ADVANCED
HIGHER
GEOGRAPHY
Exam Preparation
Geographic
Methods & Techniques
Fieldwork Skills
2
PHYSICAL FIELDWORK
Methods & Equipment
Problems / Issues
Processing Techniques
• Awareness of tide
timetables (in
inaccessible
locations)
• Beach profiles can
vary considerably
during the year
(winter storms cause
more erosion) - may
need to repeat
across various
seasons
• Difficulties using a
clinometer with
ranging poles
particularly in
exposed/windy
conditions
• Need to ensure
pebbles are selected
randomly to avoid
human influence
over selection - use
a blindfold
• Beach transects / crosssections
• Divided bar graphs to
show porosity and 5 of
sediment type (especially
sand grain sizes)
• Dispersion graphs for
comparison of pebble
sizes.
• Chi-square can be used
to prove a difference in
sediment type between
two beaches
• Zingg analysis (graph) to
show groupings of pebble
sizes (rods, blades etc)
1. Coastal / Beach Sampling
• Measure width of beach from
strand line to back of beach using
a tape measure
• Using ranging poles to identify
notable changes in beach slope
• Use ranging poles and a
clinometer to measure angle of
beach or alternatively use a
Smartphone app placed on a
metre stick to give angles
• Infiltration rates - use a stopwatch
to time how quickly 1ltr of water
(in a bottomless plastic bottle )
disappears
• Porosity rates - fill a 1ltr jug with
sediment or sand and then add
water to calculate the percentage
of space between sand/pebbles
• Beach sediment (pebbles) should
be sampled randomly (e.g. using
a blindfold) and pebble axes can
be measured using callipers and
Callieux roundness cards
• Finer sediment can be measured
using sediment sieves and the
percentage of material collected
in each sieve can be calculated
once each layers is weighed
• Wave frequency can be measured
by timing number of breaking
waves to pass an object (e.g.
ranging pole or offshore rock) in 1
minute
• Change in beach or cliff position
over time can be analysed using
historical maps (secondary
sources from a local reference
library) or historical photographs
3
PHYSICAL FIELDWORK
Methods & Equipment
Potential Problems
Processing Techniques
• Inaccessible and
overgrown sample
sites
• Rate of flow (flood
conditions) can
make sampling
dangerous
• Differences in flow
rates across a
meander (deeper on
outside of bend)
• Low volumes of
water can create
difficulties in
measuring velocity
(need to repeat and
average)
• River cross section
shows relationship
between depth and width
• Scatter graphs can be
used to compare different
points on a river e.g.
relationship between
distance from source and
discharge. Further
statistical analysis
(correlations) using
Spearman Rank or
Pearson's Product tests.
• Dispersion graphs for
comparison.
• Zingg analysis (graph) to
show groupings of pebble
sizes (rods, blades etc)
2. River Studies
• Measure width using a tape
measure
• Divide channel width by 11 to
give 10 sections, measure the
depth at each interval using a
metre stick (regular sampling)
• Measure speed using a flowmeter
or by timing a float (e.g. orange)
to cover a specific distance (5
metres)
• Valley sides an be measured
using a clinometer
• Wetted perimeter can be used by
laying a chain along river bed or a
programme (e.g. Geopacks)
• Sediment should be sampled
randomly (e.g. using a blindfold)
and pebble axes can be
measured using callipers and
Callieux roundness cards
2. Soil Sampling
• Soil augur can show distinct
• Gain permission of
• Annotated photographs
layers of soil (profile) or dig a
landowner before
or sketches of soil profile
small pit and take photographs
digging soil samples • Triangular graphs to
• Soil texture can be sampled using • Ensure probes for
show 3 variables of soil
roll test and flow chart – helps
pH and soil moisture structure (organic,
determine if the soil is clay, loam, metres are clean
inorganic and water)
sandy etc.
before use
• pH can be indentified using a pH
meter or taking sample and
testing with pH paper or universal
indicator (distilled water added oil
sample)
• Organic content can be obtained
by weighing soil sample, then
drying in a cool oven for 24 hours.
Soils sample can be burned to
remove all humus and then
weighed. % of organic, mineral
and water can be calculated.
4
PHYSICAL FIELDWORK
Methods & Equipment
Potential Problems
Processing Techniques
• Difficult to identify
plants using
guidebooks (esp. in
winter months)
• Ensure probes for
pH and soil moisture
metres are clean
before use
• Light meters can
give varying results
(even slight
shadows can affect
results)
• Soils samples
should be handled
with rubber gloves
and sterilised before
being processed
(can contain harmful
bacteria)
• Need access to a
fume cupboard
when burning humus
in soils
• Kite diagrams show
change in vegetation
across a dune system or
slope
• Triangular graphs to
show 3 variables of soil
structure (organic,
inorganic and water)
• Spearman's Rank
Correlation Coefficient to
investigate changes with
distance inland from the
seashore
• Simpson’s diversity index
can show the range of
plants within an area
4. Sand Dune / Vegetation Studies
• Similar processes to beach
transects - use ranging poles and
clinometers to measure angles
across a dune system
• Quadrats used to measure
vegetation covers e.g. % of bare
sand and % of different species
• Soil moisture, light and pH meters
can be used
• Plant guides or keys used to
determine species of flowers and
grasses
• Organic material (humus) – use
same procedures for measuring
organic content in soils (dry,
weigh and burn off humus)
5. Microclimate Studies
• Use a hand-held thermo• Wind strength is
• Wind rose / polar graph
anemometer at various points
hard to measure at
can show weather
within a town or neighbourhood
ground level
• Isoline maps to show
• Hygrometer to measure humidity • The Beaufort scale
patterns of humidity and
temperature (isotherms)
• Cloud cover and visibility could be is subjective
observed
• Cloud cover can
• Annotated base maps
change from one
moment to the next,
affecting
temperature and
light readings. Need
to repeat and
average constantly
• Observations (cloud
cover) are subjective
5
HUMAN FIELDWORK
Methods & Equipment
Potential Problems
Processing Techniques
1. CBD Studies
• Main services can be used by
• Can be difficult to
annotating a large scale base
determine usage of
map (e.g. 1:2,000) using a
upper floors in the
RICEPOTS system of land use
CBD
• Shopping questionnaires (how
• Timing of traffic /
often do you visit / where do you
pedestrian counts.
come from / method of travel and
One off counts can
other questions regarding the
provide misleading
quality of services) are very useful trends e.g. Weekend
for determining the sphere of
v midweek (better to
repeat and average)
influence of a town
• Rateable values of properties can
be obtained using secondary
sources (e.g. Scottish Assessors
website). This can help define the
PLVI of a town centre
• Pedestrian and traffic counts
taken at numerous points can
help ascertain foot flow in the
CBD
• Count storeys of buildings and
annotate a base map
• Annotated / coloured
land use map
• Nearest Neighbour can
be used to show if
clustering of certain
services (e.g . pubs,
vacant properties) exist
• Flow line maps show
pedestrian and traffic
movements
• Bipolar tables/graph can
process questionnaire
results to show
perception of an area
• Simpson’s diversity index
can show the range of
shops within an area /
CBD based on
RICEPOTs analysis
2. Environmental Quality
• Evaluate a number of points
against a key set of criteria (e.g.
building condition, noise, litter,
gardens, traffic levels etc) and
scoring them e..g 1 = low, 5 =
high.
• Totals can then be determined
• Results produced
• Isoline map can show
can be subjective
places of the same
environmental quality
(may need to repeat
and average)
• Bipolar tables/graphs can
• May need to take
be used to compare
lots of samples
different areas
• Time of day can also
be important (e.g.
traffic/litter)
6
HUMAN FIELDWORK
Methods & Equipment
Potential Problems
Processing Techniques
3. Village & Neighbourhood Studies
• Traffic counts (am and pm) can
• Ensure traffic counts
help determine movements of
are repeated and
commuters
averaged
• Service and housing surveys
• EQS can be fairly
using RICEPOTS system to label
subjective
a map e.g.
• Secondary sources e.g. Scottish
Neighbourhood Survey can
provide information of population
structure, crime, jobs
• Historical house price sales from
estate agents websites e.g.
Rightmove.com
• Environmental quality survey (see
No.2 on page 5)
• Annotated land use map
• Population pyramids
using
• Chi-square to show
differences between 2
villages or neighbourhoods (grouped data)
• Isoline maps for
environmental quality and
house price sales
4. Farm Study
• Rural land use mapping • Gain permission of
annotate a base map with main
farmer before
crops and livestock
undertaking
• Interview farmer /farm workers on fieldwork
land use decisions. Farmer may • Land use can vary
be able to provide detailed maps
between seasons
(fertiliser use, soil nutrient levels)
(crop rotation/ dual
cropping)
• Historical maps can show land
use changes and changes in field
boundaries
• Annotated land use map
(crop types)
• Bar/line graphs show
productivity or employee
numbers over time
5. Industry / Tourism Study
• Interview site owner and workers
on main decisions. Hotel owners
- details on occupancy rates
• Tourism questionnaires
• Historical maps can show land
use changes over time
• Secondary sources e.g. CAA
Aviation Authority have historical
data on passenger numbers,
(airport study); local council or
Scottish Tourist Board may also
have data
• Gain permission of
landowner before
undertaking
fieldwork or taking
photos
• Annotated land use map
• Bar/line graphs show
productivity or employee
numbers over time
• Bipolar analysis
(perception/quality of
tourist facilities)
HUMAN FIELDWORK
Methods & Equipment
Potential Problems
Processing Techniques
6. Pollution Studies
• Analyse air samples using test
tubes with filter paper located
randomly around an area (leave
out for 2-3 weeks then collect)
• Secondary sources of air pollution
(e.g. Nitrogen oxide levels,
particulates) from SEPA website
and local authority data
• Observe lichen coverage on walls
and trees as an indicator of
atmospheric pollution (some
lichens are more tolerant of
pollutants)
• Air samples will vary • Isoline map of
during the year and
atmospheric pollution
levels
with different
weather conditions
• Bar graphs and line
(e.g. air quality is
graphs allow
poorer during
comparisons to be made
anticyclones)
between locations and
• Presence or
over time
absence of lichens
on a tree/wall may
indicate a very small
scale air pollutant
(atypical of across
an area)
• Noise pollution can be measured
using a noise or decibel metre
• Fluctuations through • Isoline map connecting
the day in noise
places of the same
(traffic, transport,
decibel levels
building works) –
may have to use
numerous samples
at various times to
achieve a baseline
• Thermal pollution of water
measured using a thermometer
• pH of a river/stream using a pH
meter
• Observe invertebrates on stream
bed e.g. Mayfly nymph (indicator
species) can indicate how well
oxygenated a stream is
• Similar to problems
of taking river
samples
• Annotated maps
RELAIBILITY AND VALIDITY
8
Improving Reliability
In order to improve the overall reliability of results, improve consistency and reduce the
impact of anomalies and strengthen our conclusions a number of strategies can be
followed:
• Ensure the sample is representative of the whole population e.g. use blindfolds when
random sampling pebbles
• Repeat fieldwork at another time - the environment (e.g. beaches, sand dunes, rivers)
changes throughout the year and traffic and pedestrian counts vary during the day and
across the week
• Do more samples or transects or spread them further apart to come to genuine
conclusions
• Take averages
Improving Validity of Procedures
The concept of reliability is that any significant results must be more than a one-off
finding and be inherently repeatable. Essentially this means only changing one variable
when undertaking fieldwork to improve the accuracy of results. This could involve:
• Using the same equipment or apparatus e.g. same size of quadrat, same flow meter,
light meter for all samples taken
• The equipment has been properly calibrated
• Ensuring all other variables are kept constant (if possible) e.g. Same time of day or
same stage in a tidal cycle allows valid comparisons to be made
The relationship between reliability and validity can be confusing because
measurements can be reliable without being valid. However, they cannot be valid unless
they are reliable.