthat are
and not the empowerment
amy and Malhotra, 1996; Kabeer, 1998). Status and catalystsforempowerment
is theheartof many
second
The
se.
while
static
denote
a
concept,
agency,
state,
per
"empowerment"
autonomy
It encompassesthe
ofempowerment.
from conceptualizations
a progression
denotesa dynamicprocessreflecting
to gainautonomy,
choices,
one state(genderinequality)to another(genderequal- abilityto formulate
strategic
ity). Autonomy also implies independencewhereas and to control resourcesand decisions that affect
as
are identified
lifeoutcomes.Achievements
may well be achieved throughinterde- important
empowerment
as
a
women
that
outcomes
word
to
the
more
as
a
hence
is
seen
and
experience
well-being
positive
pendence
be used in thecontextof genderpositioningin society. resultof access to resourcesand agency.In thecontext
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367
ofwomen'sempowerment,
Kishor(2000) has developed situationsrestricttheiraccess to education,and regua three-pronged
conceptualframeworkempowerment larlypaid and regulatedwage work,and oftenmake
that identifiesthese three componentsas evidence, them vulnerable in exploitable situations (United
sources and setting.She argues that capturingthe Nations, 1995b). Poverty magnifiesilliteracyand
accessto media,healthand all welfareschemes.
processwithcross-sectionaldata needs restricts
empowerment
not onlyindicatorsthatmeasureevidenceof empower- Assetslikehumancapital,skills,good healthand labor
could reducethevulnerability
of the
ment,butalso indicatorsof women'saccess to differentforceparticipation
sources of empowermentand of women's location poor and powerless(Moser, 1998). Media exposurecan
withinan appropriatesetting.Accordingto her, the be takenas a proxyforeducation,as in situationswhere
indicatorsof evidence,sources and settingtogether themajorityof womenare illiterate
or have littleformal
providea snapshotof boththesuccessof theprocessof education,informalchannelssuch as the mass media
as well as the hurdlesthat exist. With (television,cinema, news paper and so on) play an
empowerment
minor differences,
the three dimensionsof Kishor's importantrole in bringingabout greaterawarenessof
frameworkare similarto those proposed by earlier genderissues(Kishor and Gupta, 2004).
authors.
Indicators of empowerment
Gender disparityin India
Like manyothertraditionalsocieties,Indian societyis
The empowermentprocess is difficultto measure highlygenderstratified.
The low status of women in
Various authors have used education, India has beena matterof concernformanyyears,and
quantitatively.
work participation,and exposureto mass media, the theIndiangovernment
has implemented
variouspolicies
means or sources by which women are expected to and programsto improvetheirsituations.The Indian
developdecision-making
authority,
greaterfreedomof Constitution(1950) has stressedgenderequalityin all
and
attitudinal
movement,
autonomy,
changesin favour spheresof life.Since 1950 (Article45) the Government
of genderequality,as indicatorsto measureempower- of India has taken variouseffortsto providefreeand
ment.Educationis an essentialfoundationforall social, compulsoryeducationforall childrenbetweentheages
economic and culturaldevelopment(Sen, 1994) that of 6-14 years. Even as the literacyrate in India has
enhancesthehumancapitaland economicprospectsof increased,thegendergap remainsverysignificant,
with
a country(UNFPA, 2005). Investmentin women's a literacyrateof 75.8% formenin contrastto a female
education results in an improved status through literacyrate of 54.2% (Governmentof India, 2001a).
improvedeconomicprospects,greaterdecision-making Yet, many girls face barriersin accessingeducation,
autonomy,control over resources,exposure to the includingpoverty,negativeattitudestowardseducating
modernworld,husbandwifecommunication,
and self- a daughter,social norms,fearof threatsto chastity,
and
reliancein old age, and reducedrestrictions
on physical fearof violence(Velkoff,1998). In 1990,the National
mobility(Moser, 1998). A mother'seducationis linked Commissionfor Women was establishedto safeguard
to betterreproductive
healthand reductionin young the rightsand legal entitlements
of women.One of the
children'smortalityrates (Jejeebhoy,1996; UNFPA, mainobjectivesof India's NinthFive Year Plan was to
forwomen.Onlyone
2005). Education is also likely to enhance women's provideemployment
opportunities
economicindependenceby equippingthemwithskills fourthof thecountry'swomen(25.6%) wereinvolvedin
necessary to take advantage of paid employment officially
recognizedeconomicactivities.Among these
Labor forceparticipationnot onlygives workingwomen,only35.7% wereliterate.The majority
opportunities.
womenan opportunity
to earnincome,butalso exposes ofworkingwomenlivedin ruralareas (87.3%) and were
themto the outsideworld and to authoritystructures involvedincultivation
and agriculture
activities(71.8%)
and networksthat are not kin-based(Dixon-Mueller, (Governmentof India, 2001b). The enactmentof the
1993). In a developingcountrysuch as India where 73rd Amendmentof the Constitutionin 1993 has
women'sworkforce
suchas,
participationis oftenmotivatedby reserved33% of theseatsin local governments
are likelyto be mediatedby the Panchayats and Municipalitiesfor women so as to
poverty,thesebenefits
social contextof women'swork and theirtotal work encouragetheirparticipationin societaldecision-makburden (Bardhan, 1985; Desai and Jain, 1994). In ing. Since 1994, the Micro CreditScheme(MCS) has
addition,the empoweringeffectsof employmentfor also beenin operationin India. During1998-1999more
women are likelyto depend on theiroccupation,the than 100,000poor individuals,
mainlywomen,benefited
of theirworkforce
and whether fromMCS assistancethrough32 Micro Finance Insticontinuity
participation,
theyearn income.It is expectedthatwomenwho work tutionsor NGOS.
at a regularjob, who earn cash, and who perceivethat
The prevalenceof culturalpracticessuch as Sati
theircontribution
is a substantialpart of total family Pratha, child marriage,dowry, and prohibitionof
also reflect
thepoor social statusof
earningsare more likelyto be empoweredthan other widowremarriages
women(Youssef,1982;Sen, Indian women. Several laws have been enacted to
employedand unemployed
1990; Mahmud et al., 1994). Women's poor economic emancipateIndianwomenfromtheseproblematic
social
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368
womenin India continueto be guaranteethat the powerlesswill use, or will be in a
practices.Nevertheless,
in a disadvantagedposition.The nationalinfantmor- positionto use thesetools to becomeempowered.Simtalityrate(IMR) is declininggradually,but the female ilarlythesocio-economicand culturalsettingsin which
IMR is alwayshigherthanthemale IMR. Recentgov- women are placed will condition the outlook and
ernmentfiguresshowtheIMR formalesto be 57 while opportunitiesavailable to the women,thus actingas
or inhibitors
of women'sempowerment.
it is 64 forfemales(SRS, 2005). The sharpdeclinein the facilitators
sex-ratioof thepopulationbetween0 and 6 yearsof age
We have used data fromIndia's second National
in the 1990s(945 in 1991to 927 femalesper 1000males Family Health Survey (NFHS-2) conducted during
in 2001) has drawntheattention
of thepublicand policy 1998-1999. The NFHS-2 collected data on several
makers.Serious concernshave been raised about the aspects of women's empowermentfrom more than
womenaged 15-49 from26 states
in someIndianstates.The very 90,000ever-married
prevalenceofgirlfeticide
not onlyacute son (coveringnearly99% of thecountry'stotalpopulation),
low sex ratioin thesestatesreflects
towardsgirls. usinguniformquestionnaireand samplingprocedures.
butalso an increasinghostility
preference
to assess
Genderdiscrimination
againstgirlsin the provisionof NFHS-2 data providea unique opportunity
medicalcareand educationhas also been women's empowermentand the factorsaffectingit.
food,clothing,
documented(Das, 1987;Kale et al., 1990;Georgeet al., Earlystudiesfocusingon women'sstatusin India used
1998; VelkofT,1998). The low status of women also mainlyeducation,and labour force participationto
resultsin less investment
by householdsand familiesin highlightthe gender inequalitiesexistingin Indian
such as education,nutrition, society.The choiceof indicatorswas constrainedby the
sourcesof empowerment
good health practices,and outside exposure for girl limitedavailabilityof data about direct aspects of
For thefirsttime,NFHS-2 has
in India, women'sempowerment.
children.Evennow,amongmanycommunities
women's involvementin
on
information
that
do
collected
vessels
as
are
considered
only reproductive
girls
theirfreedomof physical
not requireany formaleducation.Oftentheirmove- householddecision-making,
mentsoutsidethe homeare highlyrestricted.
They are mobility,their attitudestowards gender, and their
socializedto followtraditionalnormsthatlead themto aspirationsformale and femalechildren.To examine
disaccept,tolerateand even rationalizetheirlowerstatus broad spatialpatternsof spatialand socio-cultural
and domestic and public violence (Jaisingh,1995; paritiesin women's empowermentin India, we use
compositeindicesthatcombinesimilarvariablesrather
Hegde, 1996;Prasad 1999).
India is a large countrywithdiverse than using each variable separately,using individual
Territorially,
Thereare data (Maps 1-4).
languages,cultures,religionsand ethnicities.
the firsttask was to
in
Using the surveyinformation,
significantspatial and socio-culturaldifferentials
in India by
various dimensionsof women'sempowerment
among quantifyevidenceof women'sempowerment
dimensions
fourindicesto measuredifferent
variousregionswithinthecountry.Severalstudieshave constructing
shownthatwomenin thenorthern
regionof India have of empowerment.Second, spatial divergencesin the
lowerstatus,less autonomyand freedomof movement, evidence of empowermentacross Indian states were
limitedcontrol over economic resourcesand fewer analyzed, using bivariate analysis of the indices to
socio-economicand culturalsettings.
in the south- examinedifferent
inheritance
rightsthantheircounterparts
ern regionof the country(Karve, 1965; Sopher 1980; Finally,multiplelogisticregression
analysiswas used to
of women's
determinants
some
tranof
the
The
studies
et
important
al.,
identify
fertility
2001).
Jejeebhoy
at theindividuallevel.
sitionby Dyson and Moore (1983) and Malhotraet al. empowerment
Of the four indicesconstructedto studywomen's
(1995) have linkedthe earlydemographictransitionin
southernstatesto the existenceof a long traditionof empowerment,the first and second indices are
betterstatusand emancipation assumed to measurewomen's degreeof controlover
socio-culturalreforms,
in termsof autonomyin household
theirenvironment
of women,and egalitarianmovements.
and mobility.The other two indices
decision-making
measure women's attitudes with regard to gender
in
India
women's
equalityand domesticviolence.The thirdindex meaempowerment
Measuring
sures women'sacceptanceof unequal genderroles by
This paper focusesmainlyon the studyof spatial and capturingtheirattitudesabout the educationof male
forsons over
in someindicatorsof women's and femalechildrenand theirpreference
differences
socio-cultural
as definedabove. These indicatorsmea- daughters. The fourth index is constructedusing
empowerment,
on women's attitudestowardswife-beatsurewomen'scontrolovervariousaspectsof theirlives information
such as participationin household ing. Attitudesthat justifythe beating of wives by
and environments,
financialautonomyand freedomof husbands indicatewomen's acceptanceof theirlower
decision-making,
orientationtowardsthe gender- statusboth absolutelyand relativeto men. This attitheir
and
movement,
women'sacceptanceof social normsthat
based subordinationof women. We assume that the tude signifies
sourcesand settingvariablesare factorsor determinants give men the right,in this case, to disciplinewomen
of women's potential empowerment,rather than with force. Constructionof each index is explained
evidenceof womenempowerment
per se, as thereis no below.
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369
Map-1
INDIA
Women With High Household Autonomy
jS^^J^lul
Pradesh
^ÄÄ^LrunachalPradesh
«J^BPflBff
^M
AHdhra^^^H
><®%
-60%
45%
PWB
W^ÊÊ$%à <
^^Bjtf
45%
Kerai^^^HHr
Map 1. Women withhighhouseholdautonomy.
Mao-2
INDIA
Women with High MobilityAutonomy
(NFHS,im49)
flfl^Kacha] Pradesh
^■■■tailMiPi.^W.
-
AndbaMAj
^KHT
KenflSBr
«.1.^
v
Hi
JiflK^noachal Pradesh
>40%
-40%
20%
<20%
Map 2. Women withhighmobilityautonomy.
This content downloaded from 128.135.12.127 on Thu, 5 Feb 2015 18:38:42 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
370
Mip-3
IN CMA
Women With No Gender Preference Attitude
(NFHS.19M-M)
Jj^BSj^hal Pradesh
IH
Anihi^^n^^J
mm
^Hv
> 50°/o
-5o%
40%
attitude.
Map 3. Women withno genderpreference
INDIA
Women Who Do not JustifyDomestic Violence
V KasiuifrY
Pradesh
gj^M^chai
PradeshjP^^^Sßaigal
Malhya
^Hf
'
.JiliMT
go^hHT
SV
'j Misaram
/
{^
/
111
40%-50%
Map 4. Womenwho do notjustifydomesticviolence.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
371
Householdautonomy
index
the educationof boys over thatof
second,prioritizing
girls.Studiesof thevalue of childrenshow thatwomen
This indexmeasuredtheextentof women'sinvolvement considerchildrenin generaland sons in particularto be
alone,jointlywithherhusband,or withotherhousehold securityagainst old age, widowhood,separation,and
membersin household and personal decisions. In desertionby theirhusbandsand otherfamilymembers.
NFHS-2 everyeligiblewomen was asked who in her Culturaland religiousfactorsascribehigherstatusto
householdtakesdecisionswithrespectto thefollowing: mothersof sons. Traditionssuch as dowry,as well as
food preparation,
personalhealthcare,thepurchaseof women's economic and social dependence on men
jewelleryand othermajor householditems,and deci- throughouttheirlifecycle,reinforcea preferencefor
sions to visit parentsand siblings.Anotherquestion sons. In NFHS-2, several questions were asked to
womenwereasked
queriedwomenabout theiraccess to moneyfor their measurethisfactor.All ever-married
own use. Using thesefivequestions,a compositeindex about the ideal numberof childrentheywould like to
was developed to assess women's involvementin have and amongthem,how manytheywould liketo be
householddecision-making.
Women's participationin boys, how manytheywould like to be girls,or alteris evidenceof theirhouseholdauton- natelywhethersex did not matter.From thesequesdecision-making
The tions,the mean ideal numbersof sons and daughters
omy,an integralpart of women'sempowerment.
indexrangesfrom0 to 5. Each womanis thenclassified have been calculatedforeach ever-married
woman.
intoone of threegroupson thebasis of hertotalscore.
Women's acceptanceof "task differentiation"
and
Womenwho werenot involvedin any decisionor said "role stratification"
by genderis veryevidentin their
in childrenof each sex. If women
investment
"yes" to onlyone of the above fivequestionsare cate- differential
between the roles, needs and
gorizedas havinglow householdautonomy(score0-1). do not differentiate
Womenwith2-3 affirmative
responsesare consideredto capacitiesof boys and girls,thereshould be no differhave "moderate household autonomy",and women ence in theireducationalaspirationsforgirlsand boys.
with4-5 affirmative
womenwere asked about
responsesare consideredto have In NFHS-2 all ever-married
theireducationalaspirationsfor girls and boys. The
"highhouseholdautonomy".
question,asked separatelyforgirlsand boys,read "In
Freedomofmobility
index
youropinion,how mucheducationshould be givento
girlsand boysthesedays?The expectationwas thatthe
The mobilityindex was prepared on the basis of commonresponseswouldinclude:"It dependsupon the
woman child's ability/interest/wish
or parent'sfinancialsituaresponsesto two questions.Each ever-married
was asked whethershe neededpermissionto go to the tion at that time". Thereforeseparatecategorieslike
marketor to visitfriends
and relatives.Womenwho had "depends" and "as muchas he/shedesires"wereproto seekpermission
in bothcases wereconsideredto have vided in the pre-codedquestionnairealong withexact
"no freedomofmovement"and wereassigneda scoreof educationallevels.All the women who said that girls
"0"; thosewho had to seek permissionforeitherone and boys should be giventhe same levelof education,
wereconsideredto have "low freedomof movement" includingresponsesunderthe"depends" and "as much
and wereassigneda score "1"; and thosewho did not as she/hedesires"categories,are consideredas having
needpermission
wereconsideredto have "highfreedom no genderpreference
in termsof educationalaspirations.
of mobility"witha scoreof "2".
Combiningresponsesto theabove twoquestions,we
have constructeda "gender preferenceindex" and
Genderpreference
index
classifiedwomenin one of fourcategoriesas follows:
forboysand girls- womenwhose
(a) Equal preference
An essentialelementof empowerment
is a beliefin the
mean ideal numbersof sons and daughtersare the
idea ofgenderequalityin boththeprivateand thepublic
sameand who statethatthesamelevelsofeducation
shouldbe providedto girlsand boys
spheres.In India deep-rootedpatriarchalvalues and
- women who eithersaid
normshave greatlyaffected
thesocializationof women, (b) Daughter preference1
and have oftenbeen blamed for social and familial
to
for
"yes" daughters boththequestionsor showed
conflictsamong womenas well as theiracceptanceof
fordaughterin one questionand did not
preference
answertheotherquestion.
gender subordination.The acceptance of gender
subordinationhas also been used to explainwomen's (c) Son preference- women who said "yes" to the
low self-esteemand confidence.This acceptance of
questionsabout givingmoreeducationto boysand
subordination
has not onlyacted as a barrierto speak
moresons thandaughters.
preferring
againstwomen'spersonalexperiencesof injustice,but (d) Not sure - women who are not sure about their
has also sometimesmade womenpartnersin perpetueithertheypreferto give more
genderpreference,
atinginjusticeforotherwomen.To measurewomen's
education to boys or prefer more sons than
attitudestowardsgenderequality,two variableswere
daughtersand did not answer the otherquestion
- No woman in this category
utilized to constructan "attitude towards gender
preferredgirls;
women simplydid not answer for eitherof the
equality" index. These variables are first,women's
forgivingbirthto a son overa daughter,and
preference
two questions.
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372
Attitude
towardsdomesticviolenceindex
betweenfreedomof physicalmobilityand
relationships
attitudestowardsgenderpreference
and domesticviolence are negative.Womenwho favourgenderpreference also subscribeto domesticviolence with these
indicestendingto increaseor decreasetogether.
Though
all of thecorrelation
coefficients
are low,theyare highly
significant
(p < 0.01).
Accordingto the indices, a sizeable minorityof
Indianwomenare empoweredin at leastone respect.At
the national level, 43% of the women have high
household autonomy;23% of the women have high
freedomto moveoutsidetheirhome;40% ofthewomen
and 43% ofthewomenreject
haveno genderpreference;
domesticviolence.There are significant
divergencesin
acrossdifferent
theseindicesof women'sempowerment
statesand socio-economicand culturalsettingswithin
India.
Acceptance,experience,and toleranceof violence,is
in women.The
anotherexpressionof low self-esteem
attitudestowardsgenderinequalityassumean especially
seriousformwhenwomenactuallyrationalizeviolence
againstthemselves.In patriarchalsystems,womenare
socialized as being significant
social actors mainlyin
relationto theirreproductive
roles and theirdomestic
duties,includingthecare of men,childrenand theaged,
in both the natal and the in-laws' households. All
womenare expectedto followthesesocial normsand
womenviolatingthemare to be disciplinedby force,
mainlyby theirhusbands.To measurewomen's attiNFHS-2
tudestowardsthisaspectof genderinequality,
asked all the respondentswhethertheythoughtthat
husbandsare justifiedin beatingtheirwivesin the followingsituations:ifhe suspectsherof beingunfaithful;
if her natal familydoes not give the husband the Spatial disparities
or otheritems;ifshe shows
promisedmoney,jewellery,
fromall
disrespectforherin-laws;ifshe goes out withouttelling The NFHS-2 surveyhas collectedinformation
is
of
India.
There
the
then
26
states
or
if
she
does
or
if
she
the
house
children;
significant
disparity
him;
neglects
wifebeatingevenfor across the Indian statesin the proportionsof women
notcook foodproperly.
Justifying
to mean that a woman with high autonomyand mobilitywho rejectgender
a singlereason is interpreted
and domesticviolence(Table 2). Thoughthe
accepts genderinequalityand considersher husband preference
freeto use physicalpowerto controlher.Womenwho proportionofwomenwithhighhouseholdautonomyat
do not subscribeto physicalviolenceunderany of the the national level is 43%, it ranges from 30% in
above mentionedconditionsare consideredto have a Rajasthan to 86% in Himachal Pradesh. More than
positiveattitudetowardsgenderequalityand are termed 60% of womenindicatedhighhouseholdautonomyin
as "womenwhodo notsubscribeto domesticviolence". Goa, the Northeasternstates,Haryana, Gujarat, and
If theyagreedwithphysicalviolenceforeven a single Punjab.Spatially,thestatesin theGangeticPlainand in
reason, theyare "women who subscribeto domestic thecentralpartof thecountryhave higherproportions
of womenwithlow householdautonomy.The extreme
violence".
northernand northeastern
parts of the countryshow
betterstatusof womenin termsof household
relatively
Evidence of women's empowermentin India
autonomy. Gujarat, with high female household
none of the
autonomy,is theonlyoutlier.Surprisingly,
indi- southIndian stateswereincludedin thehighesthouseTo examinethe relationships
among thedifferent
ces, we calculated Pearson's correlationcoefficientshold autonomycategory.Kerala and Tamil Nadu, two
are presentedin southIndianstateswhichare oftendescribedas having
coefficients
(two-tailed).The resulting
associa- a relatively
Table 1. The indiceshave low but significant
highstatusforwomen,showonlymoderate
tionswitheach other.We finda positiverelationship femalehouseholdautonomy.In contrastPunjab and
betweenwomen's householdautonomyand women's Haryana have higherfemalehouseholdautonomy.Of
coefficient
0.245) and low negative late, Himachal Pradesh has experiencedfar-reaching
(correlation
mobility
women's
between
autonomy and their demographicand social changes.This is the onlystate
relationships
attitudestowardsgenderpreference
( - 0.090), and their wheremorethan85% of thewomenfallinto the high
violence
domestic
towards
attitudes
(-0.112). The householdautonomycategory.
household
indicesconstructedto studythe evidenceof empowermentTable I. The resultsof Pearson correlationanalysisbetweendifferent
indexand attitudetowardsdomesticviolenceindex
autonomyindex,mobilityoutsidehome index,attitudetowardsgenderpreference
indices
empowerment
Household
autonomyIndex
Mobilityoutside
home Index
Household autonomy
Mobilityoutsidehome
Attitudetowardsgenderpreference
Attitudetowardsdomesticviolence
N
1.000
0.245**
- 0.090**
-0.112**
90303
1.000
- 0.077**
- 0.079**
90303
Evidenceof
Index
genderpreference
Attitudetowardsdomestic
violenceIndex
1.000
0. 113**
90303
1.000
90303
Attitudetowards
at the0.01 level(2-tailed).
is significant
♦♦Correlation
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373
stateswiththeirlevel of householdautonomy,freedomof
Table 2. Percentagedistributionof ever marriedwomen in India and in different
movement,attitudetowardsgenderand attitudetowardsdomesticviolence
States
Household
AutonomyIndex
Freedomof
Movement
Index
Low Moderate High No
India
22.1 34.9
North
Delhi
9.4
6.7
Haryana
Himachal pradesh 1.6
Jammu& Kashmir 22.4
3.6
Punjab
33.6
Rajasthan
40.2
30.5
12.1
32.3
27.7
36.7
Attitudetowards
Total
Gender preference
index*
Low High Not
sure
Domestic
violenceindex**
Son
Daughter Equal
Agree Does not Percent Number
PreferencepreferencePreferencebeating agree
forboys
and girls
43.0 66.6 10.8
22.6
41.9 13.0
4.8
39.8
56.7
43.3
19.2
18.4
8.2
5.4
27.7
5.8
33.2
19.6
27.8
7.2
25.2
15.1
26.6
37.3
30.4
39.9
34.3
43.7
3.9
11.1
5.8
12.3
6.8
26.2
6.7
4.3
2.4
7.4
4.4
3.2
62.6
47.1
61.3
40.3
54.3
26.8
21.0
26.4
23.7
75.3
22.1
51.3
79.0
73.6
76.3
24.7
77.9
48.7
2.7
3.2
3.3
3.0
3.1
7.5
2,477
2,908
3,012
2,744
2,796
6,813
50.4
62.7
86.3
45.3
68.6
29.7
47.6
62.0
64.1
87.4
47.1
79.0
100
90,303
Central
Madhya Pradesh
UttarPradesh
31.6 39.0
31.4 36.2
29.4 76.2 7.1
32.3 81.7 6.9
16.6
11.5
44.2 18.8
50.2 19.7
5.0
3.4
31.2
26.2
72.4
61.2
27.6
38.7
7.7
10.3
6,941
6,292
East
Bihar
Orissa
West Bengal
23.1 37.6
28.6 31.2
29.6 29.9
39.2 76.6 4.7
40.2 80.6 5.2
40.5 81.2 5.8
18.8
14.2
13.0
47.6 22.8
44.8 15.1
35.9 5.1
3.5
5.4
5.3
25.8
34.3
53.0
47.1
50.6
23.0
52.9
49.4
77.0
7.8
4.9
4.9
7,024
4,425
4,408
8.5
11.0
5.4
3.5
3.5
9.7
2.7
9.6
6.9
4.9
8.9
18.7
21.8
10.8
5.4
6.9
40.8
40.2
44.6
44.0
41.8
39.2
61.5
41.8
51.9
66.6
91.4
86.0
83.4
97.1
68.3
38.6
48.0
33.3
8.6
13 7
16.6
2.9
31.7
61.4
1.2
3.8
1.6
1.1
1.2
0.9
1.2
1.2
1,117
3,441
1,435
945
9.1
4.8
6.2
56.8
41.0
43.7
57.4
36.7
75:2
42.5
63.3
24.8
1.4
4.3
6.0
1,246
3,845
5,391
5.1
5.0
6.8
5.2
37.1
56.2
61.3
56.8
79.9
51.1
61.8
72.6
20.1
48.9
38.2
27.4
4.5
4.8
3.2
5.2
4,032
4,374
2,884
4,676
Northeast
ArunachalPradesh 3.8
Assam
17.6
8.2
Manipur
6.0
Meghalaya
Mizoram
8.8
3.9
Nagaland
Sikkim
8.4
30.2
Tripura
West
Goa
26.1
44.8
44.1
22.2
22.1
35.7
38.5
27.4
70.0
37.6
47.7
71.7
69.1
60.4
53.1
42.4
41.0
84.8
66.1
47.2
33.9
76.7
51.7
67.5
17.4 41.6
3.3 11.9
10.9 23.0
10.7 42.1
8.7 57.4
9.2 14.2
16.8 31.5
13.1 19.3
43.2
43.7
40.9
32.7
32.7
40.3
30.1
41.4
Gujarat
Maharashtra
6.6 32.3
9.5 25.7
19.0 41.7
61.1 31.8 11.1 57.1 29.7 4.0
64.8 42.7 9.0 48.3 38.2 15.8
39.3 49.1 21.3 293 37:9 11.7
South
AndhraPradesh
Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
17.8
21.5
13.8
7.6
50.1
42.3
56.4
58.5
32.1
36.2
29.8
34.0
77.5
54.9
49.9
20.7
10.3
12.9
14.5
24.3
12.2
32.2
35.5
55.1
49.3
33.7
29.5
35.1
6.5
4.1
2.1
3.0
1,048
818
1,107
1,104
Note: Total includesmissinginformation
on *504 womenon genderpreference
indexand **16 womenon domesticviolenceindex,who are not
shownseparately.
Freedom of women's movementoutside home is
as only23% ofwomenreportedthat
highlyconstrained,
theydid not need permissionto go to marketor visit
friendsand relatives.All the statesshow much lower
scoresforwomenon the freedomof movementindex
than on the householdautonomyindex.Two notable
exceptionswereGoa and Tamil Nadu wherethescores
of more than half (55-57%) of ever-married
women
werehighwithregardto freedomof mobility.In contrast,in Jammu& Kashmir,Assam, Uttar Pradesh,
WestBengaland Orissa,80% or morewomenreported
thattheyneededpermissionto leave home. It is interestingthat Tamil Nadu and Kerala, wherewomen's
householdautonomyindexwas fairlylow, scoredhigh
in termsof physicalmobility.The opposite is truein
Himachal Pradesh,Punjab and Haryana whichranked
high in householdautonomy,but relativelylow with
regardto physicalmobility.The mostdrasticcontrastis
thecase ofJammu& Kashmir,where45% womenhave
highhouseholdautonomybut only7% reporteda high
levelof physicalmobility(Table 2). Spatiallytheregion
of highmobilityforwomenlies in west,extremesouth
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374
and extremenorth east of the country.In general, theirin-lawsforquitesome timeaftermarriageand are
centraland easternpartsof thecountryshow notexpectedto participatein householdmatters,in the
northern,
and otherelderlyfamily
low or no freedomof women'smovement.
presenceof theirmother-in-law
relatively
particularlyoutside
Nearly40% of theevermarriedwomenin India did membersor move independently,
About 5% showeda thehome. We have categorizedthesurveyrespondents
not indicatea genderpreference.
for into threeage groups,15-29; 30-39; and 40-49 years.
forgirls,and 13% showeda preference
preference
42%, therewas uncertainty NFHS-2 data showthathighhouseholdautonomyand
boys.Amongtheremaining
withage.
about preferences.In Delhi, Sikkim, Kerala, Tamil highfreedomof movementincreasepositively
Nadu, Karnatakaand West Bengal,morethanhalfof The proportionof womenwithhighhouseholdautondid not show any omy increasesfrom37% among the 15-29 yearsage
the women (63-53% respectively)
or educationalaspi- group to 51% among women in the 40-49 yearsage
genderbias withregardto fertility
rations.Among women in Bihar,Uttar Pradesh,Ra- group.The resultsare similarforthosewithhighfreejasthan,and Madhya Pradesh,thiswas thecase forless dom of movement.It increasesfrom15% amongthose
was aged 15-29 years to 34% among women aged 40of thewomen.Daughterpreference
thanone-third
relativelyhigh in some northeasternstates such as 49 years. We interpretthe resultsas evidence that
Mizoram,Meghalayaand Nagaland,(22, 19,and 11%, women become more involvedin householddecisionIn contrast,son preference
was high in makingas theyage, and as a result,thereare fewer
respectively).
on theirphysicalmovements.However,we
Rajasthan (26%), Bihar (23%), Uttar Pradesh (20%) restrictions
was least do notfindsignificant
differences
and Madhya Pradesh(19%). Son preference
byage in theothertwo
indexand domesticviopopularin Kerala (2%), Tamil Nadu (3.0%) Megalaya indices;the genderpreference
lenceindex.We also notethatthereis a steadydeclinein
and Mizoram(4% respectively).
for
the majorityof women surveyedfor the proportionof womenhavingequal preference
Disturbingly,
this study,subscribedto the beliefthat a husband is boysand girlswithage.
increasesposiThe level of women'sempowerment
sometimes
justifiedto beat his wife.Even in stateslike
Nagaland, Manipur,Meghalaya and Mizoram which tivelywith education.This is the case for all of the
more than indices. Higherhouseholdautonomyand freedomof
show relativelyhigh daughterpreference,
80% of thewomenrationalizedomesticviolenceagainst movementare also observedamong workingwomen.
themselvesor otherwomen. All of these states have Women not workingforpay are foundto have more
largetribalpopulationswherethestatusof thewomenis favourableattitudestowardsgenderequalityand are
expectedto be high since some of the tribespractice less likelyto subscribeto domesticviolencethan are
Even in stateslike AndhraPradesh,Tamil workingwomen.It should be mentionedherethatthe
matriarchy.
Nadu, and Kerala wherethe status of the women is majorityof workingwomen in India are engaged as
reportedto be good, more than 60% of women sub- agriculturallaborersdue to economiccompulsionor
scribeto domesticviolence.Onlyin Delhi,Punjab,West householdpoverty.However,workingwomenwhoearn
Bengal and Himachal Pradesh did more than three- cash have highhouseholdautonomy,highfreedomof
fourthsof women object completelyto domestic movement,no gender preferenceand they do not
rationalizedomesticviolence.A higherproportionof
violence.
womenwho are exposedto any mass mediathanthose
who are not exposed have highhouseholdautonomy,
and culturaldifferences
Socio-economic
high freedomof movement,a more positiveattitude
Women'sown demographicand socio-economicchar- towardsgenderequalityand theydo not subscribeto
acteristicsas well as theirplacementin a particular domesticviolence.The economicstatusof the housesocio-economicand culturalsettingmay affecttheir hold has a large impacton empowerment.
Although
autonomyand attitudes.Education,workparticipation, freedomof movementdoes not varyamong the three
and media exposureare potential economicgroups,householdautonomy,equal gender
gainfulemployment,
sourcesofwomen'sempowerment.
Theyare thecatalyst preferenceand disapproval of domestic violence
foractivities
thatincreasewomen'saccessto and control increaseas women'sstandardsof livingrise.The prefwe have takenage and the erenceforsonsdecreasesas thestandardof livingof the
overresources.Additionally,
economicconditionof the householdinto account as householdincreases;about 16% of womenwitha low
In Table 3, we have standardof livingwantto havemoresonsand givethem
enablingfactorsforempowerment.
by more educationthan theirdaughters.In comparison,
presentedthefourindicesof women'sempowerment
work status,mass media thisis trueforonly6% of womenwitha highstandard
age, educationalattainment,
exposureand standardof living(See Appendix 1 for of living.
In Table 4, we presentthe indicessortedby sociodetails).
Theseindicesfocuson thecircumstances
Though age is a biological phenomenon,in the culturalsettings.
available
theopportunities
Indian contexta woman's age may be an important of women'slivesand reflect
variables
Herewe presentsixdifferent
enablingfactoras womenaccruesomesocialadvantages forempowerment.
women's
of
various
in
India
that
describe
women
as theygrowolder.Culturally,
lives,
including:
aspects
younger
are at disadvantageas theylive in joint familieswith typeof residence,religion,ethnicity,
spousal age and
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375
Table3. Percentagedistribution
ofevermarriedwomenin India withtheirlevelof householdautonomy,freedomofmovement,attitudetowards
genderand attitudetowardsdomesticviolenceby theirdemographicsand socio-economiccharacteristics
Demographicand
Socio-economic
Characteristics
Household
AutonomyIndex
Freedom
Attitudetowardsof Movement Gender
preference
Index
index
Total
Domestic
vjolence
index
Low Moderate High No Low High Not Son
Daughter Equal
Agree Does PercentNumber
sure Preferencepreferencepreferencebeatingnot
forboys
agree
and girls
Age
15-29
30-39
40-49
Education
Illiterate
school
Literate/BelowHigh
High school and above
Workparticipation
Not WorkingCurrently
in
Working/Worked
the past 12 months
Gainfulemployment1
Cash only
Cash and kindonly
Kind only
Not paid
28.5 34.6
17.7 35.6
14.1 34.5
36.9 74.9 9.7 15.4 40.3 13.1
46.7 62.4 12.2 25.4 41.7 13.2
51.4 54.1 11.5 34.4 45.5 12.6
4.2
5.5
5.1
42.0
39.0
35.9
57.7
56.7
54.5
42.3 47.4
43.3 31.6
45.5 21.0
42,828
28,540
18,934
25.2 35.6
20.5 34.7
12.6 32.3
39.2 71.1 9.0 19.8 47.9 17.6
44.7 64.5 12.7 22.7 38.6 8.9
55.1 52.2 14.4 33.4 23.5 2.6
4.3
5.2
6.3
29.4
47.2
67.6
62.2
55.1
37.3
37.7 58.1
44.9 27.7
62.7 14.2
52,432
24,994
12,866
23.4 35.2
20.1 34.4
41.4 69.8 10.7 19.5 40.1 12.1
45.5 61.6 11.0 27.4 44.5 14.4
4.7
5.0
42.7
35.2
51.6
64.3
48.4 60.9
35.3 39.1
54,993
35,310
11.0
18.3
22.4
18.3
5.7
4.5
3.6
3.9
40.4
25.7
24.5
30.2
62.5
65.1
67.1
68.6
37.5 57.0
34.9 10.1
32.9 6.4
31.4 26.6
20,109
3,548
2,241
9,393
36.4 74.4 7.4 18.2 48.7 19.2
47.5 61.3 13.2 25.5 37.2 8.8
4.1
5.3
27.1
48.3
60.2
54.4
39.8 41.5
45.6 58.5
36,327
53,899
39.5 69.7 9.0 21.3 46.9 16.4
41.8 68.1 11.0 20.9 43.1 13.7
51.6 58.2 13.3 28.5 31.0 5.9
4.4
4.7
5.9
31.3
38.1
57.1
62.7
59.2
41.2
37.3 32.9
40.8 46.9
58.8 20.2
29,402
41,823
18,034
15.5
22.4
26.2
27.6
33.0
35.4
39.9
35.8
Exposuremass.media2
28.1 35.5
Not exposed to any media
Exposed to at least one media 18.0 34.5
Standardof livingindex
Low
Medium
High
25.1 35.4
22.9 35.3
15.3 33.1
51.5
42.2
33.9
36.6
55.112.4
66.1 9.0
73.0 7.1
71.1 9.7
32.5
24.9
19.9
19.2
41.9
50.5
48.9
46.8
or radio or newspaperor cinema.
Note: 'For onlywomenwho wereworking;2Exposed to atleastone media-television
indexand **16 womenon domesticviolenceindex,whoare not shown
Total includesmissinginformation
on *504 womenon genderpreference
separately.
on education,cashemployment,media
and thestandardof livingindexwho
Total includes11, 18, 77 and 1043womenwithmissinginformation
are not shownsseparately.
educational differentials,
and women's experienceof regardto all of the indicesexamined.With regardto
violence.The religionand casteaffiliations
areproxiesfor religion,Sikhwomenhave highesthouseholdautonomy
of Sikh
It is oftenhypothe- followedbyChristianwomen.Almosttwo-third
culture-specific
genderstratification.
sized thatwomenwho are marriedto men mucholder womenreportedhighhouseholdautonomy.The highest
than themselvesor whose husbands are much more proportionof women with low autonomyare found
educated than themselvesare likelyto be at a much among Muslims followed by Hindu women. With
greaterdisadvantagethan women in marriageswhere respectto freedomof movementoutside home, Jain,
theyare closerin age to theirhusbandsand have similar Buddhist/NeoBuddhist and Christianwomen have
education.A largeage and educationgap can putthewife relativelyhigh freedomof mobility(one-thirdof the
at a relativedisadvantagewithregardto herabilityto women has high freedomof mobility).The mobility
exercisepower withinthe marriage.Violence against outsidehomeis restricted
forMuslimwomen,only17%
womenis a fundamental
violationofwomen'srightsand have highfreedomof movement.As of attitudetowards
it could curtailheropportunity
to access empowerment genderis concerned,Hindu and Muslimwomenexhibit
sources(Heise et al., 1998). An environment
in which high son preference,14 and 11%, respectively.
More
womenhaveexperienced
violenceorlivewiththethreatof than half of Jainwomen followedby Sikh, Christian,
violenceis likelyto actto undermine
herempowerment. and Buddhist/NeoBuddhistwomen have shown no
This studyshows thaturbanwomenare in a more genderpreference
attitudetowardstheirchildren.Not
favourablesituationthantheirruralcounterparts
with justifyingdomesticviolenceis the norm among Sikh
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376
Table4. Percentagedistribution
ofevermarriedwomenin India withtheirlevelof householdautonomy,freedomof movement,
attitudetowards
genderand attitudetowardsdomesticviolenceby the settingcharacteristics
theylive in
SettingCharacteristics
Household
AutonomyIndex
Freedom
of Movement
Index
Low ModerateHighNo Low
Typeof Residence
Rural
Urban
Total
AttitudetowardsGenderpreference
index
Domestic
violenceindex
HighNot Son
Daughter Equal
Agree Does notPercentNumber
surePreference
Preference
Preference
beatingagree
forboys
and girls
24.9 35.3
14.1 33.8
39.8 72.0 9.3 18.7 44.8 15.4
52.1 51.5 15.1 33.4 33.6 6.4
4.4
5.9
34.8
53.8
Buddhist/Ne'oBuddhist
Jain
Others
22.4 34.8
24.5 37.1
12.6 31.0
6.9 28.2
11.142.3
17.7 36.2
16.6 31.6
42.8
38.4
56.4
64.9
46.6
46.1
51.8
66.4 10.0822.8
74.9 7.9 17.3
53.5 12.9 33.6
51.4 25.5 23.1
41.8 213 36.4
46.1 17.2 36.7
61.3 11.7 27.0
41.4 13.8
48.4 11.0
34.6 5.0
35.0 7.2
33.8 8.5
27.2 4.5
36.1 9.6
4.7
5.0
7.6
4.9
6.7
6.0
8.7
39.6
34.9
52.3
52.8
50.9
62.4
43.1
Ethnicity
ScheduledCaste
ScheduledTribe
OtherBackwardCaste
None of the above
24.0 33.9
23.6 36.1
21.4 34.8
21.3 35.1
42.1
40.4
43.7
43.7
67.1 10.7 22.1 43.6 15.9
66.5 9.9 23.6 45.3 16.5
63.5 11.7 24.8 43.0 13.6
68.6 10.5 20.9 39.0 10.3
4.5
5.9
4.3
5.2
Husband- wifeage difference
22.8 36.6
Equal age
0-4 yearsdifference
23.7 35.5
5-9 yearsdifference
22.2 36.6
10 yearsand above difference
22.1 37.4
Does not know husband'sage 12.9 14.0
40.7 71.9 9.6 18.5 43.7 15.6
40.7 68.8 11.3 19.9 41.4 14.1
41.1 68.0 11.3 20.7 41.2 12.7
40.6 69.1 11.1 19.8 42.2 12.2
73.137.8
5.6 56.6 45.6 10.3
Husband- wifeeducationaldifference
Same level
22.6 35.0
More educatedthan husband 17.5 33.3
Less Educated than husband 22.8 35.2
Has beenbeatensinceage 15 years
Not beaten
22.0 34.4
Beaten
22.5 36.8
Religion
Hindu
Muslim
Christian
Sikh
60.0 40.0
47.4 52.6
73.8 66,660
26.2 23,643
56.9
57.0
65.5
27.3
742
39.5
49.1
43.1
43.0
34.5
72.7
25.8
60.5
50.9
81.8 73,824
125
11,319
2.5
2,287
1.6
1,440
0.8
689
0.4
334
0.4
333
35.4
31.1
38.5
45.1
58.3
63.4
62.2
49.5
41.7
36.6
37.8
50.5
18.5 35,330
8.8 16,517
32.2
7,863
39.5 29,723
4.8
4.4
5.6
5.2
5.0
35.3
39.8
40.6
39.8
36.9
54.9
54.3
58.3
58.2
56.4
45.1
45.7
41.7
41.8
43.6
4.1
3,658
32.6 29,424
39.6 35,726
17.2 15,496
6.6
5,999
42A 61.6 9.9 22.5 44.9 14.9
49.3 58.7 13.1 28.2 33.1 6.6
42.1 67.7 10.9 21.4 41.8 13.2
4.7
5.9
4.6
34.6
54.2
40.0
58.6 41.4
53.4 46.5
56.2 43.8
34.3 30,848
11.5 10,336
54.3 48,850
43.6 66.9 10.5 22.6 40.9 12.3
40.7 65.7 12.1 22.2 45.4 15.9
4.8
5.0
41.6
33.0
53.3 46.7
69.4 30.6
79.0
21.0
71,347
18,949
Note: Total includesmissinginformation
on *504 womenon genderpreference
indexand **I6 womenon domesticviolenceindex,who are not
shownseparately.
Total includes80, 862, 1032,270 and 7 womenwithmissinginformation
on religion,ethnicity;
thestandardof livingindex,educationaldifference
and has beatensinceage 15, who are not shownseparately.
women(73%) followedbyJainwomen(61%). Thereis equal genderpreferences.
Women who are the same
notmuchvariationwithrespectto householdautonomy age as theirhusbands or less than 5 years younger
and freedomof movementby caste and tribalstatusof than theirhusbandsdo not justifydomesticviolence.
womenexceptforattitudestowardsgenderpreference. However, educational differencesbetween husband
Women who do not belong to a Scheduled caste, and wifehave a significant
bearingon the empowerhalfof the women,54%,
ScheduledTribeand OtherBackwardCaste have more mentindices.Approximately
positiveattitudestowardsgenderequalityand do not are less educated than theirhusbands. Women who
are more educated than their husbands have more
subscribeto domesticviolence.
This surveyshowsthatnearly7% of thewomendo householdautonomyand more freedomof movement
not know theirhusband'sage. The householdauton- than women who are less educated than theirhusomy of women, freedomof movementand gender bands. The more educated women are less likelyto
do not varymuch accordingto differencessubscribe to domestic violence and they also have
preference
in the ages of husbandand wife.The womenwho are more equal gender preferencesthan the other two
5-9 yearsyoungerthan theirhusbandshave relatively groups. No significantdifferencesare observed in
high household autonomy,high mobilityand more householdautonomyand in freedomof mobilityby
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377
towardsher,she is coded "1" in each instance.Other
responsesare coded "0" in each instance.A logistic
is estimatedforeach model.The odds ratiois
regression
as the proportionate
interpreted
changein the odds of
the eventoccurringforthe unitchangein the value in
thepredictorvariable.
Women's age, level of education,media exposure,
and householdstandardof livingemergedas the best
Determinantsfor empowerments
predictorsforwomen'shouseholdautonomy.The odds
ratioforhouseholdautonomyis morethan one and a
Multiplelogisticregressionanalysis,utilizingthe full halftimesgreaterforolderwomen(age 40-49) thanfor
set of empowerment
variables,was used to identify womenaged 15-29.This is also thecase forwomenwith
forwomen'sempowerment,
aftercontrolling at leasthighschooleducation,as comparedwithwomen
predictors
for the conditionsor settingsof women's lives as who are illiterate.
Womenwho have access to mediaare
described by type of residence,religion,ethnicity, 1.3 times more likelyto have high decision making
and women's autonomythan do women withoutaccess to media,
spousal age and educationaldifferentials,
models are esti- includingnewspapers,TV, radio or cinema. Women
experienceof violence.Four different
mated,one foreach indexof empowerment
(Table 5). witha highstandardof livingare nearly1.2 timesmore
For each model, respondentcharacteristics
are coded likelythanothersto havehighdecision-making
autonomy.
"1" or "0". If a respondenthas highhouseholdautonAge, educationalachievementand media exposure
for are themostimportant
omy or highphysicalmobilityor equal preference
predictorsforwomen'sfreedom
bothsexesor does notagreewithherhusband'sviolence of movementin India. The orderand significance
of the
women's experienceof domestic violence. A higher
proportionof womenwho have experienceddomestic
violencethan the corresponding
proportionof women
who have neverexperienceddomesticviolencereport
no genderpreference
and do not subscribeto domestic
violence.
Table 5. Resultsofmultiplelogisticregression.
Women- withhighhouseholddecisionmakingautonomy,withhighfreedomof movement,with
are
genderequalityattitudeand rejectingdomesticviolencea attitudeare takenas dependentvariables.(Odds Ratio withlevel of significance
givenin the table below)
IndependentVariables
Dependentvariables
Attitude
Autonomy
Women withhigh
Women withhigh
Women with
Women who does
householdautonomy freedomof Movement GenderEqualityAttitude not agree thata
husbandcan beat his wife
Age
15-29
30-39
40-49
RC
1.373***
1.580***
RC
1.671***
2.445***
RC
0.867***
0.778***
RC
1.052***
1.145***
RC
1.228***
1.570***
RC
1.274***
1.869***
RC
1.552***
2.825***
RC
1.231***
2.023***
RC
0.378
RC
0.23
RC
0.432
RC
0.588
Gainfulemployment1
Cash only
Cash and kindonly
Kind only
Not paid
RC
3.348*
2.975
2.648
RC
74.544
63.837
65.175
RC
2.489
1.840
1.734
RC
1.294
1.288
1.278
Exposureto mass media2
Not exposed to any media
Exposed to at least one media
RC
1.323***
RC
1.214***
RC
1.512***
RC
0.861***
Education
Illiterate
Literate/Below
High school
High school and above
Workparticipation
Not Working
Currently
Working/Worked
in thepast 12 months
Standardof livingindex
Low
Medium
RC
RC
RC
RC
1.086***
0.923***
1.013
1.058***
1.189***
0.940***
High
1.221***
1.510***
Scale: ***p < .01; **p < .05; *< .10; Re = ReferenceCategory.
Note: 'For onlywomenwho wereworking;2Exposed to atleasi one media - televisionor radio or newspaperor cinema.
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378
predictorsof physicalmobilityare similarto thosefor
householdautonomyexceptforhouseholdstandardof
living.Womenin mediumand highstandardof living
on free
householdsare morelikelyto have restrictions
movementoutsidethehomethanare womenfromlow
standardof livinghouseholds.
More education,mediaexposure,and a highhouseholdstandardof livingpredictwhenwomenare likelyto
The odds ratio for high
have no genderpreference.
positiveattitudestowardsgenderequalityis morethan
one and a halftimesgreaterforwomenwitha middle
schooleducationand nearlythreefold
higherforwomen
withhighschool or above than is the case forwomen
who are illiterate.Media exposureand householdstandard of livingof the household are also important
determinantsof women's positive attitudestowards
genderequality.The odds ratioforwomenwithaccessto
mediais nearly1.5 timeshigherthanforthosewithout
media access. Householdstandardof livinghas a large
impacton women'segalitarianattitudes;womenfrom
householdswitha highstandardof livingare 1.2 times
morelikelyto have egalitariangenderattitudethanare
womenfromhouseholdswitha low standardof living.
Women'sages and levelsof educationhave emerged
as two highly importantpredictorsfor rebuking
domestic violence. As women's educational levels
increase,so too does thelikelihoodof havinga negative
attitudetowardsdomesticviolence.Womenwithat least
a highschool diplomaare twiceas likelyto rejecthusbands'rightsto use violenceas womenwho are illiterate.
As women age, theyare also more likelyto tolerate
husbands'violence.A household'seconomicstatusalso
towardsdomesticviolence.The
affects
women'sattitudes
thatwomenfrommediumstandard
odds ratiohighlights
of livinghouseholdsare 1.0 timesand womenfromhigh
standardoflivinghouseholdsare 1.5timesmorelikelyto
level < 0.001) than
rejectdomesticviolence(significance
womenfromlow standardof livinghouseholds.
that Indian women's particiThis studyhighlights
pation in the labour force need not enhance their
But thosewho workand earn cash are
empowerment.
likelyto havehighhouseholdautonomy- theodds ratio
of high householdautonomyfor them is more than
women.
threetimesthatof non-working
omyand Indexof Freedomof Movement.However,we
do notfindanyconsistent
patternsin theseindicesas far
as state level differences
are concerned.The Index of
AttitudesTowards High GenderEqualityis highestin
Delhi,followedby HimachalPradesh,Punjab,Haryana
and West Bengal. Withthe exceptionof some Northeasternstates,HimachalPradesh,Punjab and Haryana
also show relativelyhigh household autonomy for
women. However,as far as freedomof movementis
concernedwomen in northernstatesexceptDelhi are
not favourably
situated.Womenin all theSouthIndian
statesexceptAndhra Pradesh;Westernstatessuch as
Goa and Gujarat;and someNortheastern
states,suchas
Mizoram,ArunachalPradesh,and Sikkim,have higher
freedomof movement.Tamil Nadu is the only state
wheremorethanhalfof theevermarriedwomenfallin
thecategoryof highfreedomof movement.
Surprisingly
Kerala, which is oftenquoted for its high status of
and its high
women due to prevalenceof matriarchy
femaleliteracyrate,does not rankin top fivestatesin
any of the above indices.Again Punjab and Haryana,
come to nationalattentionbecause
whichhave recently
of verysharpdeclinesin the sex ratioof 0-6 age popare placed quite
ulation, show high son preference,
favourablywith respectto positiveattitudestowards
genderequalityand women'shouseholdautonomy.A
moregeneralizedspatialpicturethathas emergedfrom
thesefourindicesis thatthestateslyinggeographically
suchas UttarPradesh,
in thecentralpartof thecountry,
Bihar
and Orissa,forma
Pradesh,
Rajasthan,Madhya
of
singleblock with regardto the low empowerment
women.The restof the statesshow a mixedpictureof
Womenin some of theNorthwomen'sempowerment.
eastern states show high household autonomy and
freedomof movementbut do not show highattitudes
towardsgenderequality.
As is the case withregardto statelocation,signifiwereobservedin the above-mentioned
cant differences
and ecofourindiceswithregardto the socio-cultural
of thewomen.The educationlevel
nomiccharacteristics
of womenand theirreligiousaffiliation
presentthemost
Education
indices.
four
in
all
of
the
differences
striking
of
determinant
levelis also foundto be a veryimportant
women'sfavourableattitudestowardsgenderequality,
theirhighhouseholdautonomyand theirhighfreedom
of movement.As the level of educationincreases,the
odds ratiosof all thefourindicesimprovesignificantly.
Discussion and conclusions
However, for household autonomyand freedomof
movement,age turnsout to be a moreimportantpreThe needto updateand refinetheindicatorsofwomen's dictorthandoes education.
is perennial.The availabilityof a new
empowerment
data set fromIndia's second National Family Health
1998 and1999 has made it Notes
Surveyconductedbetween
possibleto measuredimensionsof women'sempowerto givemore
mentthat were previouslynot available. Using these 1. Only 82 womenin thisstudypreferred
educationto girlsand also wantedmore girlsthan
fourcompositeindicesto measure
data, we constructed
in thiscategoryare womenwho
women's empowerment.
Significantstate level differ- boys.The remainder
favourgirlsin at leastone of thequestions,irrespecences are observedin the Index of Women'sAttitudes
tiveon theother.
towardsGenderEquality,Index of Household Auton-
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379
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