Youth workers
and stress
Much has been written about the theory and practice
of youth work, and there has been a particular focus on
the youth worker/young person interaction. This article,
however, focuses on the neglected area of youth workers
themselves and how they are affected by stress resulting
from their choice of occupation. It provides some insights
into how youth workers and their organisations can identify
and minimise much of this stress.
by Vaughan Bowie
36
he youth work profession comprises a mixed group of people with varying motivations
for their involvement in such a field. On entry to the work situation, the worker soon finds
these motivations sorely tested in a five-way squeeze of competing ideas and practicalities
that not only relate to the job, but which also spill over into his or her total lifestyle. These five areas
include:
1. workers’ internal needs, the individual’s desire for significance, self-worth, personal growth and
some measure of success and security
2. service user needs and demands
3. team and organisational pressures
4. personal and social relationships, often of a diminishing nature
5. political and broader societal pressures, e.g. lack of funding.
Each of these five areas may contribute unique pressures to the youth worker’s life, and all these
areas will interact to some extent, both through and around the worker. These factors may have both
positive and negative effects upon the worker.
There are many reasons – both individual and structural – as to why stress-related issues
aren’t dealt with. Some workers don’t believe it will happen to them. Others may be ashamed to
acknowledge to their colleagues that they aren’t coping. Some may not even understand what is
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Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
happening, while others believe they can tough
it out like the frog in the slowly heating hot
water. Management may further compound the
issues by denying the presence of stress-related
issues and/or not providing sufficient resources
to deal with them.
In a somewhat similar fashion, groups of
workers, the team and the organisation may
also be faced with pressures from the clients,
their families and friends, as well as the broader
society. Under these competing pressures,
individual workers, teams and organisations
may begin to show, over time, inappropriate
and non-effective behaviour in their work.
Such behaviours may also spill over into wider
personal and social aspects of workers’ lives.
These behaviours, both cause and effect,
are sometimes referred to as stress or stressors.
The word “stress” has different connotations in
its current use. It can refer to: 1) an increasing
environmental force (e.g. too much work, long
hours), 2) the effect of such forces (fatigue,
boredom) or 3) the individual’s reaction in such
a situation (irritability, excitement).
Hans Selye (1974), the “father” of stress
research, defines stress as the non-specific
response of the body to any demand made upon
it. Thus we can see difficulties in the use of the
term “stress” in a consistent fashion, and care
must be exercised in understanding what aspect
of the term we are referring to. However, in
general, at the personal level the word “stress”
used here will refer to any demands, called
stressors, that tax or stimulate an individual at
the physiological, psychological or social levels,
and the responses of that individual to these
perceived demands.
To further complicate the issue, there are
a number of more specific conditions, such as
burnout (Edelwich & Brodsky 1980), depression
(Bowie 1996; Morrow, Verins & Willis 2002),
compassion fatigue (Gentry 2002), vicarious
trauma (Saakvitine & Pearlman 1996) and posttraumatic stress disorder (Wee & Myers 2005),
that may have some common links under the
broader umbrella of stress reactions.
Another difficulty in using the word stress
is often the lack of definition as to whether the
stress is self-imposed, that is, arising from the
individual’s needs, desires or perceptions, or
whether it is externally imposed from the other
four areas of interaction. At times the distinction
between self- and externally imposed stress is
not clear and they often interact. This can make
cause and effect relationships difficult to clarify.
Sources of stress
Looking more closely at some of the possible
stressors – either self-imposed or externally
imposed – that can enter workers’ lives, we
see an increasing awareness of stress as arising
from a breakdown in the total lifestyle balance.
People are being seen more as an integrated
whole – body, mind and spirit. In this sense, the
term “holistic” lifestyle is gaining greater usage,
indicating the need for this three-way balance.
This balance is not a static one but, ideally,
involves ongoing development at the physical,
cognitive and spiritual levels.
These three areas are in a fine balance,
and the lack of development in one area
quickly involves the other two. Workers may
temporarily cope with such an imbalance but
not for any prolonged period of time without
feeling under stress.
So, what factors, or stressors, should we
be aware of that may upset this process of
development of a ‘holistic’ lifestyle? These might
include:
Physical
• unsuitable physical environment
• illness and disability
• effects of an unhealthy lifestyle.
Mind/social relationships
• previous and current relationships
• interpersonal conflicts
• value clashes
• unrealistic expectations
• lack of self-esteem and confidence
• unclear motives for helping.
Spiritual
• lack of meaning/purpose
• unresolved questions about life and death.
Note again the interrelated nature of these
three areas of our life. An imbalance in any
one area affects the other two, and increasing
growth in one can stimulate the others.
Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
37
Self-imposed stressors
Often our expectations of ourselves and others
may be a major factor in self-imposed stress
as distinct from stressors imposing upon us
from external factors. Such unrealistic expectations are often related to a poor or distorted
self-image that may drive us to gain self-worth
entirely through our work or relationships with
fellow workers or young people.
Quite often in the early stages of “helping”,
idealistic youth workers may saddle
themselves with unrealistic expectations and
goals as to what can be achieved in the short
term. When these goals take longer than
expected, cynicism or disillusionment may
set in. It seems a trait of human personality
often to overestimate what can be achieved in
the short term, while at the same time underestimating what can be accomplished, with
persistence, in the long term.
Edelwich and Brodsky (1980) outline this
process of increasing disillusionment in a fourstage stress reaction model of burnout:
1. Enthusiasm
This is a time of much energy, hope and (often)
unrealistic expectations of self. Excessive work
and over-identification with young people are
typical of this stage.
2. Stagnation
Here the job is no longer sufficient to supply the
workers’ needs, and enough of the reality of the
job has come to light for the worker to also want
more money, time for self, friends and career
development.
3. Frustration
At this time, the worker begins to question her
or his effectiveness, the value of their work and
the client’s motivation. The limits of the job
become much more obvious and the worker
may begin to display physical, emotional and
behavioural signs of stress.
4. Apathy
Here the introverted worker just goes through
the motions, doing the minimum amount
of work necessary, avoids challenges, takes
excessive sick leave and may show signs of
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Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
depression. The more extroverted personalities may at this stage take on more work until
they finally collapse physically or mentally.
Aguilera and Messick (1986) add another
dimension to that of disillusionment – that of
hopelessness. Hopelessness, they claim, may occur
at any of the stages 2 to 4, causing workers to feel
like giving up helping others. They may attempt
to deny such feelings or any appearance of being
“unprofessional”, leading often to their assuming
that they are the only one facing such feelings.
Through these four stages we see a possible,
but not inevitable, move from initial empathy to
final apathy, overlain with increasing hopelessness.
Edelwich and Brodsky (1980) make two
further points about these stages. First, that
these stages can be highly contagious, affecting
other workers as well as clients. Second, these
stages are neither linear nor inevitable, but
one worker can go through a number of repeat
cycles as different interventions are tried.
We therefore need to recognise the often
long-term “marathon” nature of helping young
people, in contrast to the short-term “sprint”
attitude often taken to such work. In crisis
situations a worker may well have to sprint for
a while, but there is also the need to be able to
pace oneself appropriately to the task over time.
In crisis situations we need to remember
that we must first learn to cultivate a stable,
appropriate self-image before we can be of help
to others – love your neighbour as yourself.
A coming to terms with who we are and our
purpose in life is the foundation of a mature
approach to helping ourselves and others.
Stages and types of burnout
As previously suggested, one type of stress
reaction could be that of burnout. It is important
also to be aware that burnout has a number
of dimensions within it that occur at each of
the previously mentioned four levels. The
dimension of time, as noted by Aguilera and
Messick (1986), is one of these dimensions, and
type of burnout would be another. Again, it
must also be noted that burnout can occur at the
team and organisational levels and not just with
the individual.
Borland (1981) expands this idea further by
identifying a number of types of burnout:
1. acute individual burnout
2. chronic individual burnout
3. transient group burnout
4. full-blown departmental burnout.
This classification incorporates a number of
these dimensions:
Level – individual, group or department
Time span – short or long term
Effect – acute or chronic.
Thus, there are a number of ways to classify
burnout, each of which may be of help in
providing strategic frameworks for alleviating
stress and burnout.
Signs of burnout
Personal level
Stress in the extreme form of burnout can be
seen to occur in three aspects of a person’s life
– physically, behaviourally and emotionally – in
the following ways:
1. Physical signs
• low energy
• chronic tiredness
• disturbed sleep
• psychosomatic illness
• decreased general level of health.
2. Behavioural signs
•increased, non-productive work (longer
hours for less effect)
• shrinking work and personal relationships
• decreased ability to make decisions
•increased chemical abuse (coffee, alcohol,
smoking)
•becoming increasingly bureaucratic
• increased distancing from in-service users.
3. Psychological/emotional signs
• loss of a sense of humour
• increased critical and cynical outlook
• rigidity in thinking
• threatened by change
• fluctuating paranoid omnipotence
• withdrawal (foxhole mentality)
• irrational thinking.
Interpersonal/team level
Individual distress can often be a response
to interpersonal, organisational and societal
pressures. Such pressures may sometimes seem
to be unable to be controlled or modified by
the individual, and at other times the person
may not even be consciously aware of the effect
these external forces are having upon them. The
workers may blame themselves for the feelings
they are encountering.
It may be useful to briefly examine at this
point signs of a potentially stress-producing
interpersonal (team) situation within a larger
organisation. A stressful and stress-producing
team-work situation may display some of the
following symptoms:
Interpersonal/team stress symptoms
• A lack of team objectives and goals
•An unclear division of labour and role expectations
•Poor communication and conflict resolution
channels
•Uncertain leadership and decision-making
processes
•Conflicting loyalties and inter-worker
aggression
• Groupthink mentality
• Scapegoating internal opponents
• Blaming external enemies
•Imbalance between team task and
maintenance
• Non-productive meetings
• Lack of social support or sense of belonging
• Little participation in decision-making.
We can see from the above list that a
youth work team under stress is often one
that has unclear aims and expectations, and
poor communication and conflict resolution
procedures. The team may have poor leadership,
an unsupportive internal environment, and feel
threatened by the external world.
A youth work
team under
stress is often
one that has
unclear aims
and expectations,
and poor
communication
and conflict
resolution
procedures.
Organisational level
Team stress may add to the overall strain felt by
the larger organisation, or, in turn, stress arising
from larger organisational concerns may affect
the team’s functioning and efficiency.
Organisational signs of stress may be similar
in many ways to those found at the interper-
Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
39
The more intense
the interactions
between an
organisation
and its workers,
the greater the
potential for the
organisation
to become
increasingly
dominant in
an individual
worker’s life.
sonal (team) level as an organisation is made up
of many of these team sub-units.
However, at the organisational level these
sub-unit stresses are magnified and altered in
various ways through the unique interaction
of these interpersonal forces. As with the
two previous levels, it is often difficult to
disentangle cause and effect in an organisation.
There is often no clear indication as to which
came first.
Signs of a potentially stress-producing
organisational situation can be seen in at least
five main areas: 1) the normative structures (i.e.
the goals and norms); 2) the role structures; 3)
the power structures; 4) working conditions; and
5) the organisation’s identity and reputation.
Each of these areas is a potential source of stress
when displaying the following trends in:
1. Normative structures
• lack of overall philosophy and stated goals
• changing of complex procedures and policies
• constant financial difficulties
• little forward planning.
2. Role structures
• unclear role definitions for sub-units/teams
• ambiguous or incompatible job demands
• little consultation with the workers
• overload, too much work or skill required.
3. Power structures
• autocratic management styles
•poor communication and conflict resolution
methods
• lack of shared purposes and commitment.
4. Working conditions
• poor physical environment
• low wages and fringe benefits
• inadequate recognition of skills and effort
•inadequate or lack of inbuilt social and
technical support systems
• high staff turnover rates.
5. Agency identity and reputation
• negative image in wider community
• rejection of innovation and change
• financial insecurity
• non-cooperation with similar organisations
• organisational “incest”.
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Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
Let’s look at some of these factors more closely,
especially that of organisational “incest”, as
this often involves a number of the factors in 5
above.
In the struggle to implement a new service
or stand against the status quo, predictable
organisational and team dynamics may begin
to occur. White (1997) refers to such possible
dynamics as “incest in the organizational
family”, where organisations begin to strongly
define their boundaries and may face the danger
of becoming too closed and inward looking.
The more intense the interactions between
an organisation and its workers, the greater the
potential for the organisation to become increasingly dominant in an individual worker’s life.
This is seen clearly in many small youth welfare
and community work organisations that are
dedicated to a particular cause, philosophy, way
of working or innovative idea. Such “incestual”
relationships are often prevalent in organisations such as therapeutic communities and drug
rehabilitation programs, emergency accommodation services, extreme liberation movements
and single-issue socio-political action groups.
This closure can begin to disrupt the normal
balance between the staff’s work, family and
personal life. The individual can begin to meet
most of his or her needs within the culture of the
“organisational family”.
White (1997) suggests three types of
incestuous relationships within such organisations: 1) professional, 2) social and 3) sexual:
1. Professional incest
Professional incest occurs when an agency
isolates itself and becomes a closed ideological
system through the following:
•lack of contact with outside professionals
and advisers;
•recruitment of staff with very similar
backgrounds, values and work styles;
•an intense socialisation of staff into the
program ideology;
•the scapegoating and extrusion of
“dissenting” staff members;
•insulation of the organisation and its programs
from client and community feedback, creating
“them and us” thinking; and
•a “missionary zeal” with the leaders
assuming Messiah-like status.
2. Social incest
Social incest occurs where the majority of the
staff’s social needs away from the program
are also met by other staff. Workers begin to
experience life as one continuous staff meeting
and may wonder if there’s life after work. As
staff social interaction exposes private areas of
staff lives, the group’s focus can shift from client
services to staff problem-solving and personal
needs gratification.
3. Sexual incest
White does not use this expression as a normal
or pathological judgment, but as a practical
observation of what happens within closed
organisations. It is clear from his experience and
others that social and sexual relationships are
much more problematic in closed organisations,
compared with less intense systems.
In such closed organisations, feelings of
anger, hurt, jealousy and loss of faith can
well up out of agency members and affect the
workings and interrelationships within the
group. When this “incestuous” dynamic occurs,
the rate of staff extrusion increases; the staff
teams break into cliques and direct communication is replaced with rumours and gossip.
These three types of dynamics do not always
occur in small-scale, committed organisations,
but the danger is always there. Larger-scale
organisations, on the other hand, may lack a
cohesive purpose and ideology and operate on
quite different dynamics.
So, at this organisational level, we see a
number of signs and symptoms of a stressproducing situation that must be recognised
before appropriate strategies can be formulated
to lessen or overcome the current effects. Such
recognition is also necessary to plan future
preventative measures.
Productive responses
An examination of possible ways of overcoming
some of these actual and potential sources of
stress reveals strategies that are in most cases
applicable at personal, interpersonal (team) and
organisational levels.
Strategies for action need to be built on the
answers to a number of initial questions. As
outlined below, Edelwich and Brodsky (1980)
call this questioning process “applying reality to
the situation”.
1. What is the current situation?
2. What are the goals of intervention?
3. What are the present blocks to goal
achievement?
4. How will these blocks change over time?
5. What are the best workable action strategies?
Applying reality means accepting the
current situation, coping with it, and working
to change it in the areas that are amenable to
change. The application of the answers can help
with issues of stress.
First, such answers show that any intervention can focus on the individual, team or organisational levels, or any combination of these.
Second, they show that intervention can
involve the prevention of stress, the restoration
to previous levels of functioning, or post-trauma
support where a return to a previous state is not
possible.
Third, they show that the intervention can
come from a variety of sources, including the
individual, the team, the organisation or from
outside agents. This use of outside consultants
is gaining increasing acceptance in the human
services but is still seen as being outside the
reach of many such small organisations for a
variety of reasons.
The answers to the above questions
may then lead to a number of more specific
questions: Who initiates the action? What
type of action is most suitable? At what level
is the action to be taken? The second and
third questions can include the following four
strategies:
1. changing the job or environmental demands
2. increasing the resources available for meeting
the stressors
3. formulating appropriate philosophies, goals
and expectations
4. providing coping substitutes.
Strategies can be undertaken on these four
fronts, sometimes together or individually.
Below, in brief point form, we look more closely
at possible responses (individual, interpersonal/
team and organisational) in reference to the
above four strategies.
Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
41
Individual responses
1. Changing job demands
• participate in job planning
• change working conditions
• rotate job tasks
• leave the job.
2. Increasing resources
• undertake additional training
• increase physical and mental fitness
• hire more workers.
3. Realistic goals and expectations
• clarify own values
• set realistic goals
• have realistic self-expectations
• learn self/time management skills
• focus on the process not just the result
• keep a realistic time perspective.
4. Coping substitutes
• vary workload
•use temporary escapes from clients (e.g.
training or administration)
• develop new programs
• maintain external interests
• develop support groups.
Let us now look at some of these points
in more detail from the individual worker
perspective:
• Recognise the problem or potential of stress
and burnout occurring. You are not alone
– others go through it. Most come out of it,
fairly much together, on the other side with an
enhanced sense of humour and more survival
skills.
• Recognise when your skills aren’t adequate
to the task, then seriously consider getting out.
Most people have to wrestle with guilt over
this – “What will people think if I get out?” You
need an adequate assessment, and the ability
to assess yourself, to decide whether perhaps
at that particular stage you need a break but
might come back later. However, be aware some
organisations are inherently stress creators and
will eventually wear out even the most creative
and skilled individuals.
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Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
• Examine your motivation by asking, why
should I care? Many reasons may emerge
immediately, such as “a calling”, or a need
for income. Perhaps you need to change your
priorities or set your sights lower. We are all
in it for personal gratification, but is it our own
childhood, or models set by parents or others
that motivates us to go into this field? We may
not last the full distance because our motivations
are wrong.
There may be a need to look at the interaction
between job relationships and time alone. There
needs to be a balance of family, friends, social life
and personal space. Build up your own support
group (Bowie 1999). Look at how you can share
with your own staff and work people. How
open and honest are we – how much emotional
sharing is appropriate? Or are they all playing
games at different levels and crying inside?
• Upgrade your skills. Improve training and
insights. Staff are as important as the service
users. You have only a limited amount of
emotional energy and can easily be drained
unless you build-in ways of getting “refilled”.
Make yourself aware through reading and
workshops.
In some work situations, the worker may
have to choose to burn out at a controlled rate
rather than falling into a psychosomatic illness.
If possible, finish in a positive manner rather
than winding down into apathy and disillusionment. Look at your own energy cycles and know
how you are growing personally.
• Learn how to relax – you may find relaxation
techniques helpful. Do more physical activity
– swimming, jogging etc. Mental alertness
is dependent upon and intertwined with
physical alertness. Be aware of your diet and eat
healthily.
Let’s now look at what can be done at the
interpersonal level to maintain effective team
functioning.
Interpersonal/team responses
1. Changing job and environmental demands
• define areas of special interest or expertise
• job share or rotate workloads
• allow adequate worker autonomy
• leave the job.
2. Increasing resources
• learn conflict resolution skills
• understand group dynamics skills
• improve communication channels
• provide appropriate supervision
• employ more staff.
3. Formulate appropriate goals and expectations
• clarify team goals and objectives
• outline means of reaching goals
•understand expectations of all team
members.
4. Coping substitutes
• provide adequate time off
• give good pay and conditions
•allow group recreation time (staff
development)
• form appropriate staff support groups.
Here, a delicate balance must be kept
between the needs of the individual and the
rights of the team. Job sharing, time off work,
rotation of tasks must be applied consistently as
part of a coordinated attack on team stress at a
number of levels. If applied only in a discriminatory and discretionary way, it may disadvantage
other workers. Edelwich and Brodsky (1980)
call this “legitimated malingering” (p.197). This
process can also lead to the abuse of power by
management, supervisors or team leaders.
Support groups must not be a means of
controlling workers on the one hand, nor
serve as “bitching” groups on the other.
Support groups can have a variety of forms but
basically can have two main aims: to provide
stimulation and learning, and to provide peer
support and controlled expression of feelings.
Also, such groups must not be allowed to
move into the “incestual” dynamics previously
mentioned. Let’s now look at organisational
responses.
Organisational responses
1. Changing the demand, through
• controlling or rotating client numbers
•job re-design, job sharing and part-time work
• involvement of workers in decision-making
•building adequate support and consultation
systems
•open communication patterns and adequate
conflict resolution procedures
•selection of appropriate staff and adequate
induction procedures
• competent leadership.
2. Increasing resources
• add more staff and ancillary support
•encourage further training, in-service and
externally
• use current technology where appropriate
• maintain good contact with other agencies.
3. Appropriate goals and expectations
•have a clear philosophy or theology of
“caring”
•state goals and objectives and the steps
needed to reach them
•clarify ambiguous role demands and expectations, have clear job descriptions
•have planning sessions, reviews and
“retreats”
• use appropriate staff induction processes
•prepare staff for what they can expect and
how to deal with it
•do not create an artificial world, be
supportive but avoid creating dependency.
4. Coping substitutes
•have adequate working conditions, pay and
career structure
•encourage recreational and social activities
where appropriate
• supply sport and fitness opportunities
•provide counselling, support services and
systems of positive rewards.
Finally, let’s look at some of the above points
in more detail from a manager’s or team leader’s
perspective.
• Recognise the potential for a problem
occurring and be aware in selecting/recruiting/
training people for the job. Acquaint people
with the fact they may not be in it for five or 10
years. Be aware that “people-helping is a health
hazard”, that if you want to “give” in any real
depth, the length of time you can do this for
may be limited. One cannot be stretched both
Support groups
must not be
a means of
controlling
workers on
the one hand,
nor serve as
‘bitching’ groups
on the other.
Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
43
author
Vaughan Bowie is
a member of the
University of Western
Sydney’s School of
Social Sciences and
Social Justice Social
Change Research Centre.
He has written and
commented extensively
in the areas of workplace
violence and bullying,
youth violence and
general youth issues,
and mental health
issues, especially for
young men.
ways for too long: Are people more “custodial”
than “caring” in 10 or 15 years? Should
management select someone who will give
deeply and only last three years, or someone
who will last a lot longer?
• Define goals/roles/job descriptions. Define
lines of authority and support systems. Who do
I go to when …? Define what you expect that
person to do. Modify, if necessary. Structure
around workers a good daily routine. Define
rosters/workloads/varied work loads/time out
– be flexible. Be responsive as management.
• Encourage structures that enable good
mutual peer and management support. Use
retreats/planning sessions that involve workers
in decision-making so they set the long-term
goals with the management. Training is as
important as helping. It is not, if effective, a
waste of time – it is an important part of the
growing and caring process.
• Build in a system where positive worker
feedback can be given by both the management
and the service users to communicate that the
workers have done a good job. Enable public
recognition, by management and people
outside, that workers are doing a good job.
Remember that the way in which a youth
worker leaves an organisation is as important
as the way in which they originally joined. A
skilled and experienced worker has a wealth of
knowledge and skills that need to be passed on.
An exhausted or disgruntled employee often is
not in a suitable frame of mind to pass on such
valuable information. So try to make the leaving
as important as the joining.
• Seek wider support from community
resources. Try to break down the isolation from
different groups. Encourage interaction between
agencies and workers through networking.
Discuss and explain in the organisation how
these things can be implemented.
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Youth Studies Australia VOLUME 27 NUMBER 2 2008
Conclusion
Hopefully, by recognising such stressors and
implementing some of the above strategies at
the individual, team and organisational levels,
the many pressures of youth work may become,
to some extent, a growth-producing experience
rather than a destructive process.
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—— 1999, ‘Providing staff with adequate support:
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