Homer’sOdysseyandApuleius’MetamorphosesasNostoiofSelfandIdentity
InApuleius’Metamorphoses,theinquisitiveprotagonist,Lucius,istransformedintoadonkeybya
botchedmagicalspell.Hesubsequentlyexperiencesincredibleordealsandabuseasananimalbefore
finallybeingrestoredtohumanform.AsastoryaboutthescrapesandsojournsthatLuciusendures,
theMetamorphosesclearlyresonateswiththearduousnostosofOdysseus.Thereareexplicit
referencestotheharshjourneyandcunningofOdysseusembeddedinApuleius’narrative,andscholars
havelongobservedparallelsbetweentheOdysseyandApuleius’Metamorphoses.JamesT.Svendsen,
forinstance,hasnotedthateachwork“involvesamythicvoyageintotheunknown”whichbringsabout
developmentoftheprotagonist’sidentity.
ExpandingupontheobservationsofSvendsenandothers,thispaperwillinvestigateconnections
betweenLucius’re-transformationintohumanformandOdysseus’returntoIthaca.Inthissense,Iwill
beinterpretingLucius’recoveryofhumanformasthecompletionofanostosinwhichheisphysically
alienatedfromtheidentityhepossessesatthebeginningofthenovel.Whilehedoesnotseektoreturn
toahomelandproper,Luciuscontinuallysearchesforthecomfortsandfamiliaritiesofhisformerlife,
muchlikeOdysseus.ThissearchintheMetamorphosesisproblematizedagainstthemodelofthe
Odyssey,however,whenLuciusisreintegratedintohumansociety.Insteadofreturningtohisprevious
stationinlife,likeOdysseus,Luciusrenounceshispreviouslywantonwaysandbecomesanaustere
devoteeofthegoddessIsis.Whilethisabruptandunexpectedturnofeventscertainlycomplicates
analogiesbetweenLucius’andOdysseus’returnstocivilization,mypaperwillattempttodemonstrate
thattheirnostoiarepresentedwithsimilarlanguageandimagery,andwithsimilarattentiontoissuesof
identity.Inconnectionwiththesepoints,IwillexaminehowtheidentitiesofbothLuciusandOdysseus
areaffectedbythecompletionoftheirnostoi,andIwillarguethatcertaincentral,enduring
characteristicsofbothfiguresarereaffirmeduponthemomentoftheirhomecoming.Thisanalysiswill
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allowustoreevaluatetheultimateconsequencesofLucius’questandwillmakeusmoreattunedtothe
developmentofOdysseus’identityinhisownnostos.
SoonafterLuciusistransformedintoadonkeyinBook3oftheMetamorphoses,similaritiesto
Odysseus’situationbecomeapparent.Lucius’transformationdepriveshimofhisfacultiesof
communication,andthenceforwardhemustconfrontfeelingsofisolationanddetachmentfromhis
previouslife,muchlikeOdysseus.AsJ.L.Penwillpointsout,itissignificantthatLuciusdeclaresthat“he
hasabandonedhishome…onlyafewpagesbeforethetransformation.”Soonaftersettingoutonwhat
wasoriginallyajourneytoconductbusiness,Luciusessentiallybecomeslosttocivilization.Immediately
afterhistransformation,heismistreatedbyaformerhorseandslavewhofailtorecognizehisidentity,
andgoingforwardLuciusisseenasalowly,anonymousbeastofburden,a“nobody.”LateroninBook
11welearnthathewasinfactreportedasdeadtohisownfamilyandfriends—afatewhichcrossesthe
mindofOdysseus’familyandpromptsTelemachostogoonhisownjourneytoseekoutwordaboutthe
statusofhisfather.
Despitebeingalienatedfromsocietyandphysicallydissociatedfromhisformerself,Luciusinformsus
inBook9thathisexperiencesasadonkeyrenderhimmoreknowledgeable—“multisciumreddidit”,as
seeninpassage#1ofthehandout,apparentlyechoingtheHomericepithet“polumetisOdysseus”–
“many-wiledOdysseus”,whichappearsthroughouttheOdyssey.Whilebothcharactersarenaturally
wilyandcrafty,theirjourneysendowthemwithheightenedinsight.Luciusattributesthisincreaseof
knowledgetotheanonymityaffordedbyhisguiseasadonkey,whichallowshimtowitnesspeople
sayinganddoingthingstheywouldordinarilyconcealfromhimasahuman.Moreover,Luciusalsotells
usthathis“auribusgrandissimis”,or“verylargedonkeyears”(seehandout#2)—augmentedhisability
toeavesdropevenfromfaraway.Thisopportunitytoobservepeoplewhoareunsuspectingofhis
surveillancepresentsLuciuswithauniqueperspectiveonhissurroundings.Similarly,Odysseusisable
togainvaluableinsightsintothenatureofvariousgroupsheconfrontsduringhisjourneybyeithernot
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immediatelyrevealinghisidentityordeliberatelyconcealingit,aswithhisveiledmovementamongst
thesuitorsonIthaca.
Inthisway,theobscuritywhichthesecharactersenterintoduringtheirjourneysenablesthemto
attainspecialknowledgeabouttheworldfromwhichtheyareestranged.Atthesametime,however,
Luciusdownplaystheoverallimpactoftheknowledgeheacquires,almostparadoxicallyassertingthat
heis“minusprudentem”—“lesswise”(seehandout#1again)despiteeverythinghehaslearned.
AccordingtoE.J.Kenney,thisstatementmightimplythatLuciushasbeguntolookdownupthevalueof
astonishing,worldlytalesinfavorofmorehigh-brow,“philosophical”formsofknowledge.Kenney’s
pointremindsusthatLuciusrelatestheentirestoryofhisexperiencesasadonkeyafterhehasreturned
tohumanformandundergoneareligiousawakeningwhichsupposedlyresultsinhimbecomingmore
wiseandaustere.Thus,whenLuciussaysthathehasbecome“minusprudentem”eventhoughhis
experiencesmadehimmoreknowledgeable,hemightbeassertingthattheobservationshewasableto
makewhileincognitoarenotwhatshouldreceivecreditforhisintellectualgrowth.
EllenFinkelpearl,ontheotherhand,proposesthattheword“minus”inthissentencecouldberead
asdrawingacomparisonbetweenOdysseusandLuciusregardingwhoismore“prudentem”,or
“possessingofpracticalwisdom.”Underthisinterpretation,Luciuswouldbemodestlydeferringtothe
cunningofOdysseus,declaringthatthewisdomheacquiredwasnotasgreatasOdysseus’wisdom.This
isverydifferentfromsayingthatLucius’wanderingsmadenopositivecontributiontohisprudentia,as
Kenneysuggests.BothoftheseinterpretationsofLucius’statementaboutbecoming“minus
prudentem”areworthconsidering,andIbelievethatwecanalsoquestiontheextenttowhichLucius
becomesmoreknowledgeableandwiseevenafterhistransformationandreligiousconversion.By
comparingtheendingofLucius’journeywithaparallelscenefromtheOdyssey,wewillbeabletogain
furtherinsightintohoweachcharacter’snostosshapestheirknowledgeandoverallsenseofidentity.
3
AttheendofBook10oftheMetamorphoses,Luciusescapesfromthefinalordealshemustendure
asadonkey,whichincludebeingenslavedasaperformerinahumiliatingcircusside-show.After
gallopingformiles,hefallsasleepandwakesupatthebeginningofBook11freefromhisformer
captors.Immediatelyhesensesthatheisinthepresenceofanenchantingforce,andbeginstoprayto
astatueofthegoddessIsiswhichappearsbeforehim.Asseeninhandout#3,hebegsthegoddess
“reddemeconspectuimeorum,reddememeoLucio”–“restoremetothesightofmypeople,restore
metotheLuciusIwas....”WhenLuciusconcludeshisprayer,themagnificentfigureofIsisappears
beforehimandinstructshimthathecanreturntohumanformbychewingonagarlandofroseswhich
willbecarriedbyapriestinanupcomingfestivalprocessioninhonorofthegoddess.Isisalsoinforms
Luciusthathemustpledgetheremainderofhislifetothedisciplinedserviceofthegoddess,whooffers
continualprotectionandblessingsinreturn.
Eagertoregainhumanform,LuciusfollowsIsis’instructions,andbeginsthesolemnpreparationsfor
hisretransformationandinitiationintoIsis’cultbypurifyinghimselfinseawater.Thisprocessof
purificationandreligiousdevotionappearstobeadramaticchangefromLucius’previouslifestyleasa
free-wheeling,sex-drivenbusinessmaneasilytitillatedbymagicalexploits.Indeed,Lucius’dedicationto
Isisissaidtomakehim“renatus”–literally,born-again(asshowninhandout#4)—thuspresentinghis
returntohumanformasbothaphysicalandspiritualtransformation.Inaddition,Lucius’returnis
representedasanarrivalattheharborofpeace—“portumQuietis”(seehandout#5),whichprovides
himwithrelieffromhardshipsimposedbyFortune.ThisimageofIsisasametaphoricalsafe-havenor
“portum”forLuciusmirrorsApuleius’descriptionoftheplacethatLuciusfleestoattheendofBook10,
aswecanseeinhandout#6.Here,Luciusescapestoa“portus…tutissimumnaviumreceptaculum
magnofrequentaturpopulo”–thatis,a“harborwhichisaverysaferefugeforships,visitedbylarge
groupsofpeople.”Furthermore,thisparticularharborislocatedinCenchreae,neartheSaronicGulf,
whichliesinclosegeographicproximitywithLucius’nativeCorinth.Soonafterhearrivesatthisharbor
4
wefindoutthatrumorofLucius’returnhasquicklyreachedhisfamilyandfriends.AsLuciusexpresses
inhandout#7,theyallrushtoseehim,amazedandrelievedtoseethismanwhomtheyviewas
“diurnamreducemqueabinferisconspectum”—“asightledbacktothelightofdayfromthedead.”In
responsetotheseimpressionsthathehasbeenresurrectedfromthedead,Luciusremarksthathefeels
“recreatus”or“renewed”,reinforcingthenotionsofrebirthinherenttohistransformation.
ThelanguageandimageryofLucius’returntohumanformandreintegrationintohumansociety
stronglyresonatewithHomer’sdescriptionofOdysseus’returntoIthacainBook13oftheOdyssey.
AfterthePhaeakianstransportOdysseusfromtheirislandbacktoIthaca,theydrophimoffwhileheis
asleepandsailaway.BeforeOdysseusawakens,Homertransitionsintoadetaileddescriptionofthe
tranquilharborofIthacawhichOdysseushasjustentered.Ashortexcerptofthisdescriptionisseenin
handout#8:“αὐτὰρ ἐπὶ κρατὸς λιµένος τανύφυλλος ἐλαίη, / ἀγχόθι δ’ αὐτῆς ἄντρον
ἐπήρατον ἠεροειδές,/ ἱρὸν Νυµφάων, αἳ Νηϊάδες καλέονται.”“Attheheadoftheharborthere
isanolivetreewithfanningleaves/andnearbyitthereisacave,pleasantandshaded,/sacredtothe
nymphswhoarecalledtheNaiads.”Thepleasant,soothingimageryofthissanctuaryrecallstheliteral
andmetaphorical“harborofpeace”whereLuciuswakesupimmediatelybeforehistransformationinto
humanform.Furthermore,thefactthatOdysseusisasleepwhenhefinallyreachesIthacaaftera20yearabsencealsoparallelsLucius’situationinBook11oftheMetamorphoses.WhenOdysseus
eventuallywakesup,heisuncertainofhislocationandfearsthatthePhaiakianshaveabandonedhimin
yetanotherthreateninglocation.Thisuncertaintyisexacerbatedbyamistthatcoverstheisland,
makingitunrecognizabletoOdysseus.EvenafterAthenainformsOdysseusthathehasinfactreached
Ithaca,OdysseusremainsdubiousandisnotconvinceduntilAthenadispersesthemistandeverything
becomesclear.Inthisway,Odysseus’homecomingismarkedbyamomentofrevelation,ashemoves
5
fromastateofignorancetorecognition—andfromperiltoafeelingofserenity—undertheguidanceof
abenevolentfemalegoddess.
UnlikeIsis’suddenappearancetoLucius,thisisofcoursenotthefirsttimeAthenahasintervenedto
helpOdysseus.Nevertheless,itisakeymomentinwhichOdysseusisgivenanewsenseoflifebythe
goddess.InaninstantOdysseusistransformedfromskepticalanddemoralizedtoexultantand
reinvigorated,asseenin#9ofthehandout:“ ὣς εἰποῦσα θεὰ σκέδασ’ ἠέρα, εἴσατο δὲ χθών· /
γήθησέν τ’ ἄρ’ ἔπειτα πολύτλας δῖος Ὀδυσσεὺς / χαίρων ᾗ γαίῃ, κύσε δὲ ζείδωρον
ἄρουραν.”“Thusspeakingthegoddessscatteredtheair,andthelandwasseen./Thenmuch
enduring,godlikeOdysseuswasdelighted/andrejoicinginhisland,kissedthelife-givingground.”As
Homer’slanguageindicates,finallyseeinghis“ζείδωρον,or“life-giving,”homelandgivesOdysseusa
newleaseonlife,andalsorepresentstheprospectofreturningtotheoldlifeheoncehad.This
recognitionisareawakeningforOdysseus,bringinganendtoatwenty-yearperiodofabsenceand
distress.AlthoughOdysseusdoesnotimmediatelyreunitewithhisfamilyandisfacedwithnewtrialsat
thispointoftheepic,thewanderingtravelsofhisnostosarebroughttoanend.Somescholars,suchas
IreneJ.F.deJong,choosetodistinguishbetweenanexternalandinternalnostos,withOdysseus’arrival
onIthacamarkingtheendofhissea-bornejourneysoutsideofIthaca.Onecannotmakepreciselythe
sameexternal/internaldistinctionwithLucius,sincehestrivestoregainhumanform,ratherthan
seekinganyparticulargeographicdestination.
AlthoughOdysseus’goalsaredifferentfromthoseofLucius,theaccomplishmentofhisreturnto
Ithacaisalsodepictedintermsofrebirth.Awakeningintoastrange,newworld,Odysseusisunawareof
hissurroundingsandhaslimitedpowersofsight,notunlikeababyemergingfromthewomb.Erling
HoltsmarkandCharlesTaylorhavecommentedonthewomb-likesymbolismofKalypso’scave,andit
6
wouldseemfittingtoextendthisinterpretationtothecavethatisdescribedwhenOdysseusisreturning
toIthacainBook13.Moreover,thearchingshapeoftheharboritselfevokestheimpressionof
returningtothewomb,asiftobere-born.WhenthePhaeakiansdepositOdysseusinthisharbor,they
leavehimwrappedupinablanketandbedlinen,perhapsakintotheswaddlingclothesofanew-born
child.JustasIsisnurturesLuciusinhismomentofsalvation,Athenaplaystheroleofmaternalprotector
fortherebornOdysseus,welcominghimintothis“new”worldandbestowinganewfoundsenseof
purposeuponhim.
ConsideringthegreatchangesinlifestylethatLuciusadoptsafterreassuminghumanform,the
notionofhimreturningtoafamiliarharbormightseemsomewhatincongruous.Indeed,Lucius’
“rebirth”seemstosignaladeparturefromhispreviousways,whichisreinforcedwhenhedonsnew
clothesandshaveshishead,takingonanappearancethatismarkedlydifferentfromhisprevious
humanform.Odysseusalsoassumesanalteredappearancesoonafterhisreturnand“rebirth”,with
Athenatransforminghimintoanoldbeggar.UnlikeLucius’newlook,however,thisguiseisonlymeant
tobetemporaryandisintendedtohelpOdysseuscontinuethemissionhehaspursuedfromthe
beginning.Inthisway,thenewcostumethatcomeswithOdysseus’“rebirth”directshimmoretoward
reclaiminghisinitialstatusandcondition,whileLucius’newmannerofdressistheharbingerofanew
lifestyle,socialcircle,andreligion.
NotonlydoesthisdisguisehelpOdysseusachievelong-heldgoals,italsorevealsthatthe
fundamentalnatureofhischaracterisverymuchunchanged.ThedisguiseperpetuatesOdysseus’
reputationasatrickster,allowinghimtoplotvengeanceagainstthesuitorswhiletestingtheloyaltyof
hisfamilyandfriends.EnteringintothisdisguiseepitomizesOdysseancunningandcircumspection,
evenwhilethelowlysqualorofthedisguiseitselfappearsmismatchedwithOdysseus’regalstatus.
7
Moreover,beforeassumingthisdisguise,Odysseusrepeatedlydoubtsthathehasactuallyreachedhis
homelandofIthacadespitethereassurancesofAthena,thushighlightinghisskepticalinclinations.
Atfirstglance,thisaffirmationofidentityseemstobeatoddswithwhathappenstoLuciusuponhis
rebirthandreturntocivilization.However,lookingbeyondthesurfaceandseeingpastLucius’altered
externalappearanceandnewreligiouscustoms,itbecomesevidentthatseveralfundamentalaspectsof
hisidentityarepreserved.Inthescenesthatprecedehistransformationintoadonkey,Lucius
obsessivelydevoteshimselftoaslave-girlnamedPhotis,whosebeautyandfamiliaritywithmagichavea
transfixingeffectonhim.JustasheprovidesadetailedpictureofIsis’majesticphysicalappearancein
Book11,LuciusalsodelvesintoanextendeddescriptionofPhotis’radiantbeautyinBook2.Asattested
bythewordsinboldinhandout#s10and11,bothdescriptionsdrawattentiontodetailssuchas
clothing,hair,andbodymovement,paintingaglimmeringandfloridportraitofeachfigure’sphysical
appearance.Inbothpassages,Luciusisenrapturedbysensuousfeatures,resultinginhisimmediate
devotiontothewomanhegazesupon.Discussingthenarrativestructureofthenovel,Stavros
Frangoulidishasnotedtheparallelfunctionplayedbythesefemalecharactersatthebeginningandend
ofLucius’quest.Hissimilarmanneroflookingatandreactingtotheseparallelfiguressuggeststhatkey
aspectsofLucius’identityremainintactwhenheis“reborn.”WhilehisattractiontoPhotisismore
overtlysexual,Lucius’descriptionofIsisdemonstratesthathismindremainsrootedinthesensory
experience,showingthathecanstillbeoverwhelmedbytheappearanceofanenchantingwoman.
Another hallmark trait of Lucius which is evident both before and after his transformation is his
unrelentingcuriosity.AsseenearlierinHandout#2,Luciusmentionshowhetookconsolationinhaving
“auribusgrandissimis”afterbeingturnedintoadonkey.EvenearlierinBook3,Lucius’insistenceupon
observingthewitchPamphileperformmagicalspellsultimatelybringsabouthistransformationintoa
donkey.WhileLuciusdistanceshimselffromtheworldofmagicwhenhebecomesadevoteeofIsis,he
quicklygrowsimpatientwiththelengthyconversionprocess.Herepeatedlystatesthatheburnswith
8
longingtobeadmittedtothemysteriesoftheIsisfaith,atonepointsayingthathisyearningforfulland
swiftinitiationisdrivinghimtothepointofmadness.Suchstatementsexposethatheretainsahasty
approach to gaining knowledge, as well as a fervor for esoteric rituals. Even though he has been
“reborn”andcommenceddisciplinedreligioustraining,Luciusholdsfasttohisimpatientdispositionand
quintessentialinquisitiveness,withonlytheobjectofhiscuriositychanging.NancyShumatehasargued
thattheadversityLuciusexperiencesasadonkeyfundamentallyseparateshimfromhisoriginalself,but
thesepersistentfeaturesofLucius’charactersuggestamuchlesssharpdeparture.
Inclosing,letusreturntoLucius’claimthathisexperiencesasadonkeymadehim“minus
prudentem”—lesswise.Perhapsthisstatementcannowbeseenaschallengingtheaudienceto
reconsiderhowmuchLuciusreallydoeschangeevenafterhisre-transformationandrebirthasadisciple
ofIsis.Whilehetakesonaverydifferentfaçade,someofhismostfundamentalhabitsandmannerisms
remainverymuchthesameastheywereattheonsetofhisjourney.AswithOdysseus,the“rebirth”
thatcomesattheendofLucius’nostosdoesnotusherinsweepingchangesinpersonalidentity,but
ratherreaffirmsandremindsusofsomeofhisdefiningcharactertraits.Bypayingattentiontohow
OdysseusisaffectedbyhisreturntoIthaca,wecangaininsightintothestablenatureofLucius’
personalityoverthecourseoftheMetamorphoses.Thereturnofbothcharactersisjuxtaposedwitha
developmentandextensionoftheoriginalself,ratherthandeviatingtowardanewidentity.Although
Odysseusisnot“reborn”inthesamesensethatLuciusis,hisreturntoIthacacontainsmanyelements
thatarecomparabletothetreatmentofreturnandrebirthatthecompletionofLucius’journey.By
readingthesescenesofhomecomingintandemandperceivingtheresonancesbetweenthem,wecan
becomemoreattunedtoenduringcharacteristicsofbothLuciusandOdysseus.Thiscanleadustoa
richerunderstandingofeachworkandthewaysinwhichsuchcharactersmay—ormaynot—be
impactedbytheconclusionofanostos.
9
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