Research on Taste Synesthesia Induced by the Shape
of Food Package Bottles
*
Regina W.Y. Wang*, Mu Chien Chou*&**, Chia Hsin Sun*
Graduate School of Design, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan.
**
Department of Digital Media Design, Chungyu Institute of Technology, Taiwan.
Packaging act as the main medium for reaching viewers and conveying messages, when viewers
inspect the packaging, they undergo a process of aesthetic evaluation and cognition. These packages
should be able to induce the sense of taste through visual stimulation, more emphasis should be made
on designs which will appeal to all five senses, since these senses are interrelated and form what
psychologists referred to as synesthesia. In order to explore the synesthesia between the sense of visual
and the sense of taste, packages in the form of bottles were selected as samples for this study. The
objective of the study is to explore the association between the shape of bottles and the sense of taste,
and the research is divided into two phases. Phase One consists of “conducting market surveys on the
interrelationship between the shape of bottles and the taste of food contents”, the aim is to collect and
observe the shape of existing food bottles; to categorize the type of tastes in bottled food, and to
understand how different bottle shapes correspond to the taste of food contents. Phase Two involves
exploring how viewers associate different tastes with different bottle shapes, and to evaluate the
strength of association between bottle shapes and taste perception. The aim is to test how interviewees
associate different bottle shapes with different tastes, and to identify viewers’ strength of association
between food bottle shapes and taste perception, thus finding out how viewers portray the shape of the
bottle should be for different tastes. The survey on bottle shapes and the taste of food contents shows
that food contents with tastes such as “sour” and “spicy” all possessed the characteristics of a “bottle”,
where the mouth is slightly narrower and the body is slender. Food contents with tastes such as “bitter”,
“sweet-‘n-salty” and “salty-sour-‘n-spicy” all possessed the characteristics of a “can”, where the mouth
and the body are bigger, and the body is also shorter as well as been cylindrical. Food contents with a
“bitter-sweet” taste possessed the characteristics of a “can”, where the mouth and the body are wide,
and the body is cylindrically shaped. In addition to helping designers in coming up with designs for
food package bottles, and thus to induce the correct taste association when viewers come in contact
with the food package, it is also hoped that through this research, new concepts can be provided to art
educationists in regards to sensory designs.
Keywords: Bottle shapes, Taste association, Synesthesia
INTRODUCTION
Human’s aesthetic cognition activities derive from elements
such as perception, comprehension, imagination, association
and emotions, these elements intercommunicate and influence
one another to form the final aesthetic perception (Dempster,
1985; Zafarmand, Sugiyama, Watanabe, Kiritani & Ono,
2003). The reason why packaging is considered to be the
subject of aesthetic evaluation lies with its ability to provide a
visual stimulation to viewers, thus brining different sensation
and different levels of comprehension, hence sensory design
plays a vital role in the human cognition process. Packaging is
used not only to protect the product itself, it also acts as the
medium between viewers and the commodity. Packaging helps
to identify the product and to attract visual attention
(Schoormans & Robben, 1997; Underwood, Klein & Burke,
2001; Folkes & Matta, 2004), therefore product package
design should emphasize on the sensory stimulation and
connect to viewers’ cognition responses. A lot of emotions
were involved when designing the packaging, including the
design appealing to the synesthesia of the five senses, and this
is where the interest of this study lies.
Food packaging would not only represent the product, but at
the same time, viewers also make an association through the
visual representation as to the overall taste and their appetite
towards the food (Smets & Overbeeke, 1995). Package shapes
can directly affect viewers’ perception, for example, wine
bottles can make viewers aware immediately that the content
of the product is wine (Wang, & Chou, 2007). This research
takes the shape of food package bottles as an example, and
aims at exploring into the synesthesia association between
shape and taste. Designers nowadays would consider viewers’
opinion and the practicality of the packaging when designing
the shape of food bottles (Bernstein & Moskowitz, 2000;
Silayoi & Speece, 2004). In addition, they would also take into
consideration the existing corresponding relationship between
bottle shapes and food contents. This research would explore
the interrelationship between food package “shapes” and “taste
perception” from a visual cognition perspective. It is hoped
that the results from this research would help to provide
designers with directions on designing food packaging, and
thus incorporating the taste perception element into package
design.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Exploration into Sight and Taste Synesthesia
Sight is the most important sensory system for viewers,
viewers gain more information through this sensory system
than any other systems (Darley, Glucksberg & Kinchla, 1991).
When the viewer collects information through the visual
sensorium, it would inevitably be intertwined with viewer’s
existing knowledge, experience or memory to form a complete
visual experience (Currie, 1995; Brewer, Zhao, Desmond,
Glover & Gabrieli, 1998; Chen, McKay, de Pennington &
Chau, 2004). When viewers interpret a product packaging,
they would mainly rely on visual sensorium to perceive the
packaging, thus relevant design elements such as shape, color
and texture would all affect viewers’ aesthetic judgments.
Taste is one of the five main sensory reactions, it can be
stimulated not only by the food itself, but also affected by
other elements such as color, texture, temperature and smell,
thus proves that the taste actually includes complex reactions
derived from other sensory organs (Darley, Glucksberg &
Kinchla, 1991). The term “taste perception” used in this study
does not refer to how the food actually tastes, but the
perception of taste gained through visually identifying food
bottle shapes, in order to explore the level of viewers’
association and perception between “bottle shape” and “taste”.
Synesthesia can also be considered as “associated feelings”;
which means the stimulation on any one of the senses would
trigger the perception and imagination of other senses, together
they would enable the viewers to experience a mixed feeling
from all sensory organs, thus referred to as “Synesthesia”
(Ackerman, 1990; Cytowic, 1995; Muggleton, Tsakanikos,
Figure 1 Examples of bottle shape design blueprint
The bottle container is just like a human, basically it can be
classified into the following main parts: top, neck, shoulder,
abdomen, and foot, changes to any of these parts would affect
the looks of the packaging. For any container, “neck”, “body”
and “bottom” are the three most important features of a
packaging, if handled inappropriately or disproportionately, it
Walsh & Ward, 2007). Therefore, when viewers carry out the
perception activities in their minds, the five senses (visual
sense, auditory sense, smell, sense of touch and taste) do not
operate independently. When viewers choose a product, the
package design would stimulate viewers’ senses, the five
senses would inter-communicate with each other, and one
sense would trigger another, for example, a chili sauce bottle
in “red” would be associated with the taste “spicy”; would it
thus be fair to say that the “bottle shape” of the chili sauce is
associated with the taste “spicy”? This is what this research is
set out to find.
Design of the Package Bottle Shape
“Bottle shape” refers to the shape of the container, it is a
common yet important element for food products (Yanga &
Raghubirb, 2005; Raghubir & Greenleaf, 2006). There are a
vast array of bottle shapes, in terms of the shape, a typical
“container” should refer to something that has the following
attributes: has a fixed shape, is equipped with the ability to
hold (especially liquid), has a simple shape (the size should be
close its contents), as well as easy to manufacture and use.
Therefore a bottle can be considered to be the best
representative of a container (Yang, 2001). This study thus
takes the shape of food bottle package as the research subject,
and conducts market research on the food bottle packages sold
in the four major retailers in Taiwan: Carrefour, RT-Mart,
Geánt, and Wellcome.
In order to establish a product concept, it needs to be
representative, recognizable and unique (Chen, 1994). The
designer would quickly sketch the shape of the bottle in the
beginning, as an attempt to describe the “shape features” of the
bottle as a whole (Figure 1-a), the designer would then enlarge
on the unique parts, in order to explain visually their thoughts
on that specific part of uniqueness (Figure 1-b). The designer
would then take a step further and mark down the actual sizes
on the cross-section drawing of the object (Figure 1-c) (Cliff,
1999).
Figure 2 Labeling respective attributes of the bottle
will affect the shape and capacity of the packaging (Aikio,
2001).
Relevant researches show that a bottle package is made up
of the parts “top”, “mouth”, “neck”, “body” and “bottom”
(Figure 2) (Li, 1998; Yang, 2001; Lin, 2003; Lee, 2003). One
point which should be highlighted is that the neck of the bottle
is formed by the design of the lead angle (Figure 2a). The
focus of interest for this research would be on: (A) the
included angle between the neck and the shoulder of the bottle
(Figure 2b); (B) height of the cap and bottle (Figure 2c); and
(C) width of the bottom (Figure 2d).
Cognition Process of Perceiving a Bottle Shape
Before viewers recognize a product, they first need to have a
concept towards that item or commodity, and based on rational
judgment, they would then reinforce their perception or
memory (Dewhurst & Hitch, 1999; Butler & Berry, 2001;
Cowley, 2002). Viewers’ cognition is made up of perception
and sense (Lowe, 1981; Fiske, 1993). The message conveyed
through the bottle shape would go through a “comprehension”
phase where a sensory experience is formed based on personal
subjectiveness and thus turn into a particular feeling. Viewers’
cognition experience with the packaging would also affect
their feelings towards a certain shape. The illustration on the
cognition process (Figure 3) (Sijtsema, Linnemann, Gaasbeek,
Dagevos & Jongen, 2002; Dumbuya & wood, 2003) would
demonstrate what humans go through in the cognition of bottle
shape, which includes (a) visually identify the size and the
shape of the object, (b) think over and memorize the message
derived from the visual stimulation in (a), thus leading to (c)
psychological comprehension to form a judgment on the food
bottle shape, and then the final (d) recognition of how bottle
shapes associate with tastes through visual stimulation.
Figure 3 Cognition process of perceiving a bottle shape
RESEARCH METHOD
Process of Survey and Research Structure
Food package bottles as taken as examples in this research
to explore the correspondence between different bottle shapes
and tastes. This research consists of two phases, as shown in
Figure 4 below.
Figure 4 Structure of the two-phase survey method
Research Thresholds
Research Subjects
The bottle samples collected for this research excludes the
ones with a handle, only bottles with no handles are taken as
subjects of the research. Furthermore, the food contents are not
to include any alcoholic drinks, medicated drinks or pure water.
The samples are shown as outlines on picture cards instead of
showing actual bottles to avoid any interference on the results
from bottle colors and textures.
This research adopts the purposive sampling method in
selecting samples (Guarte & Barrios, 2006). In Phase Two, the
survey on the “association” between bottle shapes and tastes,
involves classifying 100 picture-card samples in accordance
with 13 taste categories and rank them respectively. The
volunteers for this research are totaled at 30 people, with
similar life experiences, the same college education
background, and all aged between 22 ~ 30 years old.
The Makings of Food Bottle Shape Samples
The samples of this research were made based on the shape
of the bottles collected. Adobe Illustrator was used to mark out
the “path” of the bottle shape as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Collecting and Producing Samples
RESEARCH ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
The survey in this phase is to collect and observe the
existing food bottles in the market, categorize them based on
the taste of food contents. The flow of the survey process is as
shown in Figure 6.
Market Research on Bottle Shape and Taste
Figure 6 The process flow of “Bottle shape and content taste” market survey
Results from “bottle shapes and food content tastes” market
survey are as follows:
(A) The 191 observation samples showed that food contents
can be categorized into the following thirteen types of
tastes: sour (for example, vinegar), sweet (sugar), bitter
(oolong tea), salty (soy sauce), spicy (spice oil), sweet
& sour (yoghurt), salty & sour (steak sauce), bitter
sweet (coffee), sweet & salty (peanut butter), sweet &
spicy (sweet and spicy sauce), salty & spicy (pepper
powder), salty sour & spicy (Korean kimchi), sweet
salty & sour (mayonnaise). The thirteen types of food
content tastes can be then classified into three categories
“single taste – sour, sweet, bitter, salty and spicy”,
“Double-taste Combination – sweet & sour, salty &
Table 1 Sizes of main features of existing bottle shapes
Four Main Features of Bottles
Cap
(Height / cm)
Neck of the Bottle
(Included Angle / degrees)
sour, bitter sweet, sweet & salty, sweet & spicy, salty &
spicy” and “Triple-taste Combination – salty sour &
spicy, sweet salty & sour”.
(B) The sizes of four main features are recorded in this
research: “height of the cap”, “the degree of the
included angle between the neck and the shoulder of the
bottle”, “height of the bottle”, and “width of the bottom
of the bottle”. The research results in Table 1 shows the
most common sizes (marked with **) for each of the
four main characteristics: height of the cap is at 1.6 ~
2.5 cm (39%), degree of the included angle is between
151 ~ 180 degrees (38%), height of the bottle is at 6 ~
10.9 cm (37%), and the width of the bottom of the
bottle is at 6 ~ 10.9 cm (72%).
Size Range
0.1~1cm
1.1~1.5 cm
1.6~2.5 cm
2.6 cm and above
90 degrees
91~120 degrees
121~150 degrees
151~180 degrees
Percentage
35%
21%
39% **
5%
3%
22%
37%
38% **
Body of the Bottle
(Height / cm)
Bottom of the Bottle
(Width / cm)
6~10.9 cm
11~15.9 cm
16~20.9 cm
21~25.9 cm
3~5.9 cm
6~10.9 cm
11~15.9 cm
16 cm and above
Research on the Association between Bottle Shapes and
Tastes
The main purpose at this stage of the research is to find out
how the participants pair up different bottle shapes and tastes.
After the participants paired up each taste with the associated
37% **
22%
30%
11%
26%
72% **
1%
1%
bottle shape samples, the samples for each taste were then
ranked again. The percentage of bottle shapes are then
calculated for each taste, the top three bottle shapes are
selected as the basis for the sample representation of the taste
association at this stage of the survey, the process is shown
below in Figure 7.
Figure 7 The process flow of the association survey between bottle shapes and tastes
Since there is a big number of pictorial samples, where
some are similar in shape, therefore at this stage, an interview
discussion with the focus group was held to filter out the
similar ones and select the final samples as shown in Figure 8.
100 pictorial samples were selected as a result, and numbered
accordingly.
Figure 8 Process of how Focus Group filters and selects Bottle Shape Samples
As shown in Figure 9, thirty interviewees were invited for
the “Survey of Association between Bottle Shapes and Tastes”
to categorize the 100 bottle shape samples based on taste
association where the bottle shapes which they associate the
same taste with were grouped together. Interviewees were then
asked to select three bottle samples for each taste as the best
representatives for the particular taste category.
Figure 9 Process for Survey on “Association between Bottle Shapes and Tastes”
Results from the survey on “Association between Bottle
Shapes and Tastes” are as follows:
(A) 15% of interviewees chose “sweet”, followed by 14%
for “sweet & sour”, and the third is “salty” at 11%. On
the lower spectrum of the ranking are the tastes “Salty,
Sour & Spicy” and “Sweet, Salty & Sour” at 4% each,
followed by “bitter sweet” at 5% (Table 2).
Table 2 Survey on Association between Bottle Shapes and the “Thirteen Taste Categories”
Double-taste
Single Taste
Percentage
Percentage
Combination
Sour
8%
Sweet and Sour
14%
Sweet
15%
Salty and Sour
6%
Bitter
6%
Bitter Sweet
5%
Salty
11%
Sweet and Salty
6%
Spicy
6%
Sweet and Spicy
7%
Salty and Spicy
8%
(B) Tastes such as “sour”, “spicy”, “sweet & salty”, “sweet
& spicy”, “salty, sour & spicy” and “bitter sweet” all
lead interviewees to associate them with bottle shapes
that are of “similar characteristics”, which means these
Triple-taste Combination
Percentage
Salty, Sour & Spicy
Salty, Sweet & Sour
4%
4%
tastes lead interviewees to associate them with “highly
resembled” bottle shapes. Table 3 is a summary of
analysis on interviewees’ association between tastes and
bottle shapes with “resembling characteristics”:
Table 3 Analysis on the taste and the associating bottle shapes with resembling characteristics
Summary of Interviewees’ response towards tastes and the associating bottle shapes with resembling
Taste
characteristics.
“Bottle-like”, the diameter of the bottle mouth is small, the neck of the bottle is slender and long, the height of the
Sour, Spicy
bottle is tall.
Bitter Sweet
“Can-like”, the diameters of the can top and body are bigger, mostly are cylinder-shaped with same width.
Sweet & Salty
“Can-like”, the diameters of the can top and body are bigger, the height of the can is shorter.
Sweet & Spicy
“Bottle-like”, the diameter of the bottle mouth is smaller, the body is taller and more slender.
Salty, sour & spicy
“Can-like”, the diameters of can top and body is bigger, the height of the can is shorter.
Survey on the Bottle Shapes and Level of Taste Perception
The survey was conducted through a “Computerized
Questionnaire”, in which the results from 4.2.1.(i.e. the
clustered results of bottle shapes associating with each taste)
were plugged into “Macromedia Flash MX” software to come
up with a survey program which measures the level of
perception. Tastes were classified into thirteen types
(questions), interviewees then had to base on their personal
perceptions towards bottle shapes, and rank the likeliness of
the shape to the taste; levels ranged from “+3” (High
resemblance to the particular taste) to “-3” (Highly different to
the taste), totaling 7 levels altogether (+3、+2、+1、0、-1、-2、
-3) (Figure 10). The research results were analyzed with the
One-way ANOVA statistical method to further explore the
difference in the level of taste synesthesia of the 13 tastes.
When the analysis of variance showed a difference, Scheff’s
method was then used for multiple-comparison, to identify the
bottle shapes with significant difference.
Figure 10 Design Structure for the Questionnaire on “Bottle Shapes and Level of Taste Perception”
Results for “Survey on Bottle Shapes and Level of Taste
Perception” are as follows:
(A) The level of taste perception for “Single Taste” (sour,
Table 4 Results for “Single Taste” Bottle Shape Representatives
Taste
Representative Bottle Shapes
sweet, bitter, salty, spicy) bottles are all significantly
different, the taste perception for “Single Taste” bottles
are summarized below in Table 4:
Summary of Shape Trends
Overall possessed the characteristics of a bottle, slender with a narrower
bottle mouth, and a clear “waist” in the body of the bottle.
Sour
Overall possessed the characteristics of a can, wide, even though no
common characteristics can be observed for the mouth of the can, but
the body was generally bulged out.
Sweet
Overall possessed the characteristics of a can, wide at the side, mouth
and body were parallel in a cylindrical shape.
Bitter
Overall possessed the characteristics of a bottle, narrow at the top and
wide at the bottom, the mouth is slightly narrower, and there is a
distinctive difference between the width of the neck and that of the body.
Salty
Overall possessed the characteristics of a bottle, slender with a narrower
mouth, and a waist around the middle of the bottle. These bottles are
similar to the bottles representing “saltiness” in that there’s a distinctive
difference between the width of the neck and the width of the body.
Spicy
(B) Upon examining the results of this survey, it can be
concluded that the level of taste perception for
“Double-Taste Combination” (sweet & sour, bitter
sweet, sweet & salty, salty & spicy) and “Triple-Taste
Combination” (salty, sour & spicy) bottles are all
significantly different; on the other hand, there is no
significant difference for taste perception on tastes such
as “salty & sour”, “salty & spicy” and “sweet, sour &
spicy). The results of taste perception for “Multi-Taste”
bottles are summarized below in Table 5:
Table 5 Results for “Double-Taste” and “Triple-Taste” Bottle Shape Representatives
Taste
Representative Bottle Shape
Summary of Shape Trends
Overall possessed the characteristics of a can wide, but the mouth of is narrower than the body, with a
“waist” around the middle of the can, from the waistline down, the can is of a cylindrical shape.
Sweet
& Sour
Bitter
Sweet
Sweet
& Salty
Sweet
&
Spicy
Salty,
Sour &
Spicy
Overall possessed the characteristics of a can, with a wide can shape, the mouth and body of the can
are wide, and the body of the can is of a cylindrical shape.
Overall possessed the characteristics of a can, with a wide can shape, it’s similar to the bottle
associated with “bitter-sweetness”, the mouth and body of the can are wide and is short in height, with
the body of the can been shaped in a cylindrical shape.
Overall possessed the characteristics of a bottle, tall and slender, the mouth and the body of the bottle
are almost of the same width.
Overall possessed the characteristics of a can, with a wide can shape, it’s similar to the cans associated
with “bitter-sweetness” and “sweet-‘n-saltiness”, with a wide can mouth and body.
Based on the research results from the second phase, the
taste of existing food bottle contents can be classified into
three categories: “Single-Taste” include sourness, sweetness,
bitterness,
saltiness
and
spiciness;
“Double-Taste
Combination” include sweet-‘n-sourness, salty-‘n-sourness,
bitter-sweetness,
sweet-‘n-saltiness,
sweet-‘n-spiciness,
salty-‘n-spiciness; whereas “Triple-Taste Combination”
include salty-sour-‘n-spiciness and sweet-salty-‘n-sourness.
The survey on bottle shapes and the taste of food contents
shows that food contents with tastes such as “sour” and
“spicy” all possessed the characteristics of a “bottle”, where
the mouth is slightly narrower and the body is slender. Food
contents with tastes such as “bitter”, “sweet-‘n-salty” and
“salty-sour-‘n-spicy” all possessed the characteristics of a
“can”, where the mouth and the body are bigger, and the body
is also shorter as well as been cylindrical. Food contents with a
“bitter-sweet” taste possessed the characteristics of a “can”,
where the mouth and the body are wide, and the body is
cylindrically shaped.
The bottle shapes for food contents with tastes such as
sourness, spiciness, bitter-sweetness, sweet-‘n-saltiness,
sweet-‘n-spiciness and salty-sour-‘n-spiciness “highly
resembled” with interviewees’ taste perception, combined with
the results from the survey on “food content taste and food
bottle shape”, one can find that the taste association of the
bottles generally coincides with the design trends. Tastes such
as “sourness”, “spiciness” and “sweet-‘n-spiciness” all
possessed the characteristics of a “bottle”, whereas tastes such
as
“sweet-‘n-saltiness”,
“bitter-sweetness”
and
“salty-sour-‘n-spiciness” are associated with containers that
possessed the characteristics of a “can”. Bottles associated
with “sweetness” are generally curvier in shape and thus are
smoother in appearance; bottles associated with
“sweet-‘n-sourness” are curvier also.
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Every form of objects has its own aesthetic value and
representation, inducing different aesthetic emotion and
cognition from the viewers. Viewers’ cognition are affected by
their experiences, feelings from the five senses: visual sense,
auditory sense, smell, sense of touch and taste, along with the
psychological perception, all combined and interacted to form
different experiences, thus making sensory design a
non-negligible part of today’s life.
Through the exploration of the synesthesia between the
sense of visual and the sense of taste, this research delved into
viewers’ aesthetic cognition towards different bottle shapes in
correspondence with tastes. The shape of a food container is
the first impression that viewers get, through the results of the
field study conducted in this research, it is apparent that
viewers indeed form a taste association when they see the
shape of a bottle, thus the inference that the result of
association is affected by viewers’ everyday life experience.
The appearance, color, taste, and smell of the food will all
affect viewers’ sight and taste reactions, therefore sensory
design is a non-negligible part for food package designers. It is
suggested through the follow-ups of this research that sensory
designs should be combined with visual elements such as the
shape, color and texture of the product and packaging, so to
enable viewers to recall visual experience and prompt for
association through visual stimulation. It is hoped that the
results of this research would not only help designers in
coming up with bottle designs that correspond correctly to
viewers’ association with food taste, it can also provide new
concepts to art educationists in regards to sensory designs.
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