19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
A SEMIOTIC MODEL FOR THE ANALYSIS
OF POLITICAL CARTOON
BY
DR. LUBNA RIYADH ABDUL JABBAR
ABSTRACT
Political or editorial cartoons have appeared in newspapers
and magazines (nowadays on line) for over two hundred years. -yet,
no serious account has been paid to the study of this genre. The
reason behind this problem is the perplexing position of this genre
whether to consider it as a type of language or an expression of
humor. To consider Political Cartoon as an expression of humor
means abusing its communicative function .Furthermore; political
cartoons do not necessarily have humor. In this study, It is
hypothesized that
1. Political Cartoon is a visual language with a collection of signsverbal and non verbal - that are loaded with meanings.
2. A linguistic model can be applied to the study of political
cartoons in order to interpret their meanings.
The aim of this research is to show how the combinations of
prior knowledge and signs in political cartoon can lead to its
interpretation (meaning) .The conclusions of this research can be
summarized in the following points:
1. Political Cartoon is a genre with its own code determined by
cartoonist techniques such as: analogy, irony, exaggerations, ,
labels and captions.
2. Political cartoon consists of a number of signs that leads to its
interpretation and expose its code.
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Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
3. A linguistic model ( Barthes' semiotics) can be used for the
analysis of political cartoons
4. With a prior knowledge of the situation of the cartoon under
analysis,
two types of meaning could be interpreted: The
denotation and connotation meanings.
Introduction
Political or editorial cartoons have appeared in the editorial sections
of newspapers and magazines for over two hundred years -yet, “no
discipline has truly embraced the study of political cartoons”
(Diamond; 2002:252).
Many scholars [DeSousa & Medhurst,
(1982); Edwards,(1997); Koetzle & Brunel, (1996); Langeveld,
(1982) ] suffer the lack of serious attention paid to the study of this
genre.
DeSousa & Medhurst (1982:84) describe political cartoon as
a “neglected genre of political communication". The reason behind
this problem is the perplexing position of this genre whether to
consider it as a work of art or an expression of humor (Gombrich,
1963; Paletz, 2002). To consider political cartoons as an expression
of humor means abusing its function because political cartoons do
not necessarily have humor. Diamond (2002: 252) defines this type
of cartoon as "Political Symbols" and the best way to study them is
through the destructions of those signs.
This is not a paper about politics, but rather how political
thoughts and opinions can be interpreted through its complex signs.
In general, the worldview of the artist will be accepted as truth for
the sake of analysis. the notion that the visual code is complex and
different from language, suggests we need a different model to
understand the various facets of sign interpretation. The
interpretation of visual information, because it uses more open
communication codes, is highly subjective and that puts more
demands on a viewer/observer than on a receiver of language-based
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Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
communication which operates within the more restricted space of
convention. It also demands an understanding of how perceptual
and cognitive processes interact.
The coming sections will shed some light on the concept of
sign and the identity of political cartoon. Then, an analysis will be
done on the chosen data
Theoretical Background .
The Concept of Sign
A sign can be a word, a sound, or visual image. It is an
object which stands for another to some mind. Or as Umberto Eco
(1976:7) defines it as
everything which can be taken as significantly substituting for
something else. It may refer to an action, object, or image that
means something to someone somewhere.
It ranges from our gestures to what color dress we wear; and
it may have meaning beyond the object itself. Consequently, the
meaning behind any sign must be learned(Lester; 1995:) . In other
words, for something to be sign, the viewer must understand its
meaning, i.e., If you do not understand the meaning behind the
orange color of a jacket, it is not a sign for you. Thus a sign is
created by a source and need to be" interpreted " by a viewer (Eco
;1986:15)
There are two divergent traditions in semiotics-the European
and the American--but there are differences. The European
approach is proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure who divides a
sign into two components – the signifier (the sound, image, or
word) and the signified, which is the concept the signifier
represents, or the meaning. But the relation between the signifier
and the signified is arbitrary and conventional, i.e., they can mean
different things to different people (in Lechte, 1994). . Furthermore,
Saussure ' sign system is language-based so it is inadequate to
explain the complexity of visual communication. It lacks a theory
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
to describe perceptual interpretation. Such a theory can be found in
semiotics, particularly in the work of C.S. Peirce (1991).
Charles Sandra Pierce, who focuses on the logic of meaning
and the philosophy of knowledge, insists that a sign consists of
three elements and they are as follows:
1- Representament: the sign itself.
2- Object: to which the sign related.
3- Interpretant: the mental image that resulted when a receiver
encounter the sign.
Peircean semiotics allows us to talk of all signs, whether
language or non-language, as components of all forms of meaning.
He believes that, "All the universe is perfused with signs, if it is not
composed exclusively of signs." (ibid.: 258) In other words, to
Peirce signs are not just words and meaning. They are not
necessarily product of conventions or language. Furthermore; He
develops a tripartite system to classify signs as icons, indexes, and
symbols.
1. Iconic: a sign which resembles the signified
2. Symbolic: a sign which does not resemble the signified but which
purely conventional
3. Indexical: a sign which is inherently connected in some way
(existentially or causally) to the signified
(ibid.)
Peirce defines an icon as similar to its subject; in other
words, iconic signs carry some quality of the thing they stand for as
a portrait stands for a person. Most often an iconic sign is a
representation such as a drawing or photograph where likeness or
resemblance is a determining characteristic
. An index is physically connected with its object, an indication that
something exists or has occurred--a footprint means someone just
walked by or smoke that means there is a fire.
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
Symbolic signs, however, arbitrarily stand for something
through a process of consensus as a word stands for a concept. A
symbol, such as a leaf on a flag, is linked by convention with its
object ,e.g., we learn that a maple leaf stands for the country of
Canada. Symbols, therefore, are conventional like most spoken and
written words and subject to a more closed than open interpretation
process. (Peirce, 1991 :239)
Although symbols are arbitrary, icons and indexes are "motivated,"
that is they are more likely to resemble their object in some way
rather than being created by convention.
Icons and indexes are also more open to interpretation since
they are not based on arbitrarily determined meaning relationships
but rather on personal experience. or As Fiske and Hartley (1978:
39) clarify in their book Reading Television,
the greater the motivation, the smaller the role played by socially
based convention; and the weaker the motivation, the more
constraining is the convention.
Symbols, on the other hand, are considered complex signs for they
are socially and culturally determined and their meanings can
change between groups and across time. A flower is a symbol of
love on Mother's Day or Valentine's Day. During the Sixties,
however, the flower came to be a symbol for war protest . Symbolic
meanings, because they are so culturally derived and dependent on
learned meanings, are less well anchored in iconographic
representation and are most subject to personal and idiosyncratic
interpretation.
The distinctions between and among icon, index, and symbol are
not firm boundaries. In fact, a rose can be an icon (a picture), an
index (sign of summer), and a symbol (of love ).Another example is
Photographs which can be indexical as well as iconic because they
are reality grounded. So, it may be said that most signs operate on
several levels--iconic as well as symbolic and/or indexical, which
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
suggests that visual semiotic analysis may be addressing a
hierarchy of meaning in addition to categories and components of
meaning. As Eco explains, "what is commonly called a 'message' is
in fact a text whose content is a multileveled discourse.
Peircian based semiotic theory includes language-based signs as
well as non-language--whether auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli
(internalized feelings and sensations)--which provides a theoretical
platform for understanding a broad range of communication
situations.
Derived from Saussure's study of sign and signification,
Barthes uses two terms to describe the signification process.
Signifier (the object that produces meaning such as body, clothes,
books etc.) and the signified (the concept or mental impression of
the signified). The signified can have multiple signification
(Easthope; 1993:6).
Barthes believes that there are different orders of signification to
distinguish between denotation and connotation Denotation is the
"literal or obvious meaning" or the "first-order signifying system".
For example the denotative meaning of an image refers to its literal,
descriptive meaning. Connotation refers to "second order signifying
systems", additional cultural meanings. He develops further his idea
of the relationship between denotation and connotation: denotation
is associated with closure and Singularity (it is the enemy of free
play, opposing even the limited plurality made possible by
connotation), while connotation represents the principle of opening
up the text to all kinds of cultural meanings, even to the point of
questioning the coherence and the identity of the text. This leads to
the issue of closed and open systems, two types of semiotic
systems. Classical Hollywood cinema is an example of a closed
system. It wants to be "read" in a certain way, guiding the viewer
and resisting alternative readings. Experimental films are often
open systems. There is no "correct" way of interpreting their
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
meaning; on the contrary, they are open to all kinds of readings.
(Barthes, 1957). The first order of signification is that of
denotation, at this level there is a sign consisting a signifier and
signified .Connotation is a second order of signification which uses
the denotative sign (signifier and signified) as its signifier and
attaches to it an additional signified (Chandler, 2002:143):
Barthes argues that connotation is a sign which is derived
from the signifier of a denotative sign so denotation leads to a chain
of connotations, for example when changing from sharp focus to
when taking photograph can generates different connotation. He
explains that denotation is an underlying and primary meaning. But
this notion is criticized by other commentators. Later
Barthes(1977:166) himself gives priority to connotation claiming
that it is not easy to separate the signifier from signified, the
ideological from the literal(Ibid:143).
The identity of political Cartoons
A cartoon is a drawing-representational or symbolic- that
makes a satirical, witty, or humorous point written by a cartoonist
who can be defined as
a writer and artist, philosopher, and punster, cynic and community
conscience. He seldom tells a joke, and often tells the truth, which
is funnier. In addition, the cartoonist is more than a social critic
who tries to amuse, infuriate, or educate. He is also, unconsciously,
a reporter and historian. (Ruff and Nelson: 75).
The origins of the modern political cartoon can be traced to
the 16th century, with drawings used in the theological debates of
the Reformation. The cartoon style as such developed in Britain in
the 1800's and is distinguished by the use of caricature. (Low and
Williams ;2000 : 120)Throughout much of the United States'
history, political cartoons have held a prominent place. During the
Civil War era, Thomas Nast's mastery of the medium was applied
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Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
very effectively to the defense of Lincoln's policies. Nast is the
inventor of Donkey and Elephant signs that remain today the de
facto standard signs for the Democratic and Republican parties,
respectively.
To achieve such ambitious practical results as these, political
cartoons must strike a delicate balance between telling things that
seem real and true, and using wild imagination, exaggeration and
humor. The result is to drive home a powerful and relevant message
in a pleasant way. Indeed, this is the essence of caricature, or satire,
which is the basis for political cartoons effect.
The functions of cartoons
Greenberg(2002:182) Specified the functions of cartoons in the
following words :
cartoons „frame‟ phenomena by situating the „problem‟ in
question within the context of everyday life and . . . exploit
„universal values‟ as a means of persuading readers to identify with
an image and its intended message
cartoons can be used to define social groups (Greenberg, 2002;
Morris, 1993); convey values, attitudes, and beliefs (Cahn, 1984);
and reveal “the interrelationships of people, events, and power”
(DeSousa & Medhurst; 1982 : 84). This last, according to DeSousa
&Medhurst, is the primary sociological function of the political
cartoon, which is essentially “a culture-creating, culturemaintaining, culture-identifying artifact” (ibid.) On this sociocultural
level,
cartoons
reveal
assumptions
and
prejudices(Michelmore, 2000), tapping into the collective
consciousness (Medhurst & DeSousa,1981) in a way that reaffirms
cultural values and assists readers in “maintain[ing] a sense of self,
others, and society” (DeSousa & Medhurst; 1982: 90). DeSousa &
Medhurst determined four functions of political cartoons:
entertainment, aggression reduction, agenda-setting, and framing.
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
These functions illustrate well how the rhetorical approach to
understanding political cartoons ties together the previous
psychoanalytical and sociological perspectives. More specific to
political policy and history, cartoons assist in defining the
significant issues that are topics of political discourse (Edwards,
1995: 33) and at the same time create a record of that discourse as a
sort of snapshot of the political climate. Cartoons both “promote the
symbols of the existing national consensus” (ibid.)and “reflect
dominant images in the American imagination” (ibid.)These images
serve as historical and sociological artifacts: “that reflect a record of
events, visible through the imaginative weave of the cartoonist‟s
viewpoint (Goguen ;1999:270)
cartoons historicize the present and form a collective record of the
social imagination regarding events in political life” (Edwards ,
1997, p. 8).While they may not alter the power relationships in a
given political structure, they do play an important symbolic role in
maintaining them. By showing “the interrelationships of people,
events, and power,” (DeSousa & Medhurst;1982: 84), political
cartoons are forms of symbolic interaction that serve as a means of
“mirroring,
. . . reviewing, or . . . remembering . . . the dominant culture”
DeSousa andMedhurst(ibid.:85) insist that:" The power of the
political cartoon lies not in the specific artist‟s intent or success at
fostering change but in the degree to which, and the manner by
which, the cartoonist taps the collective consciousness of readers
and thereby reaffirms cultural values and individual interpretation
of those values. . . . The cartoon generally functions not as a change
agent but as a statement of consensus, an invitation to remember
cultural values and beliefs and, by implication, to participate in
their maintenance. (ibid.)"for these reasons they can be used as a
lens through which to view and interpret political history (e.g.,
Fischer, (1996); Hess & Northrup, (1996), as well as to educate
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Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
students in current political affairs (Dougherty, (2002). This ability
of cartoons to shape" political social reality” (Bormann etal. ;
(1978) :328) -- in other words, to frame dialogue and define issues - is accepted by most scholars of political cartooning(e.g., DeSousa
&
Medhurst
(1982),
Edwards,(2001)
Gamson
etal
(1992);Greenberg, (2002).
Techniques used in Political Cartoons
There are different techniques used in political cartoons
1. Exaggeration: Sometimes cartoonists overdo, or exaggerate, the
physical characteristics of people or things in order to make a
point.
2. LabelingCartoonists often label objects or people to make it clear
exactlywhat they stand for.
3. analogy is a comparison between two unlike things. By
comparing a complex issue or situation with a more
familiar one,cartoonists can help their readers see it in a
different light.
4.Irony is the difference between the ways things are and the way
things should be, or the way things are expected to be.
Cartoonist soften use irony to express their opinion on an issue.
Analysis of the Chosen Sample
At the heart of semiotics is the realization that the whole of
human experience, without exception, is an interpretive structure
mediated and sustained by signs. (Moriarty,1995a). Semiotics
considers a variety of texts to investigate such diverse areas as
movies, cartoons advertisements, and fashion, as well as visuals
Moriorty (ibid.) believes that visual interpretation sees
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Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
Visual communication as grounded in perception, extended
internally through cognition and language, and modified externally
through social and cultural frames.
The semiotic approach to visual communication stresses the idea
that images are collection of signs that are linked together in some
way by the viewer. And One way to understand how interpretation
of signs works is to analyze the logical process, by which we create
inferences and make sense of things (Langrerhr, 2003).
From a semiotic point of view , Studies of meaning lead to the
interpretation of messages in terms of their signs and patterns of
symbolism. In political cartoons, it would be interesting to
deconstruct the visual image to identify them. And by looking at
the relationship among these signs. The categories of signs and the
relationships between them create a system.
Barthes(, )for example, has analyzed the "fashion system,"
and classified the system of communication through fashion into
two categories: image clothing and descriptive clothing. Likewise,
in political cartoons; we expect exaggerated and funny signs to be
shown, and pleasant yet powerful messages to be interpreted.
The sample will be analyzed according to the Barthes' model
of levels of meaning. Two levels of interpretations are going to be
followed in the analysis: the Micro and Macro. The Micro
interpretation deals with the identification and type of the signs and
their surface and implied meanings which will be set up in a table.
The Macro interpretation, on the other hand, will deal with the
literal and implied meanings of the whole message. The signs that
are going to be analyzed are shown in the following image:
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
Table (1) Identification , Meaning and Types of the Signs
The Connotation
Meanings and types of
the Signs
Violation of Human
Rights
NO.
Identification of
the Signs
The Denotation Meanings
and types of the Signs
1
The Label
Abu Ghraib Prison-Iconic
2
USA
The United State of
America -Iconic
Charge off
American Army-Iconic
Deviation of the Real
Function
Human Body Parts -iconic
Stupidity
3
4
The Two
Soldiers
The Noses and
Eyes of the
Soldiers
5
The whip
6
7.
8
The Rifle
The Old Man
Dirty Floor
Windows with
Iron Bards
9.
10
The Hat
11
The Man's Nose
12
The Man's Lips
13
TheMan's Eyes
14
15.
16
The Man's Body
-Naked and
Skinny"
The Long White
Beard
The Caption
A tool used for AnimalsIconic
A tool -Iconic
A Human Being Iconic
Unclean – Iconic
Killing -Symbolic
Uncle Sam Symbolic
Abandoned- Symbolic
Protection -Symbolic
Isolations-Symbolic
A piece of Clothes with
USA Flag Colors -Iconic
A human Body PartIconic
A human Body PartIconic
A human Body Part iconic
Uncle Sam's hatSymbolic
Torture- Symbolic
Humiliation- Symbolic
Sadness- symbolic
Tired -Symbolic
No Clothes , No FoodIndexical
Sexual Punishment ,
Starvation-symbolic
Old Man -Indexical
Neglected – Symbolic
Question -Iconic
To be Sure -Symbolic
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
The Denotation Level of the Image
The image takes place in Abu Graib Prison in Iraq. The place has a
dirty ground and two windows with no views to the outside
It shows two American soldiers talking to each other and pointing
to an old man standing in front of them. One of the soldiers is
holding a rifle and asking his friend -who is holding a whip in his
hand- whether they have humiliated and disgraced the old man to a
certain point.
The old man ,on the other hand, looks miserable. He is naked
and starved to the bone. He hasn't been shaving, which is obvious
from his long white beard. He has a long nose. Down directed lips
and crossed tired eyes. He is wearing a hat with the American flag .
The Connotation Level of the Image
The place is Abu Graib Prison which comes to be known as
the place of violation of human right. The dirty ground is a sign of
abandoned place where no one can come to clean it up .The widows
show a sign of isolation .Where as the wall with the naked bricks
give the sense of deterioration .
The cartoonist has used the art form of caricature in order to
portray the Americans in a certain light. In other words,
exaggeration and distortion is used to leave the reader to ascertain
the characteristics and values of that person .The American soldier
have been created to be short, fat and squat with large noses and
small eyes. These characteristics are stereotypical of people that are
not that intelligent, and have more brawn than brain! It is the
caricature that reduces the effect of what is being said, your eyes
are drawn instantly to the American soldiers, rather than to the
speech bubble.
The main sign used in this cartoon is the fact that they are
wearing their army fatigues; it speaks volumes of how they believe
that this is all part of their fight for victory. Their pride in the
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Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
American Army uniform shows that what they are doing, they are
doing it for America and ultimately George Bush.
Many of the photos taken from Abu Ghraib show the
American soldiers out of their full uniform, which is why this
element of the cartoon is so poignant. This cartoonist is attempting
to portray the emotionless and callous response of the American
soldiers towards the Iraqi soldiers. The Iraqi soldiers were
emotionally and mentally abused as well as ,for humiliation and
disgrace occur on the psychological side. Conveying how little they
care about what they are doing, it is as if it is just another job for
them. I believe that the cartoonist is particularly attempting
to illustrate the sense of the dehumanization of the Iraqis.
This cartoon also shows the famous image of Uncle Sam,
presented in a far different way than in past examples of
propaganda. Where Uncle Sam has been used in the past as a
positive depiction of American pride and unity, he now appears as a
suffered and humiliated figure. He has no decision to make, he has
no choice. He has been suffered, tortured, starved and sexually
abused and still he can't defend himself.
All of those features are shown through the signs of the face (see
table 1).In the past, Uncle Sam has been shown pointing at
Americans telling them of their need to sign up for war duty. This
contrast has a far different impact on the public than in the past.
The message is clear despite the unusual depiction of Uncle Sam.
Like Uncle Sam, the United States is represented as a humiliated
and disgraced country that has lost its glorious history. The use of
Uncle Sam is sure to encourage an emotional reaction from the
reader most likely one of negativity and consequently leads to the
second contrast. The second contrast in this cartoon can be read
what the soldiers have done is that they have humiliated and
disgraced themselves and not the Iraqi people.
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
Conclusions
Political Cartoon consists of a number of signs. A cartoonist
may use verbal, non verbal, or both. Whether verbal or non verbal,
they all have meaning. This meaning could be explicit or implicit.
The explicit meaning is called denotation whereas the implicit
meaning is called connotation; and this is verified the first
hypothesis which reads " Political Cartoon is a visual language with
a collection of signs- verbal and non verbal - that are loaded with
meanings."
Semiotics is the science that deals with signs. It is part of
linguistics ,i.e., it is part of the study of language . A sign is a
meaningful unit which is interpreted as standing for something
other than itself .Signs may be found in the physical forms of
words, images, sounds, acts, or objects. Signs have no meaning
and become signs only when sign users invest them with meaning
.Studies of meaning from a semiotics point of view seek to
interpret messages in terms of their signs . The categories of signs
and the relationships between them create a system with two levels
of meaning: the Denotation level and the Connotation level. The
denotative meaning of the text is reflected through the literal
meanings of the signs used. The connotative meaning is reflected
by the inner meaning of the sign , i.e., what it symbolizes in our
real world
Techniques of the political cartoon (Exaggeration,
Contrast, Labeling and Irony are revealed through the interpretation
of the signs on the connotation level. And this is verified the second
Hypothesis which reads "A linguistic model can be applied to the
study of political cartoons in order to interpret their meanings".
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19 ‫ العدد‬/ ‫مجلة كلية االداب‬
Dr. Lubna Riyadh Abdul Jabbar
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