Modeling the formation
artifact concentrations*
Kathy D. Shick
Department of Anthropology, Indiana
University, Bloomington, IN 47405,
1I.S.A.
The nature of stone artifact concentrations
at early Plio-Pleistocene
sites in
East Africa is evaluated
with regard to hominid transport
behaviors
responsible for their formation. These archaeological
occurrences indicate
ranging behaviors involving deliberate and repeated transport
of flaked
stone artifacts. The stone transported
to archaeological
sites within the time
range of Homo habilis indicates planned transport of tools or material for tool
manufacture
to an extent far beyond transport behaviors reported among
living apes, even stone hammer-using
chimpanzees.
Analysis of technological evidence in a lithic assemblage at a Plio-Pleistocene
site at Koobi Fora
(c, 1.5 ya) indicates on-site manufacturing
activities and transport of flaked
stone both to and from the site locale. Possible explanations for transport of
stone artifacts are discussed in view of hominid strategies of environmental
exploitation
and resource utilization. A model is proposed for planned,
habitual
transport
of artifacts
by hominids
positively correlated
with
distance of planned foraging range. In this model, larger-scale sites tended
to develop at locales favorably located near abundant
resources, where
stone imports were high but export was relaxed due to the proximity of
resources to be processed.
Received 6 February 1987
Revision received 25 June 1987
and accepted 10 November 1987
Publication
of Early Stone Age
date May 1988
Keywords: Africa, Early Stone
Age, hominid behavior, Homo
habilis, human evolution, Lower
Palaeolithic,
Oldowan,
palaeoanthropology,
site
formation, stone tools, transport.
Journal of Human Evolution (1987) 16, 78%807
Introduction
As the major
steadily
details
shifted
behavioral
artifact
of culture
toward
questions.
typologies
hope
to answer
have
probed
of social
human
diet,
specific
1983; Isaac,
such
archaeological
and
broader
including
1978, 1980, 1983; Potts,
about
now
extends
prehistoric
evolution,
behaviors,
and Schick,
studies
ancestral
the evolution
and
of the
the development
1981, 1983; Blumenschine,
1982, 1984; Sept,
beyond
researchers
life. Such
subsistence
has
answer
far
Now
roles and relationships,
in our
interest
which
tool inventories.
of hominid
sexual
1984; Toth
research
among
questions
(e.g., see Binford,
Isaac,
interpretations
of archaeological
comparisons
role of technology
abilities
treatments;
have been filled in for the Palaeolithic,
as the evolution
organization,
the adaptive
cognitive
for specific
thrust
cross-site
problems
forms
hominid
The
and
both
histories
formulating
1985; Bunn,
1984; and Toth,
of
1982,
1985a and 6, 1987,
1986, for overviews
ofrecent
research
in the field).
While
many
the meaning
early
sites
of spatial
remains
associations
an important
between
issue,
animal
a number
bones
and stone
of other
important
artifacts
at
questions
specifically
address
the
formation
of stone-artifact
concentrations
in the
early
archaeological
record
and their implications
with regard
to early hominid
behavior
patterns.
These include: why and how did early hominids
create the concentrated
clusters
of stone
artifacts
tell us about
environment?
found
at early
archaeological
sites? What
do these
early hominid
behaviors
on and off the site and
How do hominid
transport
behaviors
compare
observed
among
regarding
early
our closest
hominid
living
relatives,
the apes,
and what
concentrations
use of the
with those
do any differences
imply
adaptation?
* Paper presented at the symposium “The Longest Record: The Human
CA, in April 1986 in honor of Professor J. Desmond Clark.
0047-2484/87/07/80789
stone
their overall
or contrast
+ 19 $03.00/O
Career
0
in Africa”,
held at Berkeley,
1987 Academic
Press Limited
790
K.
D.
SCHICK
The nature of early sites
A number
ofearly
1.5 million
years
archaeological
B.P. (Table
as raw materials
and
sites have been recovered
I). These
used for artifacts,
morphology,
density
context.
These
(a)
artifacts
(b)
technological
raw materials
and
sites exhibit
abundance
spatial
consist
involved,
of
and types
distribution
sites may nevertheless
core
forms
relatively
hard,
fauna.
materials,
gcncrally
between
2.5 and
characteristics,
of associated
within
complex as well as flaking waste
used are generally
those available
usually
in many
of site
by characterized
simple
in East Africa
\.ariation
and
certain
such
artifBct
paramctcrs:
assigned
to
the
Oldowan
or debitage:
within the local sedimentary
finer-grained
sources
size
sedimentary
such as igneous
basins
(e.g.
rocks,
basalt, andesitc),
metamorphic
rocks (e.g. quart&r,
gneiss), quartz from igneous
metamorphic
rocks, and microcrystalline
silica (e.g. chert, chalcedony);
(cl
artifacts
may
be found
mammalian
Cd)surface
bones
survey
materials
the majority
often,
Table 1
the
ofsites
animal
are in alluvial
contexts,
remains,
usually
diffuse
by
distribution
small-to-large
sedimentary
situations,
either
lacustrine/alluvial
local
or, very
in proximity
1983).
site localities at least 1.5 million years old
Omo, Shungura Formation.’
Member Ed and Memhrr
Kada Guna 2-3-4 (East Gona)?
(Upper conglomeratr,
congtomerate)
West Gona”
Gadeb’j
Melka Kuntuw’
F’
Lower
K0YU
Koohi Fora and Ileret”
Chcsowan.ja”
Tan.zmiu
Gurgr,
of such
size
in channel
facies
Ethiopia
Olduvai
Peninj”
broken
1984);
or in a mixed
East African
a widespread,
interrupted
& Isaac,
1972; Kaufulu,
Major
fossilized
indicate
palaeolandscape
(see Kroll
floodplain
lake (Isaac,
or with
and teeth;
and excavations
on
concentrations
(e)
alone
or
BPds I and II”
1 Howell (1976); see also Howell et al., 1987 (this issue)
” Chavaillon
(1970); Merrick (1976); .%-nick & hlcrrick ( 1976); Mcrrick
et al. (1973)
+ Chavaillon and Boisaubcrt
(1977); de Hcinzelin (1983).
4 Corvinus & Rochc (1976. 1980): Roche and ‘I‘iercelin
(1980).
‘, Harris (1983).
b Clark & Kurashina (1979).
7 Chavaillon
(1976, 1980); Cl lavaillon (ii Chavaillon
(1976).
” Harris (1978); Harris & Isaac (1976); Isaac (1976~ and b. 1982); lsaac &
Harris (1978); Isaac et al. (1976).
9 Gowtett et al. (1981); Harris & Gowlett (19801.
‘0 Leakey (1971).
‘1 Isaac (1967).
to a
MODELING
The
gentle
sites in floodplain
circumstances
EARLY
STONE
or lake-margin
of burial
provide
AGE
SITE
environments
the most
791
FORMATION
showing
valuable
evidence
for relatively
information
regarding
the
hominid agencies and behaviors responsible for site formation. From the site complexes at
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania,
and at Koobi Fora, Kenya, a number of sites in such
depositional contexts provide insight on a regional scale into the nature of early artifact
accumulations.
number
Excavated
of stone
Lower
Pleistocene
tool assemblages
attributed
to the Oldowan
presumably
produced
range in size from a few dozen up to several thousand
particularly
representatives
of the genus
have yielded
industrial
assemblages
Sometimes,
by early
sites in these two regions
complex
(Table
Homo
2).
These
flaked stone artifacts.
at many Olduvai Gorge sites, hundreds of unflaked manuports,
unmodified pieces transported
to the site, are also found (Behrensmeyer,
1978,
Harris, 1978; Hay, 1971, 1973; 1976; I saac and Harris, 1978; Leakey, 1971).
Table 2
a
and
or
1982;
Artifact numbers and densities at major Oldowan and Developed Oldowan sites in Beds I and
II of Olduvai Gorge (after Leakey, 1971, pp. 259-2601, and Kroll & Isaac, 1984, p. 12*)
Number of
artifacts
Site
Depth of
deposit (ft)
Number of
manuports
Density
(Per/w. ft.)
Olduvai Gorge’
FLK Zini
FLK N, iev. 1,2
HWK East. Lev. 3-5
MNK Main
FC West Floor
Koobi Fora’
FxJj 1
FxJj 3
FxJj 10
FxJj 20M
FxJj 20E
FxJj 20AB
FxJj 50
To characterize
0.3
1.75
5.25
4.5
0.3
96
2470
1205
1989
4399
1184
210
1184
916
75.8
139
118
332
2497
1205
3462
1405
6.5
2.4
5.8
1.5
27.6
Excavations
Area
(m>)
55
33
13
85
80
12
200
3
2
19
25
10
76
the nature of the overall distribution
Density
(Per/m’)
2.5
3.6
25.5
29.4
15.1
288.5
7.0
of artifacts on the palaeolandscape,
Isaac (1981) identified different distinct scales of artifact concentrations.
very dense, easily detectable
smaller-scale
concentrations
concentrations
sometimes
smaller scatters of artifactual
early sites contain vertically
constituting
deemed
worth
the majority
These range from
of excavated
excavating,
down
materials usually reported only in surface surveys. Some
diffuse deposits, but others exhibit one or more laterally
extensive zones of material in a layer only a few centimeters thick.
Archaeologists
have generally
devoted the bulk of their attention
concentrations
of artifacts
sites, to
to sporadic,
and neglected
detailed
study of most smaller
to the
larger
sites. While
the
overall pattern of artifact distribution on the palaeolandscape
promises to yield important
clues as to hominid land-use patterns, the formation of the larger artifact concentrations
is
a phenomenon which requires explanation. These sites generally include not only larger
cores/core tools but some amount of debitage (flakes and fragments) produced by stone
artifact
manufacture.
Nevertheless,
formation
of many of the larger
sites in the early
792
K.
archaeological
kilograms
record
necessitates
of stone (Potts,
D.
SCHICK
hominid
transport
1982). The stone transport
these sites can give important
information
regarding
of dozens
and discard
hominid
or even hundreds
behaviors
land-use
of
indicated
at
patterns.
Use of raw materials at Olduuai Gorge and Koobi Foru
The hominids
in Bed I and Lower Bed II times at Olduvai
selective with regard to the quality of the raw materials
primarily
rounded
manufacture
cobbles
of fairly
large
size
of chopper forms, and apparently
Gorge were apparently
used for artifacts:
(approximately
quite
hominids utilized
8 cm
diameter)
for
preferred lavas with a dense, homogeneous
structure over vesicular or weathered sources (Hay, 1976). Sites ofsimilar age (about 1.4 to
1.9 million years B.P.) at Koobi Fora exhibit a similar selectivity in hominid use of stream
cobbles
frequently
of dense
and
encountered
relatively
homogeneous
basalt
lacking
in stream gravels in the region (Toth,
There are many indications
that hominid
needs. Although
were obtained
from within or near the Olduvai
large artifact
for most artifacts
in Olduvai
flaws
or driven
Beds I and II
basin (most often within 4 km from the
concentrations
tend to contain
sources at least 8 to 10 km away (e.g., Kelogi gneiss, Engelosin
Naibor Soit quartzite
weathering
stone use was not always expedient
by immediate
sites), sites with relatively
the materials
the
1982, 19856).
some stone from
phonolite)
found in a lower Bed II site 13 km from the outcrop)
or more (e.g..
(Hay, 1976, pp.
182-186). Furthermore,
Hay observed an increase in frequencies of such distant imports
over time in the sedimentary sequence, even from Bed I through Bed II times. Notably,
even at the MNK Chert Factory site in Bed II of Olduvai Gorge, where chert was locally
available, most artifacts were made from chert nodules brought in from elsewhere (Stiles et
al., 1974).
Similar data on distance
of transport
since raw material
available
sources
are not possible
were not localized
for the Koobi
outcrops
rock types (Harris,
1978; Toth 1982, 19856). Rather, hominids
deposits within stream channels draining into the Koobi Fora
highlands
to the east and northeast.
appear to have collected
Despite their selectivity
Fora basin sites,
of specific,
there
basin
identifiable
tapped gravel
from volcanic
about stone quality, hominids
stone without regard to rock type: basalt lava is the predominant
rock in the palaeochannel
gravels and at the sites (generally
from 90 to 100%).
Although rock sources are not identifiable with respect to specific stream channels at
Koobi Fora, clast sizes in paleochannels and at archaeological sites indicate hominids used
stone in a size range roughly
equivalent
to the larger clasts in local gravel populations
(Harris, 1978; Toth, 1982, 19856). Since size rather than raw material type is the only
source indicator here as of yet, if large stone clasts had been imported for upstream but
substantially
raw material
reduced enroute, a distant source would not be discernible. Thus, although
clast studies tend to indicate hominid use of stream gravel sources within the
general geographic region of a site, this does not preclude transport of some stone clasts and
flaked material over some distance. Usable stream deposits are not always evident in the
vicinity of a site, and at the earlier, Lower Member
1, 3 and lo), no available
stream
3 km from the sites (Isaac
& Harris,
sites in the Koobi Fora Formation
gravels have been reported
(FxJj
closer than approximately
1978).
The early archaeological sites are special features on the prehistoric landscape beginning
sometime between two and three million years ago. They indicate a dependence upon stone
tools which postdates bipedal locomotion in the hominid lineage by two million years or
MODELING
more. Most importantly,
EARLY
these artifacts
STONE
AGE
793
FORMATION
not only show deliberate
found in concentrations some distance, sometimes
major question
non-behavioral
SITE
manufacture,
several kilometers,
but they are
from the rock sources. A
to be asked of the early archaeological
record, then, is what behavioral
processes are responsible for these artifact deposits?
Hypotheses
for the formation
and
of artifact concentrations
Primate analogues?
A number
of studies
particularly
among
1986; Sugiyama
selection,
have
documented
chimpanzees
& Koman,
transport,
non-human
(e.g. Boesch
1979). Valuable
and
discard
primate
& Boesch,
tool-use
1981,
evidence is now available
by a species
of non-human
and
1983,
transport,
1984; Kortlandt,
for tool acquisition,
primate
which
can be
compared to early hominid site evidence.
Boesch & Boesch (1984) provide valuable
data on the nature of stone anvil and hammer
procurement
nutting
statistical
and transport
evaluation
in chimpanzee
of the relative importance
activities
of distance,
in West Africa,
including
weight, and transport
energy
(weight X distance) in the transport of stones to nutting trees. The great majority of
transports were within a short distance (20 meters) of the goal tree, most of these within 5
meters. The transport of stone to more abundant,
involves a relatively simple process of planning
distances
between
trees and hammers
proportion
(5%)
(over
meters).
500
chimpanzees
observation,
available
overall,
of stone transports
In
foraging
apparently
first
and then chose
in the locality.
with relatively
within
the
the stone,
Chimpanzee
The maximum
Olduvai
transport
distances
Gorge, where distinctive
Whether
materials
by hominids
accomplished
indicates
among living apes. The handicap
for the least distance
An efficient
transport
reported
resources
either
within
distances
nutting activities
one or more transport
record,
distances
episodes,
system much more developed
with locomotor
functions,
consideration
to transport-distance
rule
are much
particularly
at
of up to 10 km
movement
of
than observed
is cited as one possible reason
among the chimpanzees
(Boesch
& Boesch,
and possible
devices could enhance hominid transport abilities even further.
Thus, hominid transport decisions involved in early site formation
foremost
map of the stones
(more than 40 meters).
transport
transport
trees),
or direct
a least-distance
biped would not suffer from the same problems:
as drastically
(Panda
were small (less than 20 m),
in chimpanzee
of three-legged
small
long distances
by memory
involved
in the early archaeological
a transport
An extremely
using a mental
decisions
rock sources indicate
rule of transport
terrestrial
would not interfere
dispersed
resource,
apparently
transport
range.
were for relatively
heavy stones chosen when distances
than some of those observed
or more.
widely
food
but lighter stones favored with increasing
smaller
close viewing
by chimpanzees
for more
chose
closely spaced resources (Coula trees)
by association,
with small transport
1984).
hand transport
use of carrying
need not have given
costs as they are among
the nut-cracking
chimpanzees. The tendency for chimpanzees to carry stones for future use among closely
spaced resources, where transport costs are minimized, would indicate the efficiency of a
more fully developed system ofhabitual
tool transport
among tool-using
bipedal hominids.
The stone transport behaviors among early stone tool-making hominids indicate transport
systems much more involved and complex, involving much longer distances overall and
perhaps longer
chimpanzees.
chains
of transport
episodes,
than
any
observed
among
tool-using
794
K.
Fluvial concentrations?
Although
some early
their
bed load,
margin
deposits
lacking
for the artifacts
deposits
particularly
fluviatile
concentrations
aggregate
(Langbein
beyond
although
energies
concentration
Furthermore,
of
some
dispersion
complex
at Koobi
found.
either
in
or lake
The stone
from channel
site vicinity.
contributed
concentrating
to the formation
clasts
within
mechanisms,
of relatively
a fluvial system
dense
can tend to
of most
which
dispersed
evidence
etc.)
of the early
on floodplains,
a number
of tool manufacturing
& Isaac,
debris
sites indicate
relatively
preclude
as
develop
in
special
low to moderate
hydrological
the
transport
concentrating
of’ Koobi
Fora
and
mechanism.
sites indicate
by post-occupational
a relative
processes
occur in one or more discrete
for example,
Fora or FLK
can
1987).
(Bum
1986).
1984: Schick,
of artifacts,
(Schick,
would
artifacts
from
effect on floodplain
sites is the
artifacts
of diverse sizes and
reaggregations
bends,
Living floors and home bases?
Many of the larger artifact assemblages
vertical
the artifacts
non-hominid
downstream
obstructions,
conjoining
et al., 1980; Kroll
and cobbles
floodplain
from elsewhere,
that the predominant
fluvial
of site materials,
particularly
initially
lack of rearrangement
to produce
at some sites. Larger
contexts
acting
have
pebbles
line-grained
natural
concentrations,
e.g. gravel bars in a sandy bed stream
1968). Experimental
investigation
of fluvial effects on artifactual
(around
The sedimentary
whether
might
indicates,
however,
and disaggregation
morphologies,
circumstances
to
with
within
environments
the immediate
as
found
and produce
& Leopold,
materials
dispersal
large enough
into these
action,
palaeochannels
sites are sealed
rock clasts
remains
SCHICK
within
of these
was brought
question
fluvial
are found
or rock outcrops
The
artifact
sites
the majority
D.
horizons
sites such as FxJj 50 or parts
Zinj and the FC West
Floor at Olduvai
with limited
of the FxJj 20 site
Gorge
(Bunn
et al.,
1980; Isaac & Harris,
1978; Leakey,
1971). Such configurations
have commonly
been
called “living floors”, implying
that the artifactual
debris was dropped
on a ground surface
within
one or more
connotations
carried
“occupations”
of a “campsite”,
out diverse
not in a confined
domestic
horizon
of that area. The living floor concept
or a place where
activities.
East Levels 3-5, FLK North Levels
circumstances
are more ambiguous.
A more
fully developed
Other
but in vertically
model
a social group
sites have yielded
diffuse
deposits
1 and 2, and MNK
for the formation
has commonly
has stayed
large quantities
(e.g. the Olduvai
Main),
for which
of a “living
floor”
had
for some time and
ofartifacts,
sites HWK
the depositional
was de\*elopcd
by
Isaac in his “home base”
larger-scale
archaeological
hypothesis
(1978,
sites, particularly
1980, 1981, 1984). In this model, many of the
those containing
large quantities
of diverse
mammalian
fauna
and
repeatedly
used campsites
the materials
found
in
large numbers
of stone artifacts,
served
as home bases or
for early hominids.
In its early development,
this model viewed
these locales
as representing
the food waste and discarded
processing
tools of groups of hominids
who would split up during foraging rounds, males
and females going their separate
ways and then regrouping
at the site, bringing
collected
animal
In
and other
this
model,
foods
then,
for consumption
in many
ways
and redistribution
the
site
represents
among
debris
the social
similar
hunter-gatherer
camp: the deposited
material
is presumably
a mixture
from a range of activities
carried out at the camp, as well as materials
future use. A widely perceived
deficiency
of this model is its assumption
group.
to that
in a
of primary
refuse
kept on hand for
of forms of social
MODELING
organization
among
and land-use
early
question:
artifacts
EARLY
patterns
hominids.
found
Perhaps
how and why
and manuports
STONE
even
AGE
SITE
in recent
more
did the hominids
at some sites?
human
critical,
create
795
FORMATION
populations
it leaves
such
large
but unsubtantiated
unanswered
and dense
a very
basic
concentrations
of
Stone caches?
The
stone
cache
concentrations
In this model,
sites
costs between
thus
hypothesis
in terms
serve
assumptions
avoids
about
elaborate
social
1981; Binford
issue).
1981; and
model
FxJj 20, FxJj
purpose
would
technological
proportion
relying
of the stone
sometimes
encountered
materials
of materials.
usable
weight
model
must
concentrations
suggested
patches”
transport
being exploited.
in making
oflabor,
the group
arguments
Zinjanthropus
FLK
be necessary
simple
excavated
at many
should
expect
tools
sites would
to see
record
1978,
on this
tool concentrations
the
Gorge).
(e.g.
For what
particularly
and
flakes?
have served
large
within
occurrences
or even useful,
cores/core
organization
and discussion
at Olduvai
It
prior
(see Isaac,
at some early archaeological
in the early archaeological
of materials
of stone
to conserve
model
division
of food within
of stone
We
base
artifact
1982, 1984).
carcasses
the very large stone
very
of stone
(Potts,
tool
for a
A small
as a perfectly
concentrations
if sites were created
as stockpiles
for tools.
Inadequacy of previous models
The concentrations
of stone
found
at many
(particularly
imported
any of the above
by hominids
of animal
1984 for further
and
upon
utilization
such as sexual
explaining
Fora,
the formation
by the home
encountered
such large stockpiles
store
quantities
encountered
1982,
at Koobi
adequate
of material
Potts,
horizons
mode
constructed
and redistribution
still has difficulty
18GL
caches
with
of resource
social activities,
groups,
stratigraphic
deals
dynamics
for tools and the location
the pitfalls
in cooperative
This
as stone
stone needed
explicitly
confined
of site formation
of the energy
to some site locations,
models.
somehow
early
the relatively
To explain
account
of thousands
archaeological
large
cannot
the formation
for
the
of artifacts
range
be explained
of the early
of sites
to the
sites,
cores/core
small
tools)
of sheer
and the overall
adequately
in terms
of
archaeological
record,
a
encountered,
scatters
in terms
of only
from
the
large
a few dozen,
as
by Isaac ( 198 1) and Harris (Isaac & Harris, 1975) in their “scatter-between-the
studies
of artifact
distribution
on the palaeolandscape.
Furthermore,
such
model must not only explain the artifact densities
stone transport
systems indicated
by technological
Transport
a
encountered,
but must also deal with
evidence at individual
sites.
model for site formation
An outline will be proposed
hominid
use and transport
here for a model explaining
early archaeologial
sites in terms of
of resources
in the environment.
A site will be viewed here in
simplest
where
terms
as a place
stone
import
rates
exceeded
exports.
This
model
will
attempt
to explain
the formation
of archaeological
deposits
concentrated in a given
stratigraphic
horizon,
to explain the formation
of vertically
dzjjjse deposits
of artifactual
materials
at other sites, and to outline behaviors
favoring formation
ofthe very large as well
as small concentrations
construction
of early
ofartifacts
at different archaeological
localities.
It will consider
sites in terms of habitual
stone transport
by hominids
among
the
key
796
K.
positions
in the environment.
D.
SCHICK
Site formation
will be viewed
as the result
of discard
behaviors which favored the buildup of archaeological
materials at selected places in the
environment as a by-product of habitual transport of stone artifacts and unworked, usable
stone in the course of subsistence activities.
Technological
Sourcing
evidence for hominid transport behaviors
of raw materials
and studies of overall stone resource
gross details about stone transport
liner
resolution
on
the
techniques, particularly
to individual sites.
issue
behaviors
can
availability
involved in the formation
be obtained
studies of conjoining
through
applying
have provided
of early sites. Even
special
analytical
artifacts and in-depth technological
analysis,
Conjoining
studies, or attempts to reconstruct
stone tool manufacturing
procedures
through refitting flaking products, provide a detailed picture ofinstances ofstone transport
to and
from
assemblages
some
of the
at Koobi
Koobi
Fora
sites.
Fora have revealed
Technological
manufacturing
and likewise, provided insight into stone transport
analysis
has improved
site formation.
before
during the manufacturing
of the hominid
make
broad
Nevertheless,
statements
A particularly
intensively
studied
about
Koobi
floodplain silts in the Okoto Tuffcomplex
years ago (Bunn
artifacts
transport
artifact
sites
process. Such
behaviors
involved in
overall
et al., 1980).
and an additional
fauna1 assemblage
behaviors
and
their
cobbles
2100 bones,
studies were successful
in reconstructing
artifacts
bone.
they also show manufacturing
activities
activities
site,
FxJj
contributing
50,
or cobble
to early site
was recovered
fragments,
bone fragments
much material
The stone cores or partial cores reconstructed
critical look at the manufacturing
Fora
behaviors
from
at Koobi Fora, dating to approximately
1.5 to 1.6
F rom this site were recovered 1405 flaked stone
76 unshaped
of approximately
and fractured
transport
a summary of some of the results of these studies can demonstrate
a rather complex mix of transport and manufacturing
formation (Schick, 1986; Toth, 1982, 19856, 1987).
million
of stone
at individual
Similar studies will be required from a number ofsites in a given time-range
we can
variability.
our understanding
analysis
procedures
in addition
to a
and teeth. Conjoining
at the site, including
through these conjoining
flaked stone
studies provide a
carried out at the site. Equally
as important,
away from the site as well as stone transport
behaviors to and from the site locale. The results of the conjoining studies combined with
technological analysis of the stone artifacts indicate a great deal of transport to the site of
cores previously
flaked elsewhere,
as well as the subsequent
site of many of the flaking products,
including
removal from the excavated
a large proportion
of the cores (Figure
1,
Table 3) (Schick, 1984, 1986; Toth, 1982, 19856).
Analysis of 20 sets of conjoined artifacts from FxJj 50 (Table 3) indicates the great
majority of pieces had been flaked to some extent prior to their importation to the site. Only
four of the 20 show initial flaking or penetration of the core having occurred within the
excavated
site
boundary.
Thus,
80%
of the conjoining
sets indicate
manufacturing
procedures before being transported to the site. Transport away from the site appears to
have been equally active: only six cores were able to be conjoined with flakes at the site, or
for 70% of the sets of conjoining artifacts, the core had been removed from the excavated
area (Figure
If transport
1).
behaviors
for the entire site can be extrapolated
from the evidence
among
MODELING
STONE
AGE
SITE
797
FORMATION
Behaviors indicated by conjoining artifacts at FxJj 50*
Table 3
Constitutionof
conjoining set
Flakes
EARLY
Flake types
in the set
Prior action
Subsequent
action regarding
core
Flakes removed
Core
Start
End
(a)
0
0
0
2
2
6
III
II
IV
VI
II
II
II
II
II
III
V
V
V
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
5
1
1
2
V
V
V
V
V
II
?
II
V
V
V
(a)
X
X
X
X
X
X
At site
At least
At least
At least
At least
At least
Some
?
1
At least
Many
-
Unifacial chopper
Unifacial chopper
Unifacial chopper
Unifacial chopper
Unifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper,
discoid or
polyhedron
Bifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper
Indeterminate
Unifacial chopper
Unifacial discoid
Bifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper
Bifacial chopper
Polyhedron
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
O?
Some
At least 2
At least 1
At least 2
Some
V
V
V
V
V
II
?
V
(Core form)
Off site
2
2
2
2
2
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Transport?
Discard
Discard
Discard
Discard
Discard
Discard
3
V
* Transport
behaviors indicated from technological
evidence among conjoining artifacts at site FxJj 50 at
Koobi Fora (approximately
1.5 million years B.P.). Transports
include the importation
to the site area offlaked
artifacts, continued flaking at the site of both flaked and unworked stone, and transport
away from the site
excavation area of the majority of the imported cores.
the conjoining
sets, this could indicate
that much larger quantities
the site at some time during
the period(s)
amounts
been
of this had
conjoining
still unexcavated
the
finally
sets, particularly
conjoining
removed.
Some
of the material
had been at
but that unknown
missing
from
the
the cores, could possibly have been moved to a part of the site
or previously
sets,
of material
of its use or occupation,
eroded; however,
conforming
the tight spatial clustering
of nearly all of
very well to spatial scatters produced
would indicate little intrasite rearrangement
experiments (Schick, 1984,1986),
Considerable
transport of materials
on and off the site is further
indicted
in flaking
ofartifacts.
by the large
number of cores (nearly 50) with no matching debitage, and by the large numbers offlakes,
some in very distinctive raw materials, with no matching cores or flakes.
Likewise,
technological
flaked materials
studies
to the Koobi
indicate
Fora
a consistent
sites. Based
pattern
of importing
upon experimental
previously
replications
of core
forms, predictive
models were generated
regarding
characteristic
flake populations
expected in manufacturing
a given set of core forms. Analysis of the technologies evident in
a sample of Koobi Fora site assemblages indicates that predominantly
later stages of core
reduction
are represented
of manufactured
among the flake populations,
core forms to the sites (Toth,
pointing to consistent
1982, 19856).
importation
798
Ii.
CONJOINING
CORE
INFLOW
We
can
behaviors
clearly
see
with regard
are on a different
tool-user
among
the concentrations
in the
scale
than
behaviors
which
involving
foresight
and
those
j
ON SITE
CORE USF
archaeological
raw materials
LORE
OIJTFLOW
record,
then,
and manufactured
observed
of flaked
are not entirely
planning:
artifacts
probably
tool-use,
and transport
as well
as flaking
products
sometimes
early
STONE
TRANSPORT
AND ECONOMY
among
consistent
stone artifacts,
the most
consistent
the apes, the chimpanzee,
both in terms of the distance
of material produced.
Even at very early archaeological
can infer
importation
SCHI(:K
PIECES,
a
to stone
D.
deposited
curation
and
by the hominids
how and why these materials
entered
must ask in attempting
to understand
and
\it’e can observe
transport
of stone
tool-maker
of transport
occurrences
overlays
materials
and
and
WC
of’activities
and
tools,
manuports,
of artifacts
were
simple.
transport
ones which
carried
on-site artifact
manufacture
and most
away from the site. The raw materials
for tools
around
in distinct
in significant
concentrations
quantities
on the landscape.
and
the archaeological
context are ma_jor questions
and interpret
the early archaeological
record.
Discard behaviors
An important
question
to be asked of these early archaeological
and why did these materials
drop out of the transport
system
were
Precisely
WC
occurrences,
then, is how
at the particular
sites in
question?
Portions of the stone artifact assemblage
can probably
be regarded
as “de facto”
refuse (sensu Schiffer, 1972, 1976), or materials
abandoned
as waste at the location (Figure
2). This would most certainly
apply to the very small drbitage
(less than 2 cm maximum
dimension)
resulting
from on-site flaking, as flakes in this size range are produced
in
copious quantities
by knapping
activities
(Schick, 1986) but are ofvery limited usefulness.
Experiments
in replicating
typical
Oldowan
core forms found at early sites normally
produce dozens or even hundreds
of flakes and flake fragments,
most of which would have
MODELING
I
EARLY
STONE
AGE
799
SITE FORMATION
TRANSPORT
I
DISPOSAL
LOSS,
WASTE,
~BINOONMENT
STORAGE
BEHAVIORAL
CONTEXT
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
CONTEXT
(DISCARD)
Figure 2. Model for the flow of stone raw material and artifacts within the behavioral context, including
procurement
of stone resources, artifact manufacturing
activities, tool-using, and transportation
at
various points within this behavioral
system, and for the various discard behaviors which draw
artifactual materials into the archaeological
context (after Schiffer. 1976).
limited
utility
much
more
without
the use of hafting
recently).
Any place
devices
(which
stone
knapping
where
appear
in the archaeological
activities
tend to accumulate
large quantities
of diminutive
stone artifactual
considered
as waste products.
It is the larger materials,
the flakes as well as the cores/core
problematic:
why were they left at these early sites, particularly
in which they are sometimes
found? Possible alternatives
would
(they
were
because
the
Deposition
reason
likely
no longer
of use to the hominids,
task
they
for which
predominantly
for the creation
build
horizon.
up such
Deliberate
through
of the many
concentrations
discard
were
due to their
needed
was
loss may perhaps
large-scale
of tools,
or abandonment
were carried
materials
tools,
deterioration
those
of tools no longer
may be
are especially
or dulling
and/or
or unintentional
readily
sites in the record:
particularly
which
in the large concentrations
include deliberate
disposal
completed)
be most
that
record
out would
dispensed
simple
loss.
with as a
loss would
in a vertically
useful or necessary
not
confined
could
be
responsible
for some of the artifact deposition
at early sites, but would not seem to explain
the discard of the many inexhausted
cores or large, sharp flakes often encountered
in these
early assemblages
nor the sheer quantities
of such useful materials
at some early sites.
An alternative
explanation
is that
these
concentrations
of stone
artifacts
developed
as a
by-product of a habitual
transport
and discard behaviors
centered
on specific locales, rather
than as a deliberate
stockpile.
This model would constitute
a system of “passive storage” of
artifacts,
with stone artifact concentrations
developing
in certain locales not by deliberate
caching
behavior
but as a consequence
of the dynamics
of behaviors
involving
stone
transport
in the course
of hominid
foraging
rounds.
Ii.
800
Stone import-export
here focuses upon evidence of consistent
during the Oldowan
technological
behaviors responsible for the development
emergence of the Acheulean technological
manufacturing
Sites
behaviors
will be viewed
movement
and
SCHICK
imbalances and site formation
The model presented
by hominids
D.
transport
mode. It will attempt
artifact
as individual
transport.
Those
points
within
locations
in Oldowan
a larger
where
tool kit, i.e., were discarded,
archaeological
map of all hominid
technologies.
system
unworked
artifacts dropped out of a transported
sites. (A hypothetical
materials
of the stone artifact concentrations
prior to the
mode, which may have involved transport and
quite different from those observed
here
oflithic
to consider hominid
of hominid
stone
constitute
and
stone
recognizable
activities
would be much more
complete, as it would include an unknown number of “invisible”
artifact deposition.) In this model, potentially useful stone materials
activity sites with no
were habitually carried
around by hominids
in case a need for them would arise where no tools or appropriate
raw
materials were available. In essence, the transported stone would have served as a portable
tool kit carried by hominids in the course of daily subsistence rounds.
Habitual
transport
behavior
if there was uncertainty
or if stone materials
more frequently,
of this kind would have been particularly
about raw material availability
were known to be scarce. In certain locations,
stone was repeatedly
brought
Simply put, sites developed
locally where the imports exceeded
This
formation
is a simple
in terms of overall transport
produce a store of useful materials
motive, but as a by-product
to be answered
removed.
Major reasons
include:
behaviors.
of the site-specific
is why at some locales
for the discard
(a) the possibility
materials
more materials
model would tend to
abandonment
perhaps
were brought
than were finally
tools and flakes wouId
had to be carried away
in the site vicinity and/or processed
more likely for some smaller-scale
(e.g., due to advances
by predators
stockpiling
A major question
the site, e.g. plant or animal foods, bedding, wood or other raw materials
1982);
(b) in some instances,
in
site
imbalance.
useful cores/core
either gathered
sometimes
for considering
not through a deliberate
that, at least in some cases, other materials
from the site, perhaps
the exports,
This behavioral
import-export
of potentially
those visited
in equal quantities.
but useful framework
at some locations,
either
foraging area,
particularly
in but not removed
very substantial
numbers.
important
within a prospective
or other hominids)
materials being left behind unintentionally;
(c) on the occasion(s)
of departure from the site, the anticipated
at
for tools (Toth,
sites, sudden
site
could likely lead to
need for stone raw
materials was reduced. This could happen, for instance, if the next area to be exploited
had known stone sources, or ifplanned foraging activities were to take place in the vicinity
of the site and its existing bank of stone material, even if subsistence rounds eventually
took the hominids
some distance
away.
If the latter process were in operation,
in places
which
were used periodically,
concentrations
of artifacts would tend to develop
and particularly
dense deposits
in those used
frequently or habitually. This model proposes that high transport rates of stone materials,
demanded by anticipated
need for stone artifacts along with uncertainty of its future
availability,
produced
stone
import
rates
in certain
areas
commensurate
with
the
MODELING
EARLY
STONE
AGE SITE FORMATION
801
frequency of visitation
and hominid use (in terms of numbers
of individuals
and/or
frequency of visits). Locations used very often by hominid individuals or groups could have
had substantial
quantities
of stone material imported over a period of time, and, if the
pressures to export materials away from the site were then reduced for any of the above
reasons, artifact concentrations
would develop.
Process (c) above, the reduced necessity of stone export from the site, could tend to
accentuate
the density of stone deposition
at a location through a circular feedback
mechanism.
Since a deposit of stone artifacts would serve as a bank of useful materials in
the hominids’ mental maps, it could have provided a secure source of materials for foragers
leaving the site but planning
activities in the site vicinity, thus reducing export levels
further as the size and visibility of the concentration
increased.
This model of the formation of deposits of stone at early Stone Age sites could be
portrayed as operating on an anxiety-security
cycle about stone resource availability:
the
anticipated
need for stone tools promoting
habitual
stone transport
and large-scale
importation
of lithics over the long run to frequently visited locations, and the subsequent
security provided by the local raw material store depressing the exportation
quotas of
materials away from such sites. Such a model for stone transport could help explain the
development
of sites of differing
scales and artifact densities
encountered
in the
archaeological
record:
(1) This cycle could promote the accentuated
development
of large-scale
artifact
concentrations
(n > 1000) in locales where excellent food resource availability
would
draw large quantities of stone imports with numerous and/or frequent hominid foragers,
and where good foraging prospects
in the vicinity would tend to depress stone
exportation.
(2) Medium-size
sites with more moderate artifact densities (1000 < n > 100) could
represent environments
which attracted relatively less frequent visitation by foragers,
and whose lower artifact stores would have acted to spur exportation rates and maintain
moderate stone densities.
(3) Low-density
artifact occurrences
(n < loo), sometimes
found in excavated
archaeological
sites but most often represented
by scatters of artifacts found in survey
procedures,
may represent places infrequently
visited, therefore receiving little stone
importation,
but from which relatively large proportions of the stone material originally
imported may have been eventually
removed by hominid foragers opportunistically
using scarce stone resources. Technological
analysis and conjoining studies would help
confirm this expectation in the case excavated sites.
(4) The vertically
diffuse deposits observed in some sites could represent
areas
frequently visited over extended periods of time, but where the rate of sedimentary
deposition was very rapid relative to the rate of cultural deposition (vertical dispersion
could be further augmented
by forces such as biological turbation
which act to mix
deposits vertically).
(5) Sites at rock sources would likely have a mixture of materials brought in from outside
through this habitual
transport
system as well as some extracted at the site locale.
Unfortunately,
most rock outcrops were in erosional or nondepositional
environments
and do not preserve such evidence, and sites found within stream gravels which might
have been exploited are generally winnowed and disturbed. The importation
of chert to
the MNK Chert Factory site would tend to support this prediction, however.
802
Ii. D.
Applications
The
proposed
behavioral
archaeological
record
tool assemblages
to raw material
environment,
Distance
and frequency
artifacts
would
patterns
in rock locally
likely
exhibit
well as later
stages
greater
distance
of encounter
or found
a relatively
would
reduction
tend
and
to enter
ofstone
in assemblage
depending
distribution
upon distanct
of rock sources
in the
at the site locale.
rock source
material
in areas
full range
in the earl!
the formation
\.ariability
be expected
and
of a particular
in that
available
of core
might
abundance
of visitation
in artifacts
concentrations
regardina
Intcrasscmblagc
diversity
the overall
of artifact
predictions
circumstances.
and the frequency
technological
several
and technological
sources,
from the model
for the formation
support
in different
size, raw material
and predictions
model
would
SCHICK
would
at an individual
commonly
travcrscd
of tcchnolo,+cal
quantities
products,
of debitaRe.
the site already
tend to afrect the
site.
reduced
For instance,
in foraging
including
Stone* types
to some
rounds
earlier
found
extent,
as
at a
since
the
initial stages of core reduction
would likely occur in locales in transit to the site.
This pattern ofstone exploitation
could help explain diffcrcnt uses of‘rock types observed
in many Bed I and lowrr Bed II sites at Olduvai Gorge, where quartz and quartzitc
derived
from nearby Naibor Soit (within 2-3 km from most sites) and the chcrt nodules locally
available
in lower
Bed II make
used for the choppers
volcano
Sadiman.
This material
up very little
of the debitagc
cluster
the lake margin
along
up the majority
and heavy-duty
of the debitaRc
tools was dcrivcd
has been imported
(Hay,
hcrc,
tools. The lava
draining
to the sites as reduced
1976, p. 182; Lcakey,
environment
and smaller
from streams
the distant
cores and makes
1971, pp. 262-263).
the lakeside
Naibor
Since
Soit would
sites
likely bc
within striking
range on a good many foraging
trips, promoting
easy procurement
and
relatively
casual USC. On the other hand, the cobbles of Sadiman
lava, available in alluvial
fans at an unknown
distance
to the southeast
of the hlain Gorge, may have been procured
from a much
greater
and morphological
the initial
(Clark,
The
distance
variation
1980; Jones,
artifacts
in areas visited
materials
less frequently.
would
form and size of the rock and its intrinsic
larger
complex
and/or
in diflerent
sites
flaking
artifact
size
upon such factors
and shattering
as
characteristics
1979).
expected
set of technological
and manuports
manufactured
Of course.
also depend
on-site
to accumulate
systems.
as well as artifacts
would
in prime
Assemblages
produced
have been exported
foraging
would
areas
likcl\
likely include
on-site:
likcwisc,
ha\,c
many
a varied.
imported
many ofthe
from the site locale over time.
artifacts
In addition,
larger sites with greater quantities
of artifacts would tend to accumulate
materials
through
a number of hominid
visits. The): would thus potentially
contain a greater variety of‘ra~
materials
and
catchment
quantities
area. This
of artifacts
have
greater
likelihood
of gaining
materials
pattern
has been noted at Olduvai
normally
contains
some materials
from
distant
sources
in the
Gorge, whcrc any site with large
from sources at least 8 to 10 km
away (Hay, 1976, p. 183).
On the other hand, smaller-scale
assemblages
likely to develop
in places visited less
frequently
could be enigmatically
“deprived”,
or with little conjoinablc
material even ifthc
assemblage
contains a good deal ofdebitage.
This would be expected since such sites would
likely promote
a fairly heavy
stone
export
rate, i.e., a relatively
higher
export
: import
ratio
than expected
at larger sites. Some of the small-scale
sites in fine-grained
sedimentar)
contexts at Koobi Fora, such as FxJj 1, 10, 11, and 17, which have small assemblages
with
fairly high debitage
proportions
but appear
to he a mix of primarily
unrelated,
MODELING
unconjoinable,
material
material,
to erosion
could
STONE
fall into
potential.
in lower
limitations
SITE
FORMATION
category.
of part
However,
velocity
at such
AGE
this
or non-exacavation
diminish
conjoining
spatial
association
conjoining
EARLY
Of course,
factors
of the artifact-bearing
since flaking
depositional
sites may have
803
these
such
as loss of
horizon
can
also
debris is expected to have fairly tight
circumstances
(Schick,
1986), the
behavioral
implications
as well.
The quantity
and geographic
distribution
of raw material sources for tools would also be
likely to affect transport
behaviors
and resulting
archeological
patterns
within this model.
In an environment
sources
located
such as Olduvai
at variable
of assemblage
variability
Gorge,
distances
in raw materials
would
the eastern margin of the saline lake during
almost any direction
would have brought
resource:
Naibor
Soit quartz
phonolite
approximately
undetermined
distance
and chert
this
locally
palaeoenvironment,
use of certain
of the
times
Bed
II, however,
handaxes
were fashioned
Although
by Acheulean
consideration
materials
Such
times
utilization
Such
shifts
food
resource
in stone
upon
quarrying
While
resource
which
Engelosin
are equally
of available
from
acquisition
and
than
to sites
Engelosin
for
more
in the Oldowan,
time periods
Engelosin,
in the western
could
differences
be better
patterns,
not
gorge
if not closer,
phonolite)
(Hay,
selectivity
and
in ranging
functional
use of
behaviors.
one not strictly
explained
their
1976).
some of the differential
rock resources,
foraging
1976).
Olduvai
sites in lower Bed II. By Acheulean
restricted
by straightforward
(Hay,
the
in certain
phonolite
close to this rock source,
is evidence
than
in
more common
instance,
lava rather
there
the basin
resources
correlated
in terms
with
strategy
resources.
of changes
in
with territorial
or foraging
ranges
in a particular
catchment
area. Thus,
were encountered
and territorial
ranges
would
dictate
which
stone materials
were
entered
the transport
system. In this model, stone acquisition
depends
raw material
the stone
collection
to specific
transport
stone
some severe restrictions
situation,
where
the
surrounded
became
For
its use became
stone resources
expeditions
due to the diverse
to the northwest,
would argue against
the operation
of a stone-caching
transport
distances
between
raw materials
and food
distribution
foraging
patterns
encountered
and
stone
into use at Oldowan
choices
still be dictated
differential
determining
gorge
of raw material
could
are on
foraging movements
in
to some raw material
lake beds within
of
basin.
in Sandiman
sheer transport
distance,
attempting
to minimize
more
came
sites in the eastern
in exposed
materials
Olduvai
at Bed I sites,
in upper
(though
pattern
As most site locations
a few kilometers
distribution
or in certain
encountered
be expected.
and gravel
complicated
Bed I and Bed II times,
hominids
in proximity
quartzite
available
widespread
parts
rock outcrops
sites, a somewhat
10 kilometers
to the north,
cobbles
of Sadiman
lava an
to the southeast,
Kelogi gneiss several kilometers
to the southwest,
periodically
Despite
and
with its set ofdiverse
from different
by a diverse
in the course
of foraging
pursuits
than
upon
deliberate
rock outcrops.
patterns
at Olduvai
resources
available,
in terms
of available
Gorge
exhibit
the transport
stone
a great
system
resources.
deal of complexity
at Koobi
Rather
than
Fora
suffered
the Olduvai
rich lake margin
environment
favored
for site locations
array of stone resources
in most directions,
at Koobi Fora
was
stone
resource
distribution
was more linear: cobbles were acquired
from streams
draining
the
volcanic highlands
to the east and northeast
of the sedimentary
basin (Isaac and Harris,
1980). As these streams
flowed westward
and southwestward
into the basin,
stream
gradients
decreased
and their gravel populations
became smaller, restricting
the size range
of available
cobbles
and
hence
the
typological
variability
of manufacturing
products
804
It. D. SCHlCIi
(Harris,
1978; Isaac
theirjoining
instance,
sites
distributary
gravel
excavated
channels
sources
Thus,
and Harris,
the lake, no clasts
within
at least
diminished
likely have been very severe
the low site densities
western
part
and
of stone
distances
involved,
the distribution
more
basin.
Koobi
from
differences
cultural
become
in raw material
critically
important
and export
pressures
delta
no apparent
the
most
of the lake. This might
help
nearer
the lake, i.e., in the
a stone-restrictive
as at Olduvai
locations
nearer
would
densities
In such
scale
source
ot
For
within
10, have
in the vicinity
artifact
of sites and the density
or functional
I’ora
1. 3, and
system,
and with
even
similar
with
transport
of their
and variability
would predictably
differ from those seen at Olduvai
differcnccs
between early tool assemblages
in these
from
kilometers
these streams.
1976~2).
rounds
on a similar
several
within
at
at FxJj
have
intrasitc
‘l’urkana
transport
than
Member
in size and abundance,
habitual
assemblages
technological
would
on foraging
explain
of the East
Lower
of the lake.
of stone
within
were available
3 or 4 km (Isaac,
transport
lake as stone resources
19856). Finally,
for flaking
the
in the vicinity
within
hominid
1978; Toth,
suitable
artifact
Gorge. Typological
and
two site areas could stem
and resulting
transport
strate,gies
variation.
Conclusions
Transport
of artifacts
well-developed
habitual
course
and
behavior
behavior,
of hominid
as a by-product
their overall
raw
pattern
materials
foraging
materials
intended
of repeated
stone
use having
sites of v,ariahlr
transport
density,
behaviors.
artifact
types.
Some
techniques
analysis,
material
by food resource
of the predictions
presently
and
in-depth
sourcing,
by early
hominids,
transport
patterns
in
stone
transport
technological
would
outlined
are carried
particularly
been
carried
artifact
around
densities
Variability
among
having
;I
been
in the
formed
Oldowan
utilized,
during hominid
and the frequency
to hc
to have
sites in
may depend
foraging
rounds,
of site utilization
distribution.
of the model
available
appears
appears
and raw materials
largely upon which stone resources
were encountered
variable distances
of stone sources to individual
sites.
as determined
manufacture
of Homo hnbi1i.r. This
for future
and Oldowan
size or artifact
f’or artifact
by the time
out,
if’ certain
studies,
analytical
debitagc
size
at individual
sites. Kcfincmcnt
in raw
identification
of stream gravel resources
used
be of great
in the early archaeological
behaviors
are testable
as conjoining
analysis
the possible
also
here
such
can
be
help
in discerning
record.
‘l’cmporal
directly
csamined
and
interpreting
and geo,graphic
through
stone
vsariability.
archaeological
investigation,
and should
,givr us v~aluablc clues as to the ramging and subsistence
behaviors,
the structure
and complexity
of technological
systems, and the development
of
cognitive
and organizational
skills in early
stone
tool makers.
Acknowledgements
Research
for this
study
received
support
from
the
Sational
Science
Foundation,
the
L. S. B. Leakcy Foundation,
the Boise Fund, the Kohcrt Lowie Fund, and the Sigma Ni
Research
Society. The cooperation
of the Kenyan Government,
the National
Rlluseums of
Kenya and their Director,
Richard
Leakey, are gratefully
acknowledged.
I would like also
to thank J. W. K. Harris, Nicholas Toth, J. Desmond
Glark, and anonymous
reviewers for
their many valuable
suggestions
and comments.
MODELING
EARLY
STONE
AGE
SITE
FORMATION
805
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