EMERSON A S A PROCESS PHILOSOPHER
by
BARRY A L B E R T WOOD
B.A., U n i v e r s i t y
o f T o r o n t o , 1963
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Short T i t l e :
PROCESS IN EMERSON
i
Abstract
Philosophers and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s have recognized for many
years the profound recalcitrance
systematic formulation.
this recalcitrance
of Emerson's thought to any kind of
It i s the contention of this thesis that
i s one of the main pointers to the nature of h i s
philosophy, which i s here described as "process" philosophy. A l l
attempts to reduce Emerson's thought to a s t a t i c system with definable
terms is doomed from the beginning, since Emerson's universe was
dynamic, f l u i d , processive, and therefore fundamentally indefinable.
Chapter I ("Emerson's Quarrel with the Eighteenth Century")
seeks to place Emerson within the Romantic t r a d i t i o n , emphasizing h i s
reaction against the mechanical philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment.
The image of the Great Chain of Being i s seen as t y p i c a l of this
philosophy, and Swedenborg's theory of "correspondence" i s seen as
workable only within this context.
Emerson's philosophy, however,
was organic and processive, and therefore beyond the explanatory
power of
"correspondence."
Chapter II ("Nature as Process") works out Emerson's under-
standing of Nature as dynamic and processive.
Nature, for him was a
system of i n t e r a c t i o n , a processive flow of objects into and out of
themselves.
Moreover, Emerson saw material r e a l i t y as an "emanation"
of the Divine, a process of s p i r i t manifesting i t s e l f in material
forms.
At the same time, he saw Nature as "evolving" from material
forms towards higher levels of s p i r i t .
Emerson managed to hold both
views at once, seeing "emanation" and " e v o l u t i o n " as r e c i p r o c a l
transactions,
so that the de-velopment (or un-folding) of the universe
was simultaneously evolution and emanation.
Chapter III
("The Process of the Soul") concentrates on
Emerson's unifying center, the Soul.
He thought that the Soul was
the center of a web of i n t e r a c t i o n , a process or a c t i v i t y in which
the world became unified through the mind and eye of man.
Moreover,
the Soul for Emerson was both a transaction with the divine OverSoul and a dynamic process by which the seer and the thing seen,
the
subjective s e l f and the objective world, are unified i n a b i l a t e r a l
transaction.
Chapter IV ("The Process of A r t " ) applies Emerson's philosophy
of process to one (of several) f i e l d s of human a c t i v i t y ,
creation.
Emerson understood art as activated
artistic
i n i t i a l l y by i n -
s p i r a t i o n , a flowing of the Divine into man; and he understood art
to be a kind of incarnation, an embodiment of s p i r i t i n matter, idea
in form.
Moreover, he maintained that beauty consisted of dynamic
form, that i s , form capturing the processive or f l u i d quality of l i f e
and nature.
Furthermore, the appreciative process consisted of an
observer investing a r t i s t i c
The f i n a l chapter
form with h i s own imaginative s p i r i t .
("Emerson and the Twentieth Century")
attempts to r e l a t e Emerson's philosophy s p e c i f i c a l l y and Romantic
thought g e n e r a l l y to such t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
tivity,
emergent e v o l u t i o n , b i o l o g i c a l
psychology.
in
developments as
ecology,
and
I t becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t Emerson h a s
m o d e r n t h o u g h t and
t h a t he
was
very
rela-
transactional
numerous
c l o s e indeed
to
n o n - c a t e g o r i c a l , d e s c r i p t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o r e a l i t y and
analogues
processive,
man's
place
in i t .
Because Emerson s u b s t i t u t e d a d e s c r i p t i v e , t r a n s a c t i o n a l
approach to r e a l i t y
rather
t h a n an
explanatory,
s t a t i c approach,
u l t i m a t e l y moved b e y o n d a b s t r a c t p h i l o s o p h i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n
p r a g m a t i c humanism.
His
of
i n the
life
and
activity
transcendentalism
concrete
descriptions ultimately invested
man
with
universe.
t h e d i v i n e , a l l o w i n g man
was
situation.
he
into
m e a n i n g f u l i n terms
His
the u n i v e r s e w i t h
processive
life
and
t o assume h i s c e n t r a l p l a c e
incarnated
in
the
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
Chapter
I.
Page
INTRODUCTION:
EMERSON'S QUARREL WITH THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY
II.
III.
IV.
V.
1
NATURE A S PROCESS
THE A L L - D I S S O L V I N G U N I T Y :
21
THE PROCESS OF THE SOUL .
42
THE PROCESS OF ART
61
CONCLUSION:
§1
EMERSON AND THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. . .
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
100
1
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION:
I
EMERSON'S QUARREL
WITH THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
Swedenborg's system o f the w o r l d wants
c e n t r a l s p o n t a n e i t y ; i t i s dynamic, n o t
v i t a l , and l a c k s power t o generate l i f e .
There i s no i n d i v i d u a l i n i t .
The u n i v e r s e i s a g i g a n t i c c r y s t a l , a l l whose
atoms and laminae l i e i n u n i n t e r r u p t e d
o r d e r and w i t h unbroken u n i t y , b u t c o l d
and s t i l l .
Emerson, "Swedenborg."
On the Sunday e v e n i n g of J u l y 1 5 t h , 1838, R a l p h Waldo Emerson
d e l i v e r e d h i s famous " D i v i n i t y S c h o o l A d d r e s s " b e f o r e the s e n i o r
c l a s s of the d i v i n i t y c o l l e g e of H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y .
Although
this
a d d r e s s , a t a d i s t a n c e o f one hundred and t h i r t y y e a r s , s t r i k e s us
as m i l d and calm o f t o n e , i t e f f e c t i v e l y aroused a storm i n Boston
d u r i n g the f o l l o w i n g weeks, and u l t i m a t e l y k e p t Emerson o f f the
H a r v a r d l e c t u r e p l a t f o r m f o r n e a r l y t h r e e decades.
Much more than
h i s f a r e w e l l sermon t o the U n i t a r i a n Church o f B o s t o n , i n which he
advocated the d r o p p i n g of the Lord's Supper from U n i t a r i a n p r a c t i c e ,
the " D i v i n i t y S c h o o l A d d r e s s " has come t o be r e c o g n i z e d as the
o f f i c i a l statement o f Emerson's disagreement w i t h the Church.
s t a n d s a t the t u r n i n g p o i n t of h i s c a r e e r , marking h i s
It
disengagement
w i t h the t r a d i t i o n s o f h i s p a s t and h i s l a u n c h i n g i n t o a new c a r e e r
and a new
r e l i g i o u s stance.
As s u c h , the "Address" i s of prime
importance i n any e x a m i n a t i o n o f Emerson's i d e a s .
2
Emerson managed t o convey h i s own r e b e l l i o n so m i l d l y t h a t
i t i s easy t o m i s s i t .
The " D i v i n i t y S c h o o l A d d r e s s " was addressed
t o a c l a s s of a s p i r i n g p r e a c h e r s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y the main t h r u s t of
i t appears t o r e s t i n h i s a t t a c k on the s o u l l e s s n e s s of p r e a c h i n g
i n A m e r i c a i n the 1830's, and h i s e x h o r t a t i o n t o them t o " a c q u a i n t
men
a t f i r s t hand w i t h D e i t y . I t
i s easy t o m i s s h i s e a r l i e r
a t t a c k , w h i c h summarily d e m o l i s h e s the s o - c a l l e d d i v i n i t y o f C h r i s t
and the importance of the m i r a c l e s r e c o r d e d i n the New
And
Testament.
i t was, of c o u r s e , these more fundamental i s s u e s , s k i r t e d over
i n a few p a r a g r a p h s i n the A d d r e s s , which caused Andrews N o r t o n
t o speak of the " l a t e s t form of i n f i d e l i t y " i n a pamphlet
published
?
a few days
later.
Emerson's whole a f f i r m a t i o n , from 1838 f o r w a r d , was
e s s e n t i a l l y the a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h a t n o n - v e r b a l , n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l ,
i n t u i t i v e r e a l i t y which comes w i t h "the i n f l u x of the a l l - k n o w i n g
s p i r i t " (W, I , 1 4 5 ) , and which has n o t h i n g to do w i t h a p a s t which
i s f i x e d and dead.
Emerson's c r i t i c i s m and r e j e c t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l
C h r i s t i a n i t y was n o t the s i m p l e r e j e c t i o n of r i t e s such as the
^Emerson's Works, 12 volumes (Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s : R i v e r s i d e ,
1903), I , 143. A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s e d i t i o n a r e documented
i n t e r n a l l y as W.
2"A d i s c o u r s e on the L a t e s t Form of I n f i d e l i t y , " S e l e c t e d
W r i t i n g s of the American T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s ( T o r o n t o : New American
L i b r a r y , 1966), 203-209.
3
L o r d ' s Supper and creeds such as t h e d i v i n i t y o f C h r i s t .
These a r e
mere cases o f a much more fundamental problem, and Emerson came
c l o s e t o i t when he s a i d "The idioms of h i s language and the f i g u r e s
o f h i s r h e t o r i c have usurped
the p l a c e o f h i s t r u t h ; and churches
a r e n o t b u i l t on h i s p r i n c i p l e s , b u t on h i s t r o p e s " (W, I , 1 2 9 ) .
U n i t a r i a n i s m , i n Emerson's e y e s , had s o l d i t s e l f t o " t r o p e s "
r a t h e r than " p r i n c i p l e s " , and the d i s t i n c t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t one
w h i c h i s b a s i c t o Emerson's p h i l o s o p h y .
The " t r o p e s " which Emerson
r e j e c t e d throughout h i s c a r e e r were those statements o f the n a t u r e
of r e a l i t y which b o i l e d down t o mere words, v e r b a l f o r m u l a s , or
m a t e r i a l i s t i c summations.
Those " p r i n c i p l e s " which he a f f i r m e d
r e p e a t e d l y were beyond t h e power o f words t o e x p r e s s ; they c o u l d
n o t be c a p t u r e d i n s i m p l e f o r m u l a t i o n s or m a t e r i a l i s t i c laws.
"An
answer i n words i s d e l u s i v e , " he w r o t e ; " i t i s r e a l l y no answer t o
the q u e s t i o n s you a s k . . . . Men ask . . . .
They even dream t h a t
J e s u s has l e f t r e p l i e s t o p r e c i s e l y these i n t e r r o g a t o r i e s .
Never
a moment d i d t h a t sublime s p i r i t speak i n t h e i r p a t o i s " (W, I I , 265-266).
The o n l y language which c o u l d c a p t u r e these p r i n c i p l e s was the
language o f p o e t i c metaphor and image; thus Emerson c r i t i c i z e d the
C h r i s t i a n i d e a o f M i r a c l e by s a y i n g " i t i s a Monster.
I t i s not
one w i t h t h e b l o w i n g c l o v e r and the f a l l i n g r a i n " (W, I , 1 2 9 ) .
The d i s t i n c t i o n between " t r o p e s " and " p r i n c i p l e s " l a i d the
groundwork f o r Emerson's i n c i s i v e c r i t i c i s m o f c u r r e n t p r e a c h i n g .
" T r a d i t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e s the p r e a c h i n g o f t h i s c o u n t r y ; . . . i t
comes out o f t h e memory, and n o t o u t o f the s o u l ; . . .
i t aims a t
4
what i s u s u a l , and not a t what i s n e c e s s a r y
and
e t e r n a l " (W,
I , 139).
Andrews N o r t o n , the preeminent t h e o l o g i a n of Boston
U n i t a r i a n i s m , i n h i s " D i s c o u r s e on the L a t e s t Form o f
Infidelity"
(1839), a t t a c k e d Emerson's d e n i a l of the m i r a c l e s of C h r i s t .
went as f a r as to say t h a t "the argument i s founded on
He
atheism.
The d e n i a l of the p o s s i b i l i t y of m i r a c l e s must i n v o l v e the d e n i a l
o f the e x i s t e n c e of God,"
b r e a k i n g h i s own
laws.
d i v i n i t y s c h o o l was
s i n c e God,
The
stand taken by N o r t o n and
the H a r v a r d
mere b l i n d n e s s i n the U n i t a r i a n s n o t
the a b o l i s h m e n t o f creed
v e r y creed t o w h i c h they c l u n g .
[was]
i n h e r e n t i n the
U n i t a r i a n i s m was
essentially
a s s e r t i o n o f the d i v i n i t y of human n a t u r e , and hence o f the
of the s o u l t o r e c o g n i z e r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s i n d e p e n d e n t l y
authority."^
against their
" p a t o i s " of w o r d s — c r e e d a l
an
ability
of
Emerson's r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t U n i t a r i a n i s m was
a reaction
statements about the p a s t
t o w h i c h they c l u n g ; and N o r t o n ' s r a t i o n a l i s t i c ,
"historical"
approach to d o c t r i n e — a s e x e m p l i f i e d i n h i s magnum opus, The
of the Genuineness o f the Four Gospels ( 1 8 3 8 ) — s e r v e s
Emerson's
of
f u l l o f the h i g h e s t i r o n y , f o r , as Henry David
Gray has p o i n t e d o u t , " i t was
t o see t h a t ...
by d e f i n i t i o n , i s capable
Evidence
t o emphasize
complaints.
I b i d . , p.
203.
^Emerson; A Statement o f New England T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m as
Expressed i n the P h i l o s o p h y of I t s C h i e f Exponent ( P h i l a d e l p h i a :
R u s s e l l P r e s s , 1917), p. 10.
5
Emerson's r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t t h e Church was o n l y one a s p e c t
of a r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t the whole e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y which was, i n
his
As
o p i n i o n , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r "our s t e r i l e and l i n e a r l o g i c " (W, I V , 10
Sherman P a u l h a s p u t i t , "Although
t h e f o c u s o f c o n t e n t i o n was
r e l i g i o n , what was r e a l l y a t s t a k e were t h e p h i l o s o p h y and
psychology-
the e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e o f thought about man's n a t u r e and h i s r e l a t i o n
to
the u n i v e r s e — t h a t u n d e r l a y
t h e f a i t h . " W e d w e l l amidst
s u r f a c e s ; " Emerson w r o t e i n The D i a l , "and s u r f a c e l a p s so c l o s e l y
on s u r f a c e t h a t we cannot e a s i l y p i e r c e t o see t h e i n t e r i o r organism."
The c h i e f b u t t o f Emerson's c r i t i c i s m o f the e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y was J o h n Locke (1632-1704); Emerson b e l i e v e d i t was " q u i t e
c e r t a i n . . . t h a t t h e d u l l men w i l l be L o c k i s t s " (W, V, 2 2 8 ) .
Reminiscing
over t h e " r i c h n e s s o f g e n i u s " o f t h e E l i z a b e t h a n age,
Emerson added t h a t "these h e i g h t s were f o l l o w e d b y a meanness and a
d e s c e n t o f t h e mind i n t o lower
speculation.
l e v e l s ; t h e l o s s o f w i n g s ; no h i g h
L o c k e , t o whom t h e meaning o f i d e a s was unknown, became
the type o f p h i l o s o p h y ,
... . t h e measure, i n a l l n a t i o n s , o f t h e
E n g l i s h i n t e l l e c t " (W, V, 2 3 1 ) .
Emerson's q u a r r e l w i t h Locke c e n t e r e d on h i s Essay on Human
U n d e r s t a n d i n g fl.689) which s e t f o r t h t h e s e n s a t i o n a l i s t d o c t r i n e o f
the mind as a t a b u l a r a s a .
The mind a t b i r t h , Locke contended, was
^The Shores o f A m e r i c a : Thoreau's Inward E x p l o r a t i o n (Urbana:
U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1958), p. 4.
6
"The Senses and t h e S o u l , " The D i a l , I I , 374 (January,
1842).
6
a "blank s l a t e " which was
subsequently
s e n s o r y d a t a ; h i s c o n c l u s i o n was
except what was
man
who
engraved by the impact
t h a t " t h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n the mind
f i r s t i n the s e n s e s . A c c o r d i n g
to Emerson, the
l i v e d according to t h i s philosophy " l i v e s i n a s t y of
s e n s u a l i s m . . . The w o r l d i s a l l o u t s i d e ; i t has no
(W, II,
of
57, 66).
Locke, and a number o f o t h e r
p h i l o s o p h e r s - - P a l e y , MacKintosh,
and
inside"
materialistic
Stewart--"speak
from w i t h o u t ,
as s p e c t a t o r s m e r e l y , " whereas S p i n o z a , K a n t and C o l e r i d g e , w i t h
whom Emerson was
i n sympathy, "speak from w i t h i n , or from e x p e r i e n c e ,
as p a r t i e s and p o s s e s s o r s o f the f a c t . . . from w i t h i n the
where the word i s one w i t h what i t t e l l s o f " (W,
II,
veil,
269-270).
For Emerson, U n i t a r i a n t h e o l o g y had become m e c h a n i c a l ,
d e t e r m i n i s t i c , and c o l d l y l o g i c a l , l i k e the " e n l i g h t e n m e n t "
which i t accepted
so u n c r i t i c a l l y .
science
As Sherman P a u l p u t s i t :
U n i t a r i a n i s m had n o t o n l y l o s t a v i g o r o u s e m o t i o n a l p i e t y
i n i t s passage from C a l v i n i s m , i t had found i t s e l f
d e f e n d i n g the s o v e r e i g n t y o f r e a s o n and f r e e w i l l a t the
same time t h a t i t s t r e n g t h e n e d i t s e l f on t h e d e t e r m i n i s m
of Lockean p s y c h o l o g y and the mechanism of Newtonian
p h y s i c s ; and w h i l e c l a i m i n g t o be a r a t i o n a l f a i t h , w i t h
n o t h i n g but n a t u r a l law f o r i t s g u i d e , i t had i r r a t i o n a l l y
i n s i s t e d on the h i s t o r i c i t y of m i r a c l e s . 8
J u s t as Lockean and Englightenment
science dealt with empirical
d a t a moving i n the v i s i b l e w o r l d of time and
r e l i g i o n had
sold i t s e l f to r a t i o n a l
space, New
creeds and
sterile
'Quoted i n W i l l D u r a n t , The S t o r y o f P h i l o s o p h y (New
Simon and S c h u s t e r , 1954), p. 194.
8
P a u l , The
Shores, p.
4.
England
statements
York:
\
on the
o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l p l a n e of h i s t o r y .
Both p a r t i e s t r e a t e d
the u n i v e r s e from the o u t s i d e , as s u r f a c e ; Emerson's r e a c t i o n
t o i n s i s t on the treatment
was
o f the u n i v e r s e from w i t h i n , w o r k i n g
outwards always from "the s o u l of the w h o l e " (W,
I I , 253).
To s e t f o r t h t h i s i n t e r n a l approach t o man
and
reality
Emerson r e q u i r e d a p h i l o s o p h i c d i s t i n c t i o n which d i d n o t
exist
i n e i t h e r U n i t a r i a n t h e o l o g y or Lockean s e n s a t i o n a l i s m .
Between
1832, when he b r o k e w i t h the U n i t a r i a n Church, and
the
1836,
he p u b l i s h e d N a t u r e , Emerson became p r o g r e s s i v e l y a q u a i n t e d
the work of C a r l y l e , C o l e r i d g e , and K a n t .
cendentalism"
tinction.
with
I n the s o - c a l l e d ' t r a n s -
of these t h i n k e r s Emerson found the n e c e s s a r y
dis-
Emerson became a q u a i n t e d w i t h Thomas C a r l y l e d u r i n g h i s
European t o u r o f 1832-1833; and was
powerful
year
transcendentalism
immensely a f f e c t e d by C a r l y l e ' s
i n which the whole m a t e r i a l u n i v e r s e
was
an emblem, o r , i n the c e n t r a l metaphor of S a r t o r Resartus (1836) , the
"garment o f the s p i r i t . "
To t h i s was
added a r e a d i n g of
A i d s t o R e f l e c t i o n i n James Marsh's e d i t i o n of 1832,
Coleridge's
i n which he
discovered
the c r u c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n between " U n d e r s t a n d i n g "
"Reason."
C o l e r i d g e d e s c r i b e d the U n d e r s t a n d i n g as a p e r c e i v i n g
mechanism, i n the Lockean sense, and Reason as the
transcendent,
i n t u i t i v e f a c u l t y w h i c h moulds, c o o r d i n a t e s , and o r g a n i z e s
incoming f l u x o f s e n s a t i o n s i n t o i d e a s .
i d e a t o i t s source
found i t .
and
the
Emerson l a t e r t r a c e d
the
i n Immanuel Kant where C o l e r i d g e and C a r l y l e had
K a n t ' s d i s t i n c t i o n had been worked out i n o p p o s i t i o n t o
.8
Lockean s e n s a t i o n a l i s m and i t s c o n t i n u a t i o n i n David Hume's T r e a t i s e
on Human N a t u r e (1775), the r e a d i n g o f w h i c h , Kant s a i d , roused h i m
from the "dogmatic s l u m b e r " o f h i s time
t o w r i t e perhaps t h e most
i m p o r t a n t work o f modern p h i l o s o p h y , The C r i t i q u e o f Pure Reason
(1781).
K a n t proposed t h e t h e o r y t h a t man's "Reason" c o n t a i n s a
p r i o r i forms--designated
" t r a n s c e n d e n t a l " f o r m s — w h i c h o r g a n i z e the
chaos o f incoming s e n s a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o the c a t e g o r i e s o f t i m e ,
space, and c a u s a l i t y .
I t was i n t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between U n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h a t Emerson found
and Reason
t h e k e y , n o t o n l y f o r an " i n t e r n a l " approach t o
r e a l i t y , b u t a l s o f o r an escape from the " l i n e a r l o g i c " o f the
Enlightenment
and t h e " t r o p e s " o f U n i t a r i a n i s m .
between U n d e r s t a n d i n g
Kant's d i s t i n c t i o n
and Reason became, t h e r e f o r e , t h e s t a r t i n g
p o i n t f o r Emerson's p h i l o s o p h y ( i n N a t u r e , 1836) and, i n d e e d , f o r
the whole o f American t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m .
I t i s important t o note
t h a t K a n t d i d n o t make any s u p e r n a t u r a l c l a i m s f o r t h e f a c u l t y he
c a l l e d Reason; he s i m p l y a t t r i b u t e d t o i t the power o f o r g a n i z i n g
the d a t a o f the U n d e r s t a n d i n g .
Many o f t h e P o s t - K a n t i a n Romantic
p h i l o s o p h e r s , however, and t h e A m e r i c a n t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s a t t r i b u t e d
10
i t w i t h t h e power o f d i r e c t l y i n t u i t i n g t h e A b s o l u t e ;
y
and Emerson
D u r a n t , p. 192.
l°By 1839 t h i s e x t e n s i o n o f t h e powers o f Reason had been c r i t i c i z e d
by opponents o f t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s . Rev. James Waddel A l e x a n d e r
n o t e d t h a t K a n t " s i m p l y meant t o a t t r i b u t e t o pure r e a s o n the power o f
d i r e c t i n g t h e c o g n i t i v e energy beyond i t s n e a r e r o b j e c t s , and t o extend
i t s r e s e a r c h i n d e f i n i t e l y ; b u t by no means t o c h a l l e n g e f o r t h i s power
the d i r e c t i n t u i t i o n o f t h e a b s o l u t e , as t h e v e r i t a b l e o b j e c t o f i n f a l l i b l e i n s i g h t , " as has been done "by some o f our American i m i t a t o r s . "
( P r i n c e t o n Review, X I , 4 9 ) .
9
h i m s e l f r a i s e d i t t o the s t a t u s of the A b s o l u t e .
"Man
i s conscious
of a u n i v e r s a l s o u l w i t h i n or behind h i s i n d i v i d u a l l i f e ,
wherein,
a s i n a firmament, the n a t u r e s of J u s t i c e , T r u t h , Love, Freedom,
a r i s e and
shine.
T h i s u n i v e r s a l s o u l he c a l l s Reason:
i t i s not
mine, or t h i n e , or h i s , but we a r e i t s ; we a r e i t s p r o p e r t y
men"
(W,
I , 33).
and
Reason, f o r Emerson, was man's d i v i n e f a c u l t y ,
l i n k i n g h i m w i t h the U n i v e r s a l S p i r i t of the u n i v e r s e .
In d e v e l o p i n g h i s I d e a l i s m i n the s i x t h c h a p t e r of N a t u r e ,
Emerson c a r e f u l l y avoided any k i n d of p h i l o s o p h i c r e d u c t i o n i s m .
J o h n Locke, i n h i s s e n s a t i o n a l i s t t h e o r y , had reduced
t o the m a t e r i a l , so t h a t the u n i v e r s e resembled
o f "matter
i n motion."
the m e n t a l
Hobbes' u n i v e r s e
R e a c t i n g a g a i n s t Locke, Bishop
Berkeley
(1684-1753) had performed the o p p o s i t e k i n d o f r e d u c t i o n , d e v e l o p i n g
a monism i n which the m a t e r i a l w o r l d d i s s o l v e d i n t o the
E x t e r n a l r e a l i t y had
mental.
i t s e x i s t e n c e a c c o r d i n g t o the famous f o r m u l a ,
esse e s t p e r c i p i , "to be i s to be p e r c e i v e d . "
Thus the m a t e r i a l
u n i v e r s e e x i s t e d o n l y as i d e a s i n the mind, and man
i d e a i n the mind of God.
e x i s t e d as an
Both of these r e d u c t i o n i s m s r e s u l t e d
a t t e m p t i n g to produce a u n i f i e d system a t a l l c o s t s .
from
In r e a c t i n g
a g a i n s t the s t e r i l e , m a t e r i a l i s t i c l o g i c o f the e i g h t e e n t h
century
and a d o p t i n g the i d e a l i s t p o s i t i o n , Emerson might e a s i l y have
fallen into a similar reduction.
Yet d e s p i t e h i s o v e r r i d i n g d e s i r e
t o see r e a l i t y as a whole r a t h e r than a d u a l i s m Emerson r e f u s e d to
l i m i t r e a l i t y or man
t o e i t h e r a m a t e r i a l or a s p i r i t u a l
h i s i n t u i t i o n would n o t a l l o w i t .
level:
A t the o u t s e t he d i d r e c o r d h i s
10
"noble doubt
. . . whether nature outwardly
t o d e c i d e one way
or the
e x i s t s , " but refused;
other.
I n my u t t e r i m p o t e n c e t o t e s t t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e
r e p o r t o f my s e n s e s , t o know w h e t h e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n s
t h e y make on me c o r r e s p o n d w i t h o u t l y i n g o b j e c t s , w h a t
d i f f e r e n c e d o e s i t make, w h e t h e r O r i o n i s up t h e r e i n
h e a v e n , o r some god p a i n t s t h e i m a g e i n t h e f i r m a m e n t
of the s o u l ? . . .
Be i t w h a t i t may, i t i s i d e a l t o
me s o l o n g a s I c a n n o t t r y t h e a c c u r a c y . o f my s e n s e s .
(W, I , 5 2 - 5 3 ) H
E m e r s o n ' s i n s i s t e n c e on
not
only placed him
from Kant,
and
but a l s o defined h i s t o t a l
implicitly
w o u l d be
"seen" by
s e t up
and
a cosmological dualism of Nature
by
the Understanding,
the Reason.
t h a t o f d i s c o v e r i n g and
bodjj had
P l a t o attempted
unchanging world
writings
t a s k as a p h i l o s o p h e r , e p i s t e m o l o g i s t ,
and
The
u n i t y of s p i r i t
been the p e r e n n i a l p h i l o s o p h i c problem
to d e r i v e the changing
of the I d e a l .
b e f o r e h e was
being
e x p r e s s i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p or
The
done he had
and
ever
whole corpus
under-
nature,
since
world of the R e a l from
f o c u s e x p l i c i t l y o r i m p l i c i t l y on
u n i t y ; and
Spirit
Henceforth h i s p h i l o s o p h i c problem
l y i n g u n i t y between these d u a l i s m s .
m i n d and
deriving
By d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n U n d e r s t a n d i n g
S p i r i t - - N a t u r e b e i n g observed
intuitively
s t r u c t u r e of the mind
i n the m a i n s t r e a m o f modern p h i l o s o p h y
literary artist.
Reason, he
the d u a l i s t i c
the
o f Emerson's p u b l i s h e d
t h i s c e n t r a l problem
evolved a complete
of
cosmology,
llEmerson's a b s o l u t e r e f u s a l to adopt the Berkleyan r e d u c t i o n
o f t h e m a t e r i a l t o t h e m e n t a l i s made c l e a r i n a much l a t e r e s s a y , " P o e t r y
and I m a g i n a t i o n " :
"The common-sense w h i c h d o e s n o t m e d d l e w i t h t h e
a b s o l u t e but t a k e s t h i n g s a t t h e i r word, — t h i n g s as they a p p e a r , —
b e l i e v e s i n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f m a t t e r , n o t b e c a u s e we c a n t o u c h i t o r
c o n c e i v e o f i t , b u t b e c a u s e i t a g r e e s w i t h o u r s e l v e s , and t h e u n i v e r s e
d o e s n o t j e s t w i t h u s , b u t i s i n e a r n e s t , i s t h e h o u s e o f h e a l t h and
l i f e " (W, V I I I , 9 ) . F o r a c o m p l e t e d i s c u s s i o n o f E m e r s o n ' s i d e a l i s t i c
p o s i t i o n see J o e l P o r t e , "Nature as Symbol: Emerson's N o b l e Doubt,"
NEQ, X X X V I I ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 4 5 3 - 4 7 6 .
11
a relatively
c o m p l e t e e p i s t e m o l o g y , and
has borne w e l l
an a e s t h e t i c
theory which
the t e s t of time.
How, p r e c i s e l y d i d E m e r s o n d e v e l o p t h i s u n i t y ?
has
argued p e r s u a s i v e l y
of which
that
"Emerson c r e a t e d a s t r u c t u r e o f
' c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ' was
i d e a o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e was
isted with
Sherman P a u l
the most e s s e n t i a l p a r t . " 1 2
n o t new
with
Emerson:
thought,
The
the i d e a had
the p h i l o s o p h y of the a n c i e n t Greeks, s p e c i f i c a l l y
philosophy of P l a t o
from which, s a i d
E m e r s o n , "come a l l t h i n g s
exi n the
that
13
a r e s t i l l w r i t t e n and d e b a t e d
For P l a t o ,
a
among men
the r e a l w o r l d w i t h
o f t h o u g h t " (W,
i t s m u t a b i l i t y and
" s h a d o w " o f a h i g h e r , i d e a l w o r l d w h i c h was
T h i s i d e a was
set forth
w h i c h man
imaged
was
as s i t t i n g
e t e r n a l and
to look a t the sun.
p o i n t o f the a l l e g o r y i s that
The
the
shadows h e
they are caused by
of the o b j e c t s of the " i d e a l " w o r l d beyond
The
was
perfect.
i n a c a v e w a t c h i n g shadows on
s e e s a r e t h e o b j e c t s o f h i s " r e a l " w o r l d , and
cave.
imperfection
i n t h e famous " A l l e g o r y o f t h e C a v e " 1 4 i n
w a l l , u n a b l e to t u r n h i s head
passage
IV, 41).
the
t h e mouth o f t h e
t h e s h a d o w s on t h e w a l l ,
no
l^Emerson's Angle of V i s i o n :
Man and N a t u r e i n A m e r i c a n E x p e r i e n c e
( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 1.
• ^ T h i s i s comparable t o the view of the g r e a t t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y
p h i l o s o p h e r , A l f r e d N o r t h W h i t e h e a d , who commented t h a t W e s t e r n t h o u g h t
was m e r e l y t h e f o o t n o t i n g o f P l a t o ' s p h i l o s o p h y . F o r a d e t a i l e d s t u d y
o f E m e r s o n ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o W h i t e h e a d , s e e H a r r y Modean C a m p b e l l ,
" E m e r s o n and W h i t e h e a d , " PMLA, L X X V ( 1 9 6 0 ) , 5 7 7 - 5 8 2 . On t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f E m e r s o n t o P l a t o , see' S t e w a r t G e r r y B r o w n , " E m e r s o n ' s P l a t o n i s m , "
NEQ, X V I I I ( 1 9 4 5 ) , 3 2 5 - 3 4 5 .
See The R e p u b l i c o f P l a t o , t r a n s . R.M.
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 ) , p p . 227 f f .
C o r n f o r d (London:
Oxford
12
m a t t e r how d i s t o r t e d , v a g u e , o r o p a q u e , s t i l l
or
"correspondence"--to
correspondence,
There
the things of the i d e a l world
t o mind, of the p a r t t o the whole,
The
Swedenborg
" r e p r e s e n t a t i v e men."
Emerson d e v o t e d
of
(1688-1772),
"correspondence."
. . .
o f heaven t o e a r t h , o f
i s o u r g u i d e " (W, I V , 6 2 ) .
who r a n k e d
i n Emerson's
(W, I V , 9 1 - 1 3 9 ) ,
to a sympathetic
" N a t u r e , " i n Swedenborg's
mind
as one o f h i s
I n h i s e s s a y on Swedenborg
considerable attention
Because o f t h i s
"areknowable
i d e a o f " c o r r e s p o n d e n c e " was l i n k e d
w i t h Emanuel
some r e l a t i o n s h i p - -
the i d e a l o b j e c t s beyond.
i s a s c a l e ; and t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
matter
bear
treatment
philosophy,
"iterates
h e r means p e r p e t u a l l y o n s u c c e s s i v e p l a n e s ; " t h u s t h e u n i v e r s e was
l i k e a l a y e r e d m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , " r e p e a t i n g a s i m p l e a i r o r theme,
now h i g h , now l o w , i n s o l o , i n c h o r u s , t e n t h o u s a n d
berated, t i l l
A similar
i tf i l l
e a r t h a n d h e a v e n w i t h t h e c h a n t " (W, I V , 1 0 4 , 1 0 6 ) .
correspondence
mind--"The mind
times r e v e r -
was i n e v i d e n c e between
t h e body and t h e
i s a f i n e r body, and resumes i t s f u n c t i o n s o f f e e d i n g ,
d i g e s t i n g , a b s o r b i n g , e x c l u d i n g a n d g e n e r a t i n g , i n a new a n d e t h e r e a l
element.
Here i n the b r a i n
i s a l l the process of alimentation
repeated, i n the a c q u i r i n g , comparing,
of
d i g e s t i n g and a s s i m i l a t i n g
e x p e r i e n c e " (W, I V , 1 0 5 ) ; a n d b e t w e e n
t h e w o r k i n g o f man's
body
and t h e w o r k i n g o f t h e u n i v e r s e a t l a r g e - - " T h e g l o b u l e o f b l o o d
g y r a t e s around
sky;
i t s own a x i s
and t h e c i r c l e s
(W, I V , 1 0 7 ) .
i n t h e human v e i n s , a s t h e p l a n e t i n t h e
of i n t e l l e c t relate
t o those of the heavens"
13
The
t h e o r y of "correspondence" had
e x p r e s s i o n i n Swedenborg's eight-volume
found perhaps
its;fullest
t h e o l o g i c a l work, A r c a n a
C o e l e s t i a (1749-1756), which c o n s t i t u t e d an e x t e n s i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of s y m b o l i c correspondences i n the books of Genesis and
Exodus.
Swedenborg f o l l o w e d t h i s up by f u r t h e r works which extended
t h e o r y to much of the New
of R e v e l a t i o n .
Testament, and
s p e c i f i c a l l y t o the book
I n the f o l l o w i n g h a l f - c e n t u r y the t h e o r y became a
p o t e n t f o r c e i n C a l v a n i s t i c t h e o l o g y and was
by the U n i t a r i a n Church.
subsequently
absorbed
By Emerson's t i m e , correspondence
p a r t o f the t h e o l o g i c a l c l i m a t e ; h i s a d a p t a t i o n o f i t was
not p a r t i c u l a r l y
the
was
therefore
Swedenborgian--indeed, the t h e o r y went through
an
1S
e x t e n s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n h i s hands.
Evidence
o f the a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f the t h e o r y o f correspondence
i s apparent throughout Emerson's work.
For h i m
"the w o r l d i s a temple
•"-^Sherman P a u l d e s c r i b e s Emerson's a d a p t a t i o n of "Swedenborg's
t h e o r y of correspondence as " t y p i c a l of Emerson's t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
of i d e a s . . . .
The fundamental d i f f e r e n c e , o f c o u r s e , l a y i n
Swedenborg's t h e o l o g i c a l and s t a t i c c o n c e p t i o n of i t s use.
Emerson's
u n i v e r s e was o r g a n i c and dynamic; i t s f l u i d i t y demanded a f l e x i b l e
and s e c u l a r a d a p t a t i o n of the i d e a . Not c o n t e n t t o l i m i t correspondence
to a m e c h a n i c a l d o c t r i n e o f symbol-making, Emerson a p p r o p r i a t e d the
word and a d j u s t e d i t to cover the m e t a p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
needs of r e l a t e d n e s s i n a u n i v e r s e of e v o l u t i o n a r y f l u x " (Emerson's
A n g l e of V i s i o n , p. 62).
I t i s the c o n t e n t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s t h a t
the t h e o r y of correspondence i s s i m p l y inadequate t o d e a l w i t h
Emerson's o r g a n i c , dynamic u n i v e r s e ; and t h a t the concept of " p r o c e s s "
i s necessary f o r a f u l l understanding of i t .
14
whose w a l l s a r e covered w i t h emblems, p i c t u r e s , and commandments o f
the
D e i t y " (W, I I I , 21-22); "the w o r l d i s emblematic
. . . The
v i s i b l e w o r l d , and r e l a t i o n o f i t s p a r t s , i s the d i a l p l a t e o f the
i n v i s i b l e " (W, I , 3 8 ) ; " day and n i g h t , r i v e r and storm, b e a s t and
b i r d , a c i d and a l k a l i , p r e e x i s t i n n e c e s s a r y Ideas i n the mind o f
God, and a r e what t h e y a r e by v i r t u e o f p r e c e d i n g a f f e c t a t i o n s i n
the
world of s p i r i t "
(W, I , 4 0 ) . "The laws o f m a t e r i a l n a t u r e r u n up
i n t o the i n v i s i b l e w o r l d o f t h e mind, and h e r e b y we a c q u i r e a k e y t o
those s u b l i m i t i e s w h i c h s k u l k and h i d e i n t h e caverns o f human cons c i o u s n e s s " (W, X, 7 4 ) . Emerson used t h e i d e a o f correspondence i n
the
development
o f h i s e a r l y t h e o r y o f language.
Because o f the
n e c e s s a r y correspondence between the n a t u r a l and the m o r a l r e a l m s ,
it
i s p o s s i b l e t o convey m o r a l t r u t h s through n a t u r a l f a c t s - - a s "the
memorable words o f h i s t o r y and t h e p r o v e r b s o f n a t i o n s " p r o v e :
"A
r o l l i n g s t o n e g a t h e r s no moss; A b i r d i n the hand i s w o r t h two i n
the
b u s h ; A c r i p p l e i n the r i g h t way w i l l b e a t a r a c e r i n the wrong;
Make h a y w h i l e t h e sun s h i n e s ; *T i s h a r d t o c a r r y a f u l l cup even;
V i n e g a r i s t h e son o f w i n e ; The l a s t ounce broke the camel's
(W, I , 38-39).
back"
Moreover, Emerson o b s e r v e d , because o f the correspondence
between i d e a s and c o n c r e t e f a c t s , "a man c o n v e r s i n g i n e a r n e s t , i f
he watch h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s e s , w i l l f i n d t h a t a m a t e r i a l image
more or l e s s luminous a r i s e s i n h i s mind, contemporaneous
w i t h every
t h o u g h t , which f u r n i s h e s t h e vestment o f the t h o u g h t " (W, I , 3 6 ) .
I t i s w o r t h w h i l e e x a m i n i n g t h e p h i l o s o p h i c and m e t a p h y s i c a l
15
b a s i s o f the t h e o r y o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , f o r i t i s i n i t s b a s i c
assumptions about r e a l i t y t h a t we d i s c o v e r i t s l i m i t a t i o n s
an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Emerson.
jfor
The i d e a o f correspondence r e s t s on
a p a r t i c u l a r cosmology which reached a peak o f p o p u l a r i t y
around
1 7 5 0 — a cosmology which i s summarized i n t h e metaphor o f the Great
Chain o f B e i n g .
The o r i g i n s o f t h e Chain o f B e i n g go back t o P l a t o ,
as A r t h u r 0. L o v e j o y h a s demonstrated,-^ and t h i s a n t i q u i t y e x p l a i n s
some o f the p e c u l i a r problems o f t h e t h e o r y o f correspondence
based
on i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r 1750 and the r i s e o f e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y .
As an image f o r , and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f , t h e whole u n i v e r s e
o f o b s e r v a b l e t h i n g s — m i n e r a l , v e g e t a b l e , a n i m a l , and human--the
Great C h a i n o f B e i n g i s l o g i c a l enough, even f o r t h e tough-minded
of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y .
A l l " b e i n g s " f i t i n t o the C h a i n , from t h e
" l o w e s t " i n a n i m a t e t h i n g s t o the " h i g h e s t " l i v i n g form--man.
Man
h i m s e l f i s a m i x t u r e o f m a t t e r and s p i r i t , so t h a t , i f we w i s h t o
g i v e t h e Chain a t h e o l o g i c a l c a s t , we may p r o j e c t the Chain above
the human r e a l m t o those " b e i n g s " which a r e pure S p i r i t , and even
t o God h i m s e l f .
The i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f the Great C h a i n o f B e i n g ,
however, i s i t s source and, s u b s e q u e n t l y , i t s d i r e c t i o n o f g e n e r a t i o n .
P l a t o saw t h e r e a l or m a t e r i a l w o r l d as a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e i d e a l or
S p i r i t u a l w o r l d ; and t h e l a t e r n e o - P l a t o n i s t s saw the m a t e r i a l w o r l d
as an emanation
o f the s p i r i t u a l .
From t h e b e g i n n i n g , the Chain o f
The Great Chain o f B e i n g (New Y o r k :
Harper and Row, 1960).
16
B e i n g was generated from the top down, and the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f the
image i n t o the C h r i s t i a n u n i v e r s e
d i r e c t i o n of generation.
world
i n m e d i e v a l times r e i n f o r c e d
God, a pure S p i r i t . , had c r e a t e d
this
the whole
of material things.
Because o f t h i s d i r e c t i o n o f g e n e r a t i o n — f r o m s p i r i t t o
m a t t e r — t h e Great Chain o f B e i n g became what L o v e j o y c a l l s a plenum
formarum, a " p l e n i t u d e o f f o r m s . S i n c e
i t i s , i n P l a t o ' s system
f o r example, t h e n a t u r e o f i d e a s t o m a n i f e s t themselves (There seems
t o be l i t t e p o i n t i n an I d e a l w o r l d
c o n t a i n i n g Ideas which do n o t
have c o r r e s p o n d i n g forms i n the R e a l world.'), t h e Great Chain o f
B e i n g was thought t o c o n t a i n a l l p o s s i b l e forms o f b e i n g .
century philosophers,
and
Eighteenth
f o r example, developed numerous arguments f o r ,
c i t e d many " r e p o r t s " o f , mermen and mermaids based on the n o t i o n
18
t h a t they must e x i s t s i n c e we have an " i d e a " o f them.
w h i c h d i d n o t e x i s t on e a r t h
perhaps on o t h e r w o r l d s .
Forms
must; i t was argued, e x i s t somewhere,
The end r e s u l t o f t h i s k i n d o f r e a s o n i n g
a Chain o f B e i n g which f u l f i l l e d
was
the a e s t h e t i c i d e a l of absolute
completeness o r p l e n i t u d e .
I b i d . , B, 52.
•I
.
Q
T h i s argument i s most well-known i n Anselm's " o n t o l o g i c a l " argument
f o r the e x i s t e n c e o f God. Anselm argued t h a t t h e " p e r f e c t b e i n g " c a l l e d
God must e x i s t s i n c e our i d e a o f " p e r f e c t i o n " i n c l u d e s e x i s t e n c e . I f
God dLd n o t e x i s t , he would n o t be " p e r f e c t " ; man's i d e a o f the " p e r f e c t
b e i n g " would then s u r p a s s God, w h i c h , Anselm r e a s o n e d , was i m p o s s i b l e .
17
A v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t f o l l o w s from the t h e o r y of
plenitude.
I n b o t h the n e o - P l a t o n i c i d e a of "emanation" and
the
C h r i s t i a n i d e a of " c r e a t i o n " the Chain o f B e i n g a p p a r e n t l y e x i s t e d
i n c o m p l e t i o n from the b e g i n n i n g .
Moreover, t h i s c o m p l e t i o n i n c l u d e d
the i d e a t h a t e v e r y p o s s i b l e form e x i s t e d , t h a t t h e r e were, so to
speak, no m i s s i n g " l i n k s " i n the c h a i n .
Movement w i t h i n the Chain
c o u l d t h e r e f o r e s e r v e no p o s s i b l e purpose;
from l e v e l t o l e v e l was
i n d e e d , any s t r i v i n g upwards
l i k e l y to upset the d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e of the
whole system s i n c e i t would crowd some p a r t s o f the Chain and
others vacant.
The
leave
t h e o r y o f p l e n i t u d e u l t i m a t e l y l e a d s t o a metaphor
which i s h i g h l y s t a t i c ; a v a s t h i e r a r c h y o f l e v e l s o f b e i n g f r o z e n
i n p l a c e , i n c a p a b l e o f i n c r e a s e , movement, or m o d i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n the
t o t a l design.
The u n i v e r s e becomes a v a s t machine, completed
the b e g i n n i n g by the D i v i n e Mechanic.
but u l t i m a t e l y
at
I t i s marvellous to behold,
lifeless.
Around 1750 a complete r e v e r s a l took p l a c e i n the C h a i n of
B e i n g concept.
I t began w i t h what L o v e j o y has c a l l e d
"the
19
t e m p o r a l i z i n g o f the Chain of B e i n g . "
The
impulse came from
s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s i n i t i a l l y ; i t became o b v i o u s t h a t many p a r t s
of the C h a i n d i d n o t e x i s t , a l t h o u g h many o f them had i n the d i s t a n t
p a s t , as the f o s s i l r e c o r d r e v e a l e d .
B e i n g , i t was
The g e n e r a t i o n o f the Chain o f
r e a l i z e d , must have taken p l a c e over v a s t s t r e t c h e s o f
time r a t h e r than i n a o n c e - f o r - a l l a c t o f "emanation" o r
"creation."
Not o n l y d i d the Chain i n d i c a t e a p r o g r e s s i v e enrichment
through
L o v e j o y , pp. 242-287.
time,
18
b u t i t a l s o suggested an upward movement,. The p o s s i b l e forms below
man were f i n i t e i n number, b u t those above man were i n f i n i t e ;
the
thus
p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f the Chain o f B e i n g from the
bottom upwards suggested i t s e l f , and a t h e o r y o f " e v o l u t i o n " was
born.
The cosmos suddenly ceased t o be a s t a t i c h i e r a r c h y o f forms
and became a dynamic, e v o l v i n g p r o c e s s , a s p i r i n g towards s p i r i t .
A s i l e n t r e v o l u t i o n i n t h i n k i n g o c c u r r e d and out of i t emerged a
"new c o n c e p t i o n o f an o r g a n i c u n i v e r s e — e v o l u t i o n a r y , v i t a l i s t i c ,
immanent w i t h s p i r i t
set
....
The u n i v e r s e was no l o n g e r a mechanism
i n motion by the Great Watchmaker, i t was a growing u n i v e r s e ,
a l i v e w i t h the presence and purpose o f d e i t y ; and man c o u l d know
20
that s p i r i t . "
The problem w i t h the t h e o r y of correspondence i n e x p l a i n i n g
Emerson s h o u l d now be c l e a r .
Correspondence worked
i n a static
Chain o f B e i n g i n which t h e r e was no upward or downward movement, i n
which r e l a t i o n s h i p s had t o be found i n terms o f a n a l o g y , emblematic
p a r a l l e l s , or resemblances.
Had Emerson worked
e n t i r e l y with a
C h a i n - o f - B e i n g cosmology, correspondence would have been the l o g i c a l
key t o h i s thought.
However e v o l u t i o n became a p a r t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
awareness d u r i n g the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and many of Emerson's
e s s a y s , most n o t a b l y "The N a t u r a l H i s t o r y o f I n t e l l e c t "
(W, X I I , 1-60)
assume i t as a b a s i s .
The problem i s compounded by the f a c t t h a t Emerson n e v e r
20
P a u l , The S h o r e s , p. 5.
19
r e a l l y gave up the P l a t o n i c and n e o - p l a t o n i c i d e a of emanation,
but r a t h e r c o n t i n u e d to h o l d i t a l o n g s i d e the newly emerging i d e a
of e v o l u t i o n .
But j u s t as e v o l u t i o n transformed
the r i g i d ,
static
cosmos of the Chain of B e i n g i n t o a f l u i d u n i v e r s e of p r o c e s s
towards s p i r i t , i t s i m i l a r l y transformed
the i d e a of emanation
i t s e l f i n t o a s i m i l a r p r o c e s s moving i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n .
end r e s u l t was
a u n i v e r s e i n which emanation and e v o l u t i o n were
r e c i p r o c a l processes.
e v o l v e d toward
The
S p i r i t emanated i n t o m a t t e r , which i n t u r n
s p i r i t ; the mind moved out i n t o t h e u n i v e r s e i n every
a c t of s e e i n g and
Emerson understood
found Mind emerging from t h a t u n i v e r s e i n r e c i p r o c i
i t as the p r i n c i p l e o f compensation, a p r i n c i p l e
which operated a t e v e r y l e v e l of e x i s t e n c e .
I t was because of t h i s p r o c e s s i v e view of r e a l i t y t h a t
Emerson u l t i m a t e l y transcended
Toward the end of h i s e s s a y ,
Swedenborg's t h e o r y of
correspondence.
"Swedenborg", he w r i t e s :
Swedenborg's system of the w o r l d wants c e n t r a l s p o n t a n e i t y ;
i t i s . . . n o t v i t a l , and l a c k s power to generate l i f e .
. . . The u n i v e r s e i s a g i g a n t i c c r y s t a l , a l l whose atoms and
laminae l i e i n u n i n t e r r u p t e d o r d e r and w i t h unbroken u n i t y ,
but c o l d and s t i l l .
There i s an immense c h a i n of i n t e r m e d i a t i o n ,
e x t e n d i n g from c e n t e r to extremes, which bereaves e v e r y agency
of a l l freedom and c h a r a c t e r . The u n i v e r s e , i n h i s poem,
s u f f e r s under a magnetic s l e e p , and o n l y r e f l e c t s the mind
o f the m a g n e t i z e r . . . . There i s no l u s t r e i n t h a t eye w h i c h
gazes from the c e n t e r and which s h o u l d v i v i f y the immense
dependency o f b e i n g s . (W, IV. 128-129).
In s e e i n g the l a c k of s p o n t a n e i t y i n Swedenborg's
correspondences,
Emerson i n d i c a t e s a deeper v i s i o n , a v i s i o n which I b e l i e v e moves
i n t o a l i v i n g , dynamic awareness o f the p r o c e s s of the u n i v e r s e .
20
This was the v i s i o n which Emerson strived to express; this was
the "key-note" to which he referred when he wrote that "melodious
poets s h a l l be hoarse as street ballads when once the
penetrating
key-note of nature and s p i r i t i s sounded,--the earth-beat,
sea-
beat, heart-beat, which makes the tune to which the sun r o l l s , and
the globule of blood, and the sap of trees"(W, IV,
135).
21
CHAPTER I I
NATURE AS PROCESS
That r u s h i n g stream
to be observed.
We
nature i n a corner;
end o f a t h r e a d .
"The
w i l l n o t stop
can n e v e r s u r p r i s e
never f i n d the
Method o f N a t u r e "
We now and then d e t e c t i n n a t u r e s l i g h t
d i s l o c a t i o n s which a p p r i s e us t h a t
t h i s s u r f a c e on which we now stand i s
not f i x e d , but s l i d i n g .
"Circles"
The u n i v e r s e e x i s t s o n l y i n t r a n s i t ,
or we behold i t s h o o t i n g t h e g u l f
from t h e p a s t t o t h e f u t u r e .
"Natural H i s t o r y of I n t e l l e c t "
In h i s book Emerson on t h e S o u l , J o n a t h a n Bishop h a s p o i n t e d
out t h a t " t h e r e i i s something a t t h e h e a r t o f Emerson's message p r o f o u n d l y r e c a l c i t r a n t t o the f o r m u l a t i o n s o f d i s c u r s i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e . "
T h i s f a c t i s a t once a problem f o r c r i t i c s
Emerson's p o s i t i o n i n the h i s t o r y o f i d e a s .
and a p o i n t e r t o
The step he made i n t h e
course of h i s c a r e e r was a s t e p o u t o f the main p h i l o s o p h i c t r a d i t i o n
which had dominated European thought s i n c e t h e time o f A r i s t o t l e .
Emerson was sometimes obscure and i n e x a c t , i f he went a g a i n s t t h e
(Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s :
p. 6.
Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1964),
If
22
t r a d i t i o n o f r i g i d i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r m u l a t i o n which was p a r t o f the
European l a n d s c a p e ,
i t was because he was r e p l a c i n g a l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d
thought s t r u c t u r e w i t h one as y e t u n f o r m u l a t e d .
Emerson's emphasis
on i n t u i t i v e t h i n k i n g was more than a r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t the s t e r i l e
l o g i c of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; i t s i g n a l l e d an emerging awareness o f r e a l i t y f o r which the p h i l o s o p h i c t o o l s had n o t y e t been
invented.
Those t o o l s have o n l y emerged i n the t w e n t i e t h
century
w i t h the development o f f i e l d and systems t h e o r y , b i o l o g i c a l
A l b e r t E i n s t e i n ' s r e l a t i v i t y , A. N. Whitehead's
process
ecology,
philosophy,
Bergson's emergent e v o l u t i o n , and the " t r a n s a c t i o n a l " t h e o r y o f mind
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h John Dewey and A r t h u r
Bentley.
S i n c e E i n s t e i n developed h i s t h e o r y o f r e l a t i v i t y e a r l y i n
the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h e r e has been a w i d e s p r e a d a p p l i c a t i o n o f
i t s g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s t o o t h e r areas of thought.
Anthropologists
have brought the awareness o f c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y t o our a t t e n t i o n ;
and m o r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s a r e now w i l l i n g t o throw out l e g a l i s t i c
m o r a l i t y and r e p l a c e i t w i t h " s i t u a t i o n e t h i c s . "
...'. One o f the
most i n t e r e s t i n g developments of g e n e r a l r e l a t i v i t y i s " l i n g u i s t i c
r e l a t i v i t y " - - a h y p o t h e s i s w h i c h began w i t h Edward S a p i r b u t which
i s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a f o l l o w e r of t h i s thought, Benjamin. Lee
Whorf.
I t i s through a b r i e f c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the W h o r f i a n
hypothesis
t h a t I b e l i e v e we can d i s c o v e r the key t o the p h i l o s o p h i c
t r a d i t i o n w h i c h Emerson r e j e c t e d .
The key t o l i n g u i s t i c r e l a t i v i t y i s found i n Whorf's d i s covery
t h a t "each language performs the a r t i f i c i a l c h o p p i n g up of
23
the c o n t i n u o u s spread and f l o w o f e x i s t e n c e i n a d i f f e r e n t way."
Whorf observed t h a t the e n t i r e t h o u g h t - s t r u c t u r e
of c e r t a i n
American I n d i a n t r i b e s was i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i r r a t h e r unu s u a l language s t r u c t u r e .
I t became
apparent t h a t the a r b i t r a r y
d i v i s i o n s and word c l a s s e s which c o n s t i t u t e d the grammar o f these
languages were r e g a r d e d a l s o as d i v i s i o n s o f e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y :
n o t o n l y the way these I n d i a n s
spoke about t h e w o r l d , b u t a l s o
the way i n which they p e r c e i v e d i t , was a p p a r e n t l y
determined by
the g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f language.
Whorf i m m e d i a t e l y t u r n e d back t o h i s own Indo-European
t r a d i t i o n , armed w i t h one o f the most potent t o o l s o f a n a l y s i s dev i s e d i n modern t i m e s .
He n o t e d i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t a l l o f the r i v a l
p h i l o s o p h i e s o f the European t r a d i t i o n r e s t on c e r t a i n b a s i c
assumptions w h i c h a r e p a r t o f the Indo-European language s t r u c t u r e .
A l l Indo-European languages a r e n o u n - c e n t e r e d .
The noun i s the
b a s i c p a r t o f speech and comprises t h e " s u b j e c t o f e v e r y p r o p o s i t i o n ;
l,
a d j e c t i v e s a r e " q u a l i f i e r s " o f nouns; v e r b s a r e " p r e d i c a t e d " t o
nouns.
I f a p r o p o s i t i o n i s made about an e v e n t , t h a t event i s
f i r s t made i n t o a noun--such as the noun "event"--which
e f f e c t i v e l y hypostatizes i t .
i s t h a t the b a s i c a n a l y s e s
division:
The r e s u l t o f t h i s h y p o s t a t i z a t i o n
o f r e a l i t y have been a c c o m p l i s h e d by
by the s y s t e m a t i c
fragmentation
of r e a l i t y into d i s t i n c t
p a r t s and p i e c e s w h i c h a r e l a b e l l e d w i t h nouns.
L a n g u a g e , Thought and R e a l i t y : S e l e c t e d W r i t i n g s o f Benjamin Lee
Whorf (Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s : M.I.T. P r e s s , 1956), p. 253.
2
24
The
c e n t r a l f a c t about t h e noun i s t h a t i t a t t r i b u t e s sub-
s t a n t i a l i t y and permanence t o e v e r y t h i n g
Consequently, i t i s given
boundaries.
so
that
tiality,
to which i t i s a p p l i e d .
d e f i n i t e l o c a t i o n i n space and d e f i n i t e
The n o u n " s o u l " f o r e x a m p l e h a s b e e n g i v e n
i t i sbelieved
t o s u r v i v e d e a t h ; i t h a s been g i v e n
s o t h a t a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n made t o w e i g h c i t
tion
The p o s s i b i l i t y
grammatical
the "soul" i s a s t a t i c
thought patterns
abstrac-
philosophic
a r e l a r g e l y determined
structure.
European p h i l o s o p h y
with
to locate i t
f r o m w h a t may b e a d y n a m i c p r o c e s s h a s n e v e r g a i n e d
respectability--suggesting that
by
that
substan-
by n o t i n g the
c h a n g e i n w e i g h t o f a man a t d e a t h ; a n d some h a v e t r i e d
" i n " the heart.
permanence,
t h e permanent r a t h e r
has,
as a r e s u l t , been m a i n l y
than the changing.
concerned
Indeed, the whole
structure
of P l a t o n i c t h o u g h t — t h e a b s t r a c t i o n o f a permanent, e t e r n a l world
Ideas from the changing, m o r t a l
world
of
o f t h e R e a l — h a s b e e n made
3
possible by the noun-orientation
Plato's world
of Western language.
o f I d e a s was a n i m m a t e r i a l
world,
i t
And, although
nevertheless
" ^ J h o r f a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e D e m o c r i t a n i d e a o f r e a l i t y a s made
up o f "atoms a n d t h e v o i d " - - a t o m s c o n s i s t i n g o f " i n d i v i s i b l e
p a r t i c l e s " - - w a s made p o s s i b l e b y t h e n o u n - s t r u c t u r e
o f t h e Greek language.
F u r t h e r m o r e , he suggested t h a t A r i s t o t e l i a n l o g i c and Newtonian
p h y s i c s a r e b u i l t upon t h e n o u n - v e r b s t r u c t u r e o f I n d o - E u r o p e a n p r o positions.
The t r a d i t i o n a l s e p a r a t i o n o f r e a l i t y i n t o " m a t t e r " a n d
"energy"--into
" t h i n g s " and " a c t i o n s " done b y t h i n g s — t u r n s o u t there-,
f o r e t o be an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e "noun" and " v e r b " d i c h o t o m y o f r e a l i t y :
and t h e m o d e r n d i s c o v e r y t h a t m a t t e r a n d e n e r g y a r e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s
o f one r e a l i t y - - t h a t m a t t e r i s " e n e r g y m a t t e r i n g " — r e v e a l s
the f a l l a c y
of t h i s a r b i t r a r y d i v i s i o n .
The W h o r f i a n h y p o t h e s i s , o f c o u r s e , c o n t a i n s a n i m p l i c i t c r i t i c i s m
of the t h e o l o g i c a l s e p a r a t i o n of the "Creator" from h i s a c t i o n o f
" c r e a t i n g , " and t h e p s c h o l o g i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e "mind" from i t s
actions of "minding."
25
carried
a l l the q u a l i t i e s of concrete nouns w i t h
manence, d e f i n i t i o n ,
isolation
" p e r f e c t i o n " of the world
v e r y permanence w h i c h
Real world
Law
from the whole.
it—static
Moreover,
the
o f I d e a s came u l t i m a t e l y t o r e s t i n t h a t
the R e a l w o r l d
does not have, the f l u x of
being always associated w i t h
i t s imperfection.
Whyte, whose w r i t i n g s c o n s t i t u t e a s y s t e m a t i c
phenomenon, t r a c e s t h i s
per-
tendency to the e i g h t e e n t h
the
Lancelot
e x p o s i t i o n of
this
century:
I t came a b o u t t h a t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d a f t e r 1600, when t h e
b a s i s o f r a t i o n a l i s m was b e i n g l a i d , a l l t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l ideas were s t a t i c .
They d i d n o t i n v o l v e any element
o f f u n d a m e n t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and c o u l d be d e f i n e d w i t h o u t
u s i n g t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f one-way t e m p o r a l s u c c e s s i o n .
The r e l a t i o n o f l a t e r t h a n p l a y e d n o p a r t i n i d e a s s u c h
a s an e t e r n a l God, p e r s i s t i n g a t o m s o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l e n t i t i e s , and t h e s o u l o f t h e s u b j e c t . . . . T h u s a l l t h e b a s i c
i d e a s o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s man a r o u n d 1 6 0 0 - 1 7 0 0 w e r e a b s t r a c t i o n s
a c h i e v e d b y e m p h a s i z i n g p e r m a n e n t e n t i t i e s and n e g l e c t i n g
t h e i r changing r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
I n t h i s manner t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
was a p p a r e n t l y r e d u c e d t o p e r m a n e n c e . ^
T h i s approach to the main p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f
i s h i g h l y r e v e a l i n g i n any
and
more s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
Europe
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n t i c movement,
o f Emerson's thought.
The
image of
reality
as a C h a i n
of B e i n g — i n c l u d i n g not
o n l y the
lower
l e v e l s of
animal,
vegetable,
and
a l s o the upper
l e v e l s of
spirit-
was
mineral realms,
a classification
of s t a t i c
but
" t h i n g s " - - c a t e g o r i e s or d i v i s i o n s
of
The U n c o n s c i o u s B e f o r e F r e u d (New Y o r k : A n c h o r B o o k s , 1 9 6 2 ) , p.
43.
W h y t e ' s e a r l i e r b o o k , The N e x t D e v e l o p m e n t i n Man (New Y o r k :
Mentor Books, 1946), i s a s y s t e m a t i c e x p l o r a t i o n of the i d e a of
s t a t i c p e r m a n e n c e i n I n d o - E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e , and t h e m o d e r n d e v e l o p m e n t
p f p r o c e s s i v e t h i n k i n g t h a t h a s o c c u r r e d s i n c e a b o u t 1750.
The
"next
d e v e l o p m e n t , " Whyte c o n t e n d s , must be a " l a n g u a g e o f p r o c e s s " t o d e a l
w i t h r e a l i t y as p r o c e s s .
26
the w o r l d w h i c h were i n c a p a b l e of change or movement w i t h i n the
scale.
The K a n t i a n d i s t i n c t i o n between Reason and U n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
a l t h o u g h i t was a c o r r e c t i v e t o Lockean s e n s a t i o n a l i s m and m a t e r i a l i s m ,
m e r e l y added (or re-emphasized)
the h i g h e r l e v e l s of permanence.
It
a s s e r t e d the r e a l i t y of the l i f e - g i v i n g s p i r i t b u t m e r e l y o s s i f i e d
i t i n t o another " p i e c e " or " l e v e l " o f the w h o l e , s e p a r a t e o r t r a n s cendent.
Thus the l e v e l s of r e a l i t y which were apprehended
Reason and U n d e r s t a n d i n g were m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e .
by the
The end
result
was a d u a l i s t i c . s t r u c t u r e ; as whitehead termed i t , p h i l o s o p h y was
saddled w i t h a " b i f u r c a t i o n " i n t o s p i r i t and n a t u r e , mind and m a t t e r . 5
Because
the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f r e a l i t y were
somewhat obscured by t h i s b i f u r c a t i o n , a number of e x o t i c t h e o r i e s
developed to e x p l a i n the u n i t y of the C h a i n .
were
In medieval theology,
the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the s t a t i c l i n k s of the Chain o f B e i n g were
conveyed
through e l a b o r a t e systems of a l l e g o r y and t y p o l o g y ; i n
p h i l o s o p h y these r e l a t i o n s h i p s were conveyed
through
emblematic
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , or the p a r a l l e l i s m o f the t h e o r y of correspondence.
A l t h o u g h the main tendency i n e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h i n k i n g
was
toward the s t a t i c , c a t e g o r i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of r e a l i t y
i n many p h i l o s o p h i e s , even i n the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h i s
(and
tendency
c o n t i n u e s ) , the f i r s t g l i m m e r i n g s of p r o c e s s i v e t h i n k i n g began
Whitehead's d i s c u s s i o n of the problem i s t r e a t e d i n h i s Modes o f
Thought (New Y o r k : C a p r i c o r n Books, 1958), e s p e c i a l l y Chapters 7 and
8, "Nature L i f e l e s s " and "Nature A l i v e , " pp. 173-232.
27
t o appear about m i d - c e n t u r y .
The
i d e a of p r o c e s s has< never gained
p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , even i n modern t i m e s , s i n c e i i t goes
a g a i n s t the g r a i n o f language,
structures.
was
p e r c e p t i o n , and most Western c u l t u r a l
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the emergence of t h i s new way
of t h i n k i n g
i n e v i t a b l e as new ways o f h i s t o r i c a l , s c i e n t i f i c , and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
s t u d i e s developed.
I n the s t u d y of human h i s t o r y , V i c o i n t r o d u c e d
the i d e a s o f r e c u r r e n c e and development through
were matured by V o l t a i r e , L e s s i n g , H e r d e r ,
time,
concepts
S c h i l l e r , and
Gibbon.
By the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y these i d e a s had become the
features i n h i s t o r i c a l studies.
that
standard
I n p h i l o s o p h y and p s y c h o l o g y L e i b n i z
developed h i s p h i l o s o p h y w i t h the concept o f change f u l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d ,
and he was
f o l l o w e d by a p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e f i n e d n o t i o n o f growth and
c r e a t i v i t y i n the work of Rousseau, Goethe, F i c h t e , and
These developments r e s u l t e d i n a c o m p l e t e l y new
view w h i c h i s apparent
Schelling.
view of r e a l i t y , a
i n the Romantic movement i n E n g l i s h p o e t r y .
Morse Peckam, i n h i s essay on Romanticism, has c h a r a c t e r i z e d the
Romantic movement a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s changed view o f r e a l i t y :
6
G i a m b a t t i s t a V i c o (1668^*1744) suggested t h i s approach to h i s t o r i c a l
s t u d i e s i n h i s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d work, "On the Method of the S t u d i e s o f
Our Time" (1709), and l a t e r developed i t i n h i s t h r e e volume " U n i v e r s a l
Law" (1720-1722). H i s development of what he termed the "new s c i e n c e
o f the common n a t u r e of n a t i o n s " i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the modern
d i s c i p l i n e o f the h i s t o r y o f c i v i l i z a t i o n as pursued by A r n o l d Toynbee.
28
L i t e r a r y r o m a n t i c i s m was the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a change i n
the way o f t h i n k i n g o f European man.... B r i e f l y , the s h i f t
i n European thought was a s h i f t from c o n c e i v i n g the cosmos
as a s t a t i c mechanism t o c o n c e i v i n g i t as a dynamic organism.... [The] mighty s t a t i c mechanism which had p e r i l o u s l y
governed the thoughts of men s i n c e the time o f P l a t o , c o l l a p s e d
o f i t s own i n t e r n a l i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i n the l a t e e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y - - o r c o l l a p s e d f o r some p e o p l e .
7
The new view o f the u n i v e r s e as an organism r e s u l t e d i n a breakdown
of the s t a t i c concept o f r e a l i t y , the i d e a t h a t permanence c o n s t i t u t e s
perfection.
As Peckam puts
it:
An organism has t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e .
I t does n o t d e v e l o p
a d d i t i v e l y ; i t grows o r g a n i c a l l y . The u n i v e r s e i s a l i v e .
I t i s n o t something made, a p e r f e c t machine; i t grows.
T h e r e f o r e change becomes a p o s i t i v e v a l u e , n o t a n e g a t i v e
v a l u e ; change i s n o t man's punishment, i t i s h i s o p p o r t u n i t y .
T h i s view o f r e a l i t y was a i d e d by a growing i n t e r e s t from about 1740
i n the growth and h i s t o r y of organisms.
E v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a s appeared
i n the w r i t i n g s o f B u f f o n , D i d e r o t , Herder and Lamarck.
By t h e time
R a l p h Waldo Emerson came t o w r i t e h i s N a t u r e i n 1836 t h e r e was a
w i d e s p r e a d i n t e l l e c t u a l awareness
o f change and development as
e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f e x p e r i e n c e ; and Emerson became one o f the most
i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e s i n the p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h i s
awareness.
O s t e n s i b l y , the purpose o f N a t u r e would appear t o be the
development
o f an i d e a l i s t i c p o s i t i o n which e s t a b l i s h e d f o r Emerson
7
"Toward a Theory o f R o m a n t i c i s m , " PMLA, LXVT (1951),
8-10.
Peckam has added t o h i s t h e o r y i n "Toward a Theory o f R o m a n t i c i s m :
I I . R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , " S t u d i e s i n Romanticism, I (1961), 1-8; howe v e r , h i s a d d i t i o n s do n o t c o n s t i t u t e a r e t r a c t i o n o f h i s e a r l i e r
views on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t .
I b i d . , p. 10.
29
a v i a b l e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r h i s whole p h i l o s o p h y .
From t h i s p o i n t
of view N a t u r e i s n o t an o r i g i n a l t h e s i s by any means;
i t borrows
the K a n t i a n d i s t i n c t i o n of Reason and U n d e r s t a n d i n g ; i t a s s e r t s
the r e a l i t y of S p i r i t behind N a t u r e , as Wordsworth and C a r l y l e had
done; and i t d e v e l o p s a t h e o r y of language based on Swedenborg's
t h e o r y of correspondence.
h i s Essays:
However, by the time Emerson had p u b l i s h e d
F i r s t S e r i e s (1841), he had moved to a p h i l o s o p h i c
p o s i t i o n which was
a c o n s i d e r a b l e advance on the i d e a l i s t i c
assumed i n N a t u r e f i v e y e a r s e a r l i e r .
position
The d i f f i c u l t y i n e x p l i c a t i n g
t h i s new p o s i t i o n , however, i s l a r g e l y due to the f a c t t h a t Emerson
never r e a l l y d e f i n e d h i s p h i l o s o p h i c p o s i t i o n or method a f t e r
1836.
Without l a y i n g any apparent groundwork, Emerson s i m p l y d e s c r i b e s a
new
and deeper v i s i o n , and the r e a d e r i s l e f t to work out the
philosophical structure himself.
Y e t to t r e a t t h i s new
v i s i o n of r e a l i t y as a c o m p l e t e l y
new development o c c u r r i n g a f t e r 1836 i s somewhat m i s l e a d i n g .
A
c a r e f u l look a t the Nature essay r e v e a l s an awareness of r e a l i t y
w h i c h , even i n the m i d s t of h i s d i s c u s s i o n of Reason and U n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
t r a n s c e n d s the K a n t i a n dichotomy
altogether.
C o n s i d e r , f o r example,
the f o l l o w i n g e v o c a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of the "Commodity" of N a t u r e :
A l l the p a r t s i n c e s s a n t l y work i n t o each o t h e r ' s hands
f o r the p r o f i t of man.
The wind^sows the seed; the sun
e v a p o r a t e s the s e a ; the wind blows the vapor t o the f i e l d ;
the i c e , on the o t h e r s i d e of the p l a n e t , condenses r a i n
on t h i s ; the r a i n f e e d s the p l a n t ; the p l a n t feeds the
a n i m a l ; and thus the e n d l e s s c i r c u l a t i o n s of the d i v i n e
c h a r i t y n o u r i s h man. (W, I , 19)
30
Or c o n s i d e r the d e s c r i p t i o n i n "The American S c h o l a r " of " t h a t g r e a t
p r i n c i p l e o f U n d u l a t i o n i n N a t u r e , " which Emerson says
shows i t s e l f i n the i n s p i r i n g and e x p i r i n g of the b r e a t h ; i n
d e s i r e and s a t i e t y ; i n the ebb and f l o w o f the s e a ; i n day
and n i g h t ; i n h e a t and c o l d ; and, y e t more d e e p l y
i n g r a i n e d i n e v e r y atom and e v e r y f l u i d . . . .
(W, I , 99)
I t i s easy t o m i s s the m e t a p h y s i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of these passages
because o f the p o w e r f u l p o e t i c q u a l i t y of Emerson's language.
Yet
these passages e s s e n t i a l l y t r e a t o f N a t u r e as a system of i n t e r a c t i o n , a s t r u c t u r e i n which the i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e i s n o t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n t o p a r t s or c a t e g o r i e s b u t r a t h e r the movements t h a t o c c u r
between the p a r t s , the dynamic p r o c e s s w h i c h a r e , t o d a y , the s u b j e c t
m a t t e r of e c o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e .
N a t u r e , f o r Emerson, was a c o m p l e t e l y u n i f i e d w h o l e , and the
u n i t y r e s t e d i n the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s t h a t occured thKugh n a t u r a l
process.
"Not a v a l v e , n o t a w a l l , n o t an i n t e r s e c t i o n i s t h e r e
anywhere i n n a t u r e , b u t one b l o o d r o l l s u n i n t e r r u p t e d l y an e n d l e s s
c i r c u l a t i o n through a l l men,
sea,
as the w a t e r of the globe i s a l l one
and, t r u l y seen, i t s t i d e i s one" (W, I I , 275-276).
When Emerson
uses the phrase "one b l o o d , " he i s i m p l y i n g t h a t the p a r t s of n a t u r e
are
r e l a t e d as the p a r t s o f an organism.
O r g a n i c n a t u r e i s complete
as a l i v i n g b e i n g i s c o m p l e t e ; t h e r e a r e no l o o s e ends t o n a t u r e
b u t o n l y a s i n g l e seamless r o b e .
"There i s never a b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e
i s n e v e r an end, t o the i n e x p l i c a b l e c o n t i n u i t y of t h i s web
always c i r c u l a r power r e t u r n i n g i n t o i t s e l f . " (W, I , 86-87).
. . . but
31
Emerson, o f c o u r s e ,
i s aware of the s t a t i c " t h i n g s " o f the
w o r l d , b u t h i s o r g a n i c v i s i o n a l l o w s him t o see t h a t " n o t h i n g
still
stands
i n n a t u r e b u t death ... the c r e a t i o n i s on w h e e l s , i n t r a n s i t ,
always p a s s i n g i n t o something e l s e , s t r e a m i n g
i n t o something h i g h e r
... m a t t e r i s n o t what i t a p p e a r s " (W, V I I I , 1 0 ) .
The permanence
of t h i n g s i s o n l y an appearance; u l t i m a t e l y a l l t h i n g s a r e m e r e l y
phases o f a l a r g e r
process:
An i n d i v i d u a l body i s t h e momentary a r r e s t or f i x a t i o n of
c e r t a i n atoms, w h i c h , a f t e r p e r f o r m i n g compulsory duty t o
t h i s enchanted s t a t u e , a r e r e l e a s e d a g a i n t o f l o w i n the
c u r r e n t s of the w o r l d . (W, X I I , 25)
T h i s v i s i o n of n a t u r e r e q u i r e s a v a s t awareness of h i s t o r y , an
a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t every o b j e c t i s a p r o d u c t of u n t o l d f o r c e s s t r e t c h i n g
backwards t o the b e g i n n i n g
o f time.
Thus Emerson w r i t e s t h a t "the
l i g h t n i n g f e l l and the storm raged and s t r a t a were d e p o s i t e d
uptorn
and
and bent b a c k , and Chaos moved from beneath, t o c r e a t e and
f l a v o r the f r u i t o f your t a b l e t o - d a y " (W, X, 72-73).
say t h a t e v e r y o b j e c t i s a " p r o d u c t "
the meaning of p r o c e s s .
of " t h i n g s " c a l l e d
Y e t even t o
of f o r c e s i s t o f a i l
t o grasp
I t i s to imply that there are c a t e g o r i e s
e f f e c t s which r e l a t e t o o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s of
" t h i n g s " c a l l e d causes; that i s , it i m p l i e s a s t a t i c ,
dualistic,
fragmented v i s i o n i n which those " t h i n g s " c a l l e d causes g r a d u a l l y
l o s e t h e i r power t o produce e f f e c t s .
Emerson c o u n t e r s
this notion
when he w r i t e s "the sun has l o s t no beams, the e a r t h no e l e m e n t s ;
g r a v i t y i s as a d h e s i v e , h e a t as expansive^,
l i g h t as j o y f u l , a i r as
32
v i r t u o u s , water as m e d i c i n a l as on the f i r s t day."
of
The
structure
process i m p l i e s something q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from the d u a l i s t i c ,
c a u s e - e f f e c t s t r u c t u r e of m e c h a n i s t i c p h y s i c s .
conGludes:
"There i s no
Emerson t h e r e f o r e
l o s s , only t r a n s f e r e n c e
" (W,
X,
73).
Emerson r e f l e c t s , t h e n , the s h i f t i n a t t e n t i o n which took
p l a c e i n and around the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y - - a s h i f t
nature c l a s s i f i e d
which Whitehead
t o n a t u r e moving and l i v i n g .
calls
H i s word
from
"transference,",
" t r a n s i t i o n , " ^ s i g n a l s h i s awareness
of p r o -
cess as fundamental t o a u n i f i e d v i s i o n of the u n i v e r s e .
Emerson's N a t u r e a l s o shows an awareness of r e a l i t y as
p r o c e s s i v e i n q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t sense from the e c o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s
d e s c r i b e d above.
T h i s awareness
i n v o l v e s n o t so much the sense of
change through t i m e , which i s r e a d i l y apprehended
by the U n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
as a p e r c e p t i o n o f p r o c e s s which takes p l a c e i n the p r e s e n t moment.
T h i s awareness
i s above the U n d e r s t a n d i n g ; i t come's through "Reason's
momentary grasp of the s c e p t r e " which t r a n s c e n d s t i m e .
Emerson d e s c r i b e s
t h i s as "the e x e r t i o n s of a power which e x i s t s n o t i n time or space,
but an i n s t a n t a n e o u s i n - s t r e a m i n g c a u s i n g power" (W, I , 7 6 ) .
Reason
i n t u i t s S p i r i t , b u t S p i r i t i s n o t a s t a t i c , s e p a r a t e d " t h i n g " or
e n t i t y b e l o n g i n g t o a d i s t i n c t r e a l m above or beyond; i t i s p r o c e s s i v e - "in-strearning."
I n t h i s sense Emerson r e t u r n s t o the o r i g i n a l
meaning of " s p i r i t " : the r u a c h A d o n a i , or " b r e a t h of l i f e
M i
^
which
%or
a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n , see "Forms of P r o c e s s " i n Whitehead's
Modes of Thought, pp. 117-142. A more d e t a i l e d and much more comp l e x d i s c u s s i o n may be found i n h i s P r o c e s s and R e a l i t y .
T h e Ruach A d o n a i i s , l i t e r a l l y , the " b r e a t h of the L o r d , " but i s
t r a n s l a t e d " b r e a t h of l i f e " i n the AV of 1611, and most subsequent t r a n s l a t i o n s .
1 0
33
was b r e a t h e d i n t o man
a t the c r e a t i o n (Gen. 2:7), the pneuma, or
"wind" w h i c h came i n a m i g h t y r u s h on the Day of P e n t e c o s t ( A c t s 2:2),
the s p i r i t u s , which C h r i s t " b r e a t h e d " i n t o h i s d i s c i p l e s a t the
R e s u r r e c t i o n (John 20:22).
S p i r i t f o r Emerson was
the l i f e - f o r c e
or e l a n v i t a l w o r k i n g o r g a n i c a l l y w i t h i n the w o r l d , c r e a t i n g and
s u s t a i n i n g the whole u n i v e r s e and i h - s p i r i n g
man.
A g a i n and a g a i n Emerson d e s c r i b e s the w o r l d as c r e a t e d by
"the i n f l u x of the a l l - k n o w i n g S p i r i t " (W, I , 145).
man
Moreover,
since
i s a p a r t of the u n i v e r s e , he too f e e l s t h i s i n f l u x , i n "the
l i f e t h a t r u s h e s i n t o us ... c o n t i n u a l l y e j a c u l a t i n g i t s t o r r e n t
i n t o e v e r y a r t e r y and v e i n and v e i n l e t of h u m a n i t y " (W, X I I , 15, 2 6 ) .
The o p e r a t i v e words i n these d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e always those of
process, f l u i d i t y .
change,
Emerson's imagery i s t h e r e f o r e drawn from the
most dynamic a s p e c t s o f n a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y from water and streams.
Thus "man
i s a s t r e a m whose source i s h i d d e n .
i n t o us from we know n o t whence" (W, I I , 252).
Our b e i n g i s d e s c e n d i n g
The a p p r e h e n s i o n of
the Reason i s always the awareness o f an i n d e s c r i b a b l e r e a l i t y which
man
f i n d s " f l o w i n g p e r p e t u a l l y outward from an i n v i s i b l e , unsounded
c e n t e r " (W, I , 315).
Man
i s t h e r e f o r e "a c h a n n e l through which
heaven f l o w e t h " (W, I I I , 2 3 0 ) ; he f i n d s the whole w o r l d of e a r t h and
heaven
" p a s s i n g i n t o h i s m i n d " so t h a t he i s " d r i n k i n g f o r e v e r the
s o u l of God" (W, I , 135).
The r e s u l t of t h i s p r o c e s s i v e view of r e a l i t y i s a t o t a l
f u s i o n of o p p o s i t e s .
" A l l the u n i v e r s e o v e r , " Emerson w r i t e s , " t h e r e
34
i s b u t one t h i n g , t h i s o l d Two-Face, c r e a t o r - c r e a t u r e , m i n d - m a t t e r "
(W, I I I , 2 3 3 ) ; and t h i s "Two-Face" f l o w s t o g e t h e r i n f l u i d
process,
i n t o "one t h i n g . " C r e a t o r and c r e a t u r e f i n d t h e i r u n i t y i n t h e
c r e a t i n g ; matter
11
"minds," and, a t t h e same t i m e , i s mind " m a t t e r i n g . "
Emerson c a l l s i t " a l l - c r e a t i n g n a t u r e " (W, I I , 1 8 ) , or " E f f i c i e n t
N a t u r e , n a t u r a n a t u r a n s " (W, I I I , 172).
Emerson's c o n t i n u a l use o f t h e terms " n a t u r e " and " s p i r i t "
appears t o suggest
another d u a l i s t i c v i s i o n o f r e a l i t y .
The problem,
however, i s t h a t o f a t t e m p t i n g t o convey the " v e r b a l " concept o f
p r o c e s s i n a language which i s b a s i c a l l y n o u n - s t r u c t u r e d .
What we
see i s a c o n t i n u a l usage o f the o l d d u a l i t i e s o f s p i r i t - n a t u r e ,
heaven-earth,
mind-matter, a l o n g s i d e an emerging concept
of process.
U l t i m a t e l y , the p r o c e s s i v e awareness d i s s o l v e s t h e d u a l i s m .
Never-
t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e times when Emerson appears t o r e t u r n t o an almost
n a i v e d u a l i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y when he uses m y t h o l o g i c a l names t o stand
f o r the s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y .
statement
Perhaps t h e most famous o f these i s h i s
i n "The O v e r - S o u l " :
" I f e e l the same t r u t h how o f t e n i n
my t r i v i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h my n e i g h b o r s , t h a t somewhat h i g h e r i n
each of us o v e r l o o k s t h i s b y - p l a y , and J o v e nods t o J o v e from behind
each o f u s " (W, I I , 2 6 1 ) . I t i s p o s s i b l e , i n f a c t i t i s q u i t e l i k e l y ,
t h a t Emerson i s h e r e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e H i n d u v i s i o n o f the u n i v e r s e
as a drama or dance performed by Brahma-Shiva.
The
I t has been conclHSive.ly
i n c i d e n t a l pun h e r e i s n o t i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n .
35
demonstrated t h a t Emerson had read w i d e l y i n I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y by
12
1841, when h i s E s s a y s : F i r s t S e r i e s appeared.
noted
But i t s h o u l d
t h a t the H i n d u v i s i o n o f the w o r l d i s n o t r e a l l y
dualistic,
f o r Brahman-Shiva becomes the w o r l d by a c t i n g i t , by d a n c i n g
There i s no One
a p a r t from the Many:
t h e r e i s no way
from the dance, f o r both f u s e i n the d a n c i n g .
One
(W,
it.
t o t e l l the dancer
T h i s f u s i o n of the
and the Many i s conveyed, i n m y t h o l o g i c a l terms, most
i n the " e n d l e s s m u t a t i o n s " of P r o t e u s
be
I I , 35).
adequately
Ultimately, a l l
i s f u s e d ; as " t h e r e i s no s c r e e n or c e i l i n g between our heads and
i n f i n i t e heavens, so i s t h e r e no bar or w a l l i n the s o u l , where
the e f f e c t , c e a s e s , and God,
away" (W,
the cause b e g i n s .
The w a l l s are
the
man,
taken
I I , 255).
Emerson's whole i d e a of God
as cause and man
as e f f e c t - - a n
i n f l u x of G o d - - r e f l e c t s h i s e a r l y p h i l o s o p h y of I d e a l i s m .
The
ideal-
i s t i c t h e o r y always r i s k s the r e d u c t i o n of the m a t e r i a l w o r l d to the
m e n t a l , as happened i n the a b s o l u t e i d e a l i s m of Bishop
Berkeley.
Emerson, as n o t e d , n e a t l y s i d e s t e p p e d the i s s u e of whether the e x t e r n a l
w o r l d e x i s t s (W,
I , 52-53).
N e v e r t h e l e s s , h i s almost m y s t i c a l ex-
p e r i e n c e of b e i n g " n o t h i n g ... p a r t or p a r c e l of God"
(W,
I , 16), and
h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of n a t u r e as "a p e r p e t u a l e f f e c t ... a g r e a t shadow
p o i n t i n g a l s o t o the sun behind u s " (W,
I , 65) l e d him
inevitably
l^See L e y l a Goren, "Elements of Brahamanism i n the T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m
of Emerson," ESQ, Supplement to No. 34 (1964), e s p e c i a l l y Chapter I .
Other key works on Emerson's " o r i e n t a l i s m " are George W i l l i a m s o n ,
"Emerson the O r i e n t a l , " U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a C h r o n i c l e , XXX, (1928),
271-288; A r t h u r E. C h r i s t y , "Emerson's Debt to the O r i e n t , " The M o n i s t ,
X X X V I I I (1928), 38-64; and F r e d e r i c I . C a r p e n t e r , " I m m o r t a l i t y from
I n d i a , " American L i t e r a t u r e , I (1929), 233-242.
36
toward m e n t a l i s m .
I n the s e c t i o n o f N a t u r e on " I d e a l i s m " he des-
c r i b e s how "the l e a s t change i n our p o i n t of view g i v e s t h e whole
w o r l d a p i c t o r i a l a i r " so t h a t the men and women b e g i n t o look
like
a "puppet-show ... a p p a r e n t , no s u b s t a n t i a l b e i n g s " (W, I , 5 5 ) .
T h i s view o f the w o r l d as a puppet-show, a shadow, a
phenomenon, i s t y p i c a l o f the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the w o r l d as an emanation
of God; and jEmerson f e l t some a f f i n i t y w i t h P l o t i n u s and t h e neop l a t o n i s t s from which the i d e a of the w o r l d as an emanation d e r i v e s .
Moreover, i t e x p l a i n s h i s i n t e r e s t i n H i n d u m y s t i c i s m which understands
the w o r l d as the maya, or " i l l u s i o n , " o f God.
Emerson's main o r i g i n a l i t y
l i e s i n h i s emphasis on the c o n t i n u i n g p r o c e s s o f t h i s emanation whereby every moment of e x i s t e n c e r a d i a t e s from an "unsounded c e n t e r "
(W, I , 3 1 5 ) . Y e t t h e Emanation t h e o r y , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e
f o r i t a l l through Emerson's w r i t i n g , caused h i m c o n t i n u a l i p r o b l e m s .
Because
the i n d i v i d u a l tended t o be swallowed up by t h e U n i v e r s a l
S p i r i t , because the Many tended t o d i s s o l v e i n t o the One, t h e i d e a l i s t i c
p o s i t i o n and the i d e a o f emanation were u l t i m a t e l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
Emerson's emphasis on the i n t e g r i t y o f the i n d i v i d u a l man.
In " S e l f -
R e l i a n c e , " f o r example, he says t h a t " t o b e l i e v e t h a t what i s t r u e f o r
you i n your p r i v a t e h e a r t i s t r u e f o r a l l men,--that i s g e n i u s . . . .
Trust thyself
... n o t h i n g i s a t l a s t s a c r e d but the i n t e g r i t y of your
own m i n d " (W, I I , 47, 29, 5 2 ) . And much l a t e r he was t o s t r e s s
i n d i v i d u a l i t y i n even s t r o n g e r terms:
this
"Man i s always t h r o w i n g h i s
p r a i s e or blame on e v e n t s , and does n o t see t h a t he o n l y i s r e a l , and
37
the w o r l d h i s m i r r o r and e c h o " (W, X,
185).
Emerson's a f f i r m a t i o n of the v a l u e and
i n t e g r i t y o f the
i n d i v i d u a l s e l f , w h i l e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a b s o l u t e i d e a l i s m , was
never-
t h e l e s s c o m p l e t e l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the whole Western emphasis on i n d i v i d u a l values.
What Emerson l a c k e d however was
a t h e o r y of r e a l i t y
which would p r e s e r v e the i n d i v i d u a l w h i l e a s s e r t i n g the o v e r r i d i n g
importance of s p i r i t .
c a t i o n of N a t u r e ,
In the y e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y
f o l l o w i n g the p u b l i -
Emerson g r a d u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e d f o r h i m s e l f an e v o l u -
t i o n a r y t h e o r y of n a t u r e - - a
t h e o r y t h a t was
the e a r l y y e a r s o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
v e r y much " i n the a i r " i n
By 1841,
an awareness of
e v o l u t i o n b e g i n s t o appear i n h i s p u b l i s h e d w r i t i n g s .
"The Method o f
N a t u r e , " an O r a t i o n d e l i v e r e d t h a t year b e f o r e the S o c i e t y of
the
A d e l p h i c o n t a i n s the f o l l o w i n g passage:
We can p o i n t nowhere t o a n y t h i n g f i n a l ; but tendency
appears on a l l hands: p l a n e t , system, c o n s t e l l a t i o n ,
t o t a l n a t u r e i s growing l i k e a f i e l d of maize i n J u l y ;
i s becoming somewhat e l s e ; i s i n r a p i d metamorphosis.
The embryo does not more s t r i v e t o be a man, than yonder
b u r r of l i g h t we c a l l a n e b u l a tends to be a r i n g , a
comet, a g l o b e , and p a r e n t of new s t a r s .
(W, I , 194)
By 1844,
the year of the p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s E s s a y s : Second S e r i e s ,
e v o l u t i o n was
f i r m l y established i n h i s philosophy.
In h i s ' N a t u r e "
essay p u b l i s h e d i n t h a t volume he w r o t e of " E f f i c i e n t N a t u r e
[which] p u b l i s h e s i t s e l f i n c r e a t u r e s , r e a c h i n g from p a r t i c l e s
s p i c u l a e through
...
and
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n on t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to the h i g h e s t
symmetries, a r r i v i n g a t consummate r e s u l t s w i t h o u t a shock or l e a p "
(W,
I I I , 172); and
i n 1851,
i n The Conduct of L i f e , he wrote t h a t
38
" i n the e n d l e s s s t r i v i n g and a s c e n t s , the metamorphosis
is entire"
(W, V I , 303).
Emerson's t h e o r y of e v o l u t i o n s h o u l d n o t be thought of i n conn e c t i o n w i t h Darwin's t h e o r y proposed a few y e a r s l a t e r i n The
of S p e c i e s (1859)and The Descent o f Man
(1871).
Origin
Darwinian e v o l u t i o n
was e s s e n t i a l l y m e c h a n i s t i c , and t h e r e f o r e sparked l i t t l e
interest i n
Emerson; t h e r e i s no mention o f Darwin i n any of Emersons p u b l i s h e d
Essays.
Emerson's e v o l u t i o n i s m i s v i t a l i s t i c , as the i n s c r i p t i o n t o
h i s Nature suggests:
And, s t r i v i n g t o be man, the worm
^
Mounts through a l l the s p i r e s of form.
(W, I , 8)
T h i s i s even c l e a r e r i n the i n s c r i p t i o n t o h i s 1844 " N a t u r e " essay
when he speaks of "the s e c r e t of i t s l a b o r i n g h e a r t " :
S p i r i t t h a t l u r k s each form w i t h i n
Beckons t o s p i r i t of i t s k i n ;
S e l f - k i n d l e d every atom glows,
And h i n t s the f u t u r e which i t owes.
(W, I I I ,
161)
The i m p u l s i v e f o r c e of e v o l u t i o n was, f o r Emerson, the " s e l f - e v o l v i n g
power of s p i r i t , e n d l e s s , g e n e r a t o r of new
ends" (W, IV, 8 3 ) .
If
t h e r e i s a p a r a l l e l t o s c i e n t i f i c e v o l u t i o n , i t i s t o the l a t e r
"emergent e v o l u t i o n " of Bergson, the i m p e l l i n g f o r c e of which
was
I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h i s i n s c r i p t i o n , p r i n t e d a t the head
of " N a t u r e " i n the Complete Works, was added i n 1849, a f t e r the i d e a
of e v o l u t i o n had t a k e n f i r m h o l d i n Emerson's mind. The o r i g i n a l motto
from P l o t i n u s - - " N a t u r e i s b u t an image or i m i t a t i o n of wisdom"--was
an e x p r e s s i o n of n e o - P l a t o n i c emanationism.
39
the e l a n v i t a l .
Emerson r e a l i z e d t h a t i f the u n i v e r s e developed by the
"self-
e v o l v i n g power of s p i r i t " then n a t u r e i t s e l f must be s t u d i e d t o d i s cover t h a t " l a b o r i n g h e a r t " which
is spirit.
T h i s i s what Emerson
meant when he w r o t e t h a t " i n the i m p e n e t r a b l e mystery which h i d e s - and h i d e s through a b s o l u t e t r a n s p a r e n c y — t h e mental n a t u r e , I await
the i n s i g h t which our advancing knowledge of m a t e r i a l laws
f u r n i s h " (W, X, 74; and X I I , 5 ) .
shall
And when he w r o t e t h a t "our meta-
p h y s i c s h o u l d be a b l e to f o l l o w the f l y i n g f o r c e through a l l t a n s f o r mations"
(W, X I I , 5 ) , he once a g a i n turned s p i r i t
a p r o c e s s t h a t cannot be understood
i n t o p r o c e s s , but
a p a r t from the e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o -
cess.
Emerson's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e v o l u t i o n e v e n t u a l l y l e d him t o a
p o s i t i o n d i r e c t l y o p p o s i t e t o h i s e a r l y t h e o r y of emanation.
a c c o r d i n g t o the emanation t h e o r y , was
Nature,
a " p e r p e t u a l e f f e c t " (W, I , 65),
"the end or l a s t i s s u e of s p i r i t " (W, I , 4 0 ) - - s u g g e s t i n g t h a t S p i r i t
e x i s t e d i n a b s o l u t e c o m p l e t i o n and p e r f e c t i o n b e f o r e the emanation of
the w o r l d .
that s p i r i t ,
But the e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y l e d him u l t i m a t e l y to see
too, evolves.
... i s a remoter
As e a r l y as 1836 he wrote t h a t "the w o r l d
and i n f e r i o r i n c a r n a t i o n of God,
i n the u n c o n s c i o u s " (W, I , 68).
a t t a i n i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and
Nature
a p r o j e c t i o n of
i s the form God
God
takes b e f o r e
t h i s accounts f o r the "tendency"
of
n a t u r e towards s p i r i t , the " s t r i v i n g " of the lower forms t o move
upward t o h i g h e r forms, t o become man.
Thus he speaks of the "deeper
cause, as y e t f a r from b e i n g c o n s c i o u s , [which] knows n o t i t s own
40
t e n d e n c y " (W,
I I I , 72);
" a l l t h i n g s c o n t i n u a l l y ascend.
The
g a t h e r to the s o l i d firmament: the chemic lump a r r i v e s at
p l a n t , and
the man,
gases
the
grows; a r r i v e s a t the quadruped, and w a l k s ; a r r i v e s at
and
t h i n k s " (W,
IV, 16-17).
In man,
s p i r i t reaches
conscious-
n e s s ; the U n i v e r s e becomes aware of i t s e l f .
And,
i n t h i s understanding
of man,
who,
as has
was
Emerson j u s t i f i e d the i n d i v i d u a l man
been shown,
always i n danger of d i s s o l v i n g i n t o U n i v e r s a l S p i r i t i n the
earlier
emanation t h e o r y .
In p o i n t i n g t o h i s " h e r o s , " h i s
s e n t a t i v e men--Plato, Shakespeare, Goethe--Emerson was
the h i g h e s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n
transparent
t h a t S p i r i t had
yet reached.
t o the i n f l u x of S p i r i t these men
m y s t i c a l d i s s o l u t i o n i n t o God;
repre-
pointing
to
By b e i n g
totally
were not examples of
they were examples of the d i v i n e at
i t s peak of c o n s c i o u s . p e r f e c t i o n .
T h e i r words a t t a i n e d a d i v i n e
r i n g because they were, i n f a c t , the most complete m a n i f e s t a t i o n
the d i v i n e t h a t had
The
y e t emerged.
p r o c e s s of Emerson's u n i v e r s e must be u n d e r s t o o d , t h e n ,
as r e c i p r o c a l .
Creator
I t i s not
simply
the emanation of S p i r i t i n t o m a t t e r ,
i n t o c r e a t i o n ; i t i s a l s o the e v o l u t i o n of the whole c r e a t i o n
back t o s p i r i t .
S p i r i t i s b o t h cause and
g o a l ; y e t i t i s as
t o say t h a t m a t t e r i s a l s o b o t h cause and
goal.
t o t a l f u s i o n of s p i r i t and m a t t e r , of God
and
s i n g l e , dynamic, r e c i p r o c a l p r o c e s s .
of one
of
f a c t " (W,
t i o n s " and
I I , 293).
The
true
result is a
the w o r l d , i n a
"Cause and
e f f e c t are two
R e a l i t y i s made up of " e n d l e s s
sides
circula-
the c i r c l e image i s perhaps the o n l y image which can
cap-
41
t u r e the w o r l d - p r o c e s s
as Emerson sees i t .
S p i r i t and m a t t e r
are
p o l e s , o p p o s i t e p o i n t s on the c i r c l e of the Whole, but the p o i n t s
may
be anywhere, and are i n f a c t everywhere.
i s no way
In t h i s sense,
there
of d i v i d i n g r e a l i t y i n t o a d u a l i s m , or " c h a i n " of b e i n g .
We p e r c e i v e the u n i v e r s e as " a l l f o r each and each f o r a l l "
138), a One which i s A l l .
U l t i m a t e l y Emerson had
u n i v e r s e e x i s t s o n l y i n t r a n s i t , or we b e h o l d
(W, V I I ,
to say t h a t "the
i t s h o o t i n g the g u l f
from the p a s t t o the f u t u r e " (W, X I I , 5 4 ) .
I f t h e u n i v e r s e " e x i s t s o n l y i n t r a n s i t , " i f i t was
in
f a c t an a b s o l u t e f u s i o n of a l l t h i n g s i n a s i n g l e p r o c e s s , then
mind i t s e l f was
involved i n t h i s process.
the
To i s o l a t e the mind from
the w o r l d , as d i d Locke, or t o d i v i d e the mind i n t o Reason and
Understanding,
as d i d K a n t , was
t o h y p o s t a t i z e t h a t mind.
But i n a
w o r l d o f p r o c e s s where a l l d u a l i t i e s are d i s s o l v e d , no d i v i d e d mind
is possible.
Man's p e r c e p t i o n of the w o r l d must a l s o i n v o l v e
p r o c e s s , a p r o c e s s t h a t i n v o l v e s the whole mind and j o i n s the seer t o
the seen.
Thus i t was
t h a t Emerson e v o l v e d h i s concept
" a l l - d i s s o l v i n g U n i t y " (W, V I I I , 212)--the
beyond both the L o c k i a n t a b u l a r a s a and
Reason and
Understanding.
of t h a t
Soul--which moved him far
the K a n t i a n dichotomy of
42
CHAPTER I I I
THE ALL-DISSOLVING UNITY:
THE PROCESS OF THE SOUL
In t h a t deep f o r c e , t h e l a s t f a c t behind
which a n a l y s i s cannot go, a l l t h i n g s f i n d
t h e i r common o r i g i n .
"Self-Reliance"
I - - t h i s thought which i s c a l l e d I - - i s the
mould i n t o which the w o r l d i s poured l i k e
m e l t e d wax.
"The T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t "
Emerson began h i s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d work w i t h the c r i t i c i s m ,
"Our
age i s r e t r o s p e c t i v e . " The i n t e l l e c t s o f h i s time he s a i d ,
"grope among the d r y bones of the p a s t " (W, I , 9 ) ; " t r a d i t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h i s c o u n t r y " (W, I , 139), w i t h the
r e s u l t t h a t the p a s t dominates the p r e s e n t .
F o r Emerson t h i s was
" I d o l a t r y " (W, I V , 2 3 ) , a d i s e a s e o f h i s age which he l a t e r
i n h i s H i s t o r i c Notes of L i f e and L e t t e r s i n New England.
analysed
A
"schism
runs under the w o r l d " ; t h e r e i s "a crack i n n a t u r e " caused by the
" r e f l e c t i v e and i n t e l l e c t u a l " t e n d e n c i e s o f the time (W, X, 307-308).
The e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y had l e f t New England w i t h a c u l t o f the
i n d i v i d u a l which c u t the whole s o c i e t y , t h e whole u n i v e r s e i n t o
bits.
" I t d i v i d e s and detaches bone and marrow, s o u l and body, y e a ,
almost the man from h i m s e l f .
I t i s the age of s e v e r a n c e ,
of d i s -
43
s o c i a t i o n , of freedom, o f a n a l y s i s , o f detachment"
(W, X, 3 0 8 ) .
That r e t r o s p e c t i v e tendency which worshipped the p a s t , which c l u n g
t o "the narrow and dead c l a s s i f i c a t i o n " o f s c i e n c e (W, X, 3 1 8 ) ,
p l a c e d man under t h e o p p r e s s i v e power of "the morgue o f c o n v e n t i o n s "
(W, I V , 275).
Emerson's c o n c l u s i o n was t h a t "the w o r l d l a c k s u n i t y ,
and l i e s broken i n heaps ... man i s d i s u n i t e d w i t h h i m s e l f " (W, I , 7 7 ) .
T h i s i d o l a t r o u s w o r s h i p o f the p a s t was e v i d e n t t o Emerson
i n numerous "examples
of oppression.
The dominion o f A r i s t o t l e ,
the P t o l e m a i c astronomy, t h e c r e d i t o f L u t h e r , o f Bacon, o f Locke;-i n r e l i g i o n and h i s t o r y o f h i e r a r c h i e s , o f s a i n t s , and the s e c t s
which have taken t h e name o f each f o u n d e r , a r e i n p o i n t " (W, I V , 2 3 ) .
And i n A m e r i c a the same l o v e of systems was i n e v i d e n c e :
"The
a m b i t i o u s and mercenary b r i n g t h e i r l a s t new mumbo-jumbo, whether
t a r i f f , Texas, r a i l r o a d , Romanism, mersmerism, or C a l i f o r n i a "
(W, I V , 2 5 3 ) . The c h i e f " d i s e a s e o f t h e i n t e l l e c t " was t o be found
i n the "creeds and c h u r c h e s , which a r e a l s o c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f some
p o w e r f u l mind a c t i n g on the e l e m e n t a l thought o f d u t y and man's r e l a t i o n t o the H i g h e s t .
Such i s C a l v i n i s m , Quakerism,
Swedenborgism"
(W, I I , 7 8 ) . Emerson saw the w o r s h i p o f the p a s t , and of systems,
as i s o l a t i n g , f r a g m e n t i n g - - a d i v i s i v e view o f r e a l i t y by men who
were i n themselves d i v i d e d , " u n d e r l i n g s and i n t e l l e c t u a l
suicides"
(W, I V , 3 1 ) .
^Emerson was p r o b a b l y i n f l u e n c e d by Thomas C a r l y l e ' s m a g n i f i c e n t
essay, " C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , " which was p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Edinburgh i n
,U$31, and which made e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same p o i n t s about e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y thought i n E n g l a n d .
44
Emerson's a f f i r m a t i o n a g a i n s t the f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f h i s
was
that
" t h e r e h a v e b e e n s a n e men,
e x i s t e n c e " (W,
was
one
IV, 25).
o f t h o s e who
who
P l a t o , one
"delighted
enjoyed
"the E u c l i d
the v i s i b l e h e a v e n " r e f l e c t e d
...
i n the " c i r c l e s
(W,
Goethe, t o o , had
(W,
isolative,
And
e m p i r i c i s t s , he
saw
a vision
o f s c i e n c e , " he w r o t e ,
sides,
into Nature,
and
and
soul."
IV,
253);
their
own
law"
sterile,
the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y
till
t h e e x t e n s i o n o f man,
"The
on a l l
h i s hands should touch the s t a r s , h i s eyes
o f the w i n d ; and,
(W,
VI,
e x i s t e n c e , " and
" t h e e x t e n s i o n o f man,
"Why," h e
i n Nature,
I, 9).
of beast
and
269-270).
the " r i c h
and
related
on a l l s i d e s , i n t o
" s h o u l d n o t we
t o t h e u n i v e r s e ? " (W,
the language
through h i s sympathy, heaven
From the b e g i n n i n g , Emerson sought
relation
of
(W,
o f t h e cosmos as a w h o l e .
"was
earth should talk w i t h him"
asked
"the c i r c l e s
eye"
atoms a g a i n by
the e a r t h , h i s ears understand
the sense
IV, 83).
t h a t s c i e n c e , p r o p e r l y c o n c e i v e d , aimed a t a
motive
b i r d , and
(W,
i n the r a t i o n a l
"the comprehensive
s c i e n c e of Locke
dynamic view of r e a l i t y ,
see t h r o u g h
found
d e s p i t e Emerson's c r i t i c i s m of the
fragmentary
men,"
" t h e two p a r t s o f n a t u r e "
a power t o u n i t e t h e d e t a c h e d
IV, 260).
hating insulation"
o f h o l i n e s s " who
t h e cosmos b y m a r r y i n g
"he h a d
related
i n d i s c o v e r i n g c o n n e c t i o n , con-
Plato unified
IV, 85).
and
o f Emerson's " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
t i n u i t y and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n e v e r y w h e r e ,
Emerson c a l l e d h i m
a rich
age
And
a l s o e n j o y an
Nature."
original
there i s evidence
Emerson a t t i m e s e n j o y e d j u s t s u c h an o r i g i n a l
relation:
that
45
l a the woods, t o o , a man c a s t s o f f h i s y e a r s , as the
snake h i s s l o u g h , and a t what p e r i o d soever o f l i f e ,
i s always a c h i l d .
In the woods i s p e r p e t u a l
youth. . . .
I n the woods we r e t u r n to r e a s o n and
f a i t h . . . . S t a n d i n g on the bare ground,--my head
bathed by the b l i t h e a i r , and u p l i f t e d i n t o i n f i n i t e
s p a c e , - - a l l mean egotism v a n i s h e s . I become a
t r a n s p a r e n t e y e - b a l l ; I am n o t h i n g ; I see a l l ; the
c u r r e n t s o f the U n i v e r s a l B e i n g c i r c u l a t e through
me; I am p a r t or p a r c e l of God.
(W, I , 15-16)
P r o p e r l y understood,
t h i s almost
" m y s t i c a l " experience provides a
key t o the h e a r t of Emerson's thought.
The whole corpus o f h i s
w r i t i n g i n v o l v e s an e x p l o r a t i o n of the o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n w i t h the
universe,
examining
to which t h i s e x p e r i e n c e b e a r s w i t n e s s .
I t i s worth
t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , t h e n , i n some d e t a i l .
The
" o r i g i n a l " r e l a t i o n as Emerson h e r e d e s c r i b e s i t does
n o t c o n s i s t of a n y t h i n g which can be i n t e l l e c t u a l l y
The d e t a i l s , no m a t t e r .how
formulated.
c l o s e l y they a r e examined, w i l l n o t conform
t o any k i n d of s c i e n t i f i c or p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n .
In t h i s sense
the o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n escapes from the "narrow and dead
classification"
of t h e o l o g y and m e t a p h y s i c s .
In t h i s sense t o o , i t escapes from
the r e a l m o f i n t e l l e c t i n t o the a r e a o f pure f e e l i n g - - a f e e l i n g o f
b e i n g " u p l i f t e d , " of b e i n g "nothing," of s e e i n g " a l l , " of b e i n g " p a r t
or p a r c e l of God."
The
" t r a n s p a r e n t e y e b a l l " of Emerson i s v i r t u a l l y
i d e n t i c a l t o Goethe's "comprehensive eye," and
the " p a r t of p a r c e l
of God "-fee ling.,; i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t " e x t e n s i o n o f man
N a t u r e , t i l l h i s hands s h o u l d touch the s t a r s . . . . "
from t h i s e x p e r i e n c e i s a u n i t y of man,
on a l l s i d e s , i n t o
What emerges
i n n a t u r e , w i t h " U n i v e r s a l Being
46
u n i t y which o p e r a t e s through an i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the " a l l . "
And
t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n takes p l a c e through the p r o c e s s of e x p e r i e n c e , a
p r o c e s s which
i s h e r e f o c u s s e d i n s e e i n g ("I see a l l " ) , and i n f e e l i n g
("The c u r r e n t s o f U n i v e r s a l B e i n g c i r c u l a t e through me").
In t h i s
e x p e r i e n c e man a c h i e v e s more than an " o r i g i n a l " r e l a t i o n w i t h n a t u r e ,
i n the sense o f a 'new" r e l a t i o n ; he r e t u r n s t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p
2
which man once had b e f o r e the F a l l
" O r i g i n a t o r " of Nature.
Creator h i m s e l f .
; and he becomes one w i t h the
I n u n i t y w i t h the u n i v e r s e man becomes the
Man and God f u s e i n t h a t " a l l - d i s s o l v i n g u n i t y "
(W, V I I I , 212) w h i c h Emerson c a l l e d the S o u l .
And i t i s t o t h i s
e x p e r i e n t i a l p r o c e s s t h a t he r e f e r s when he w r i t e s i n "The American
S c h o l a r " t h a t "the one t h i n g i n the w o r l d , of v a l u e , i s the a c t i v e
s o u l " (W, I , 9 1 ) .
The s t u d y o f Emerson's " o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n w i t h n a t u r e " - - h i s
a l l - d i s s o l v i n g u n i t y - - i s , t h e n , a s t u d y of the p r o c e s s o f the S o u l .
Y e t , i f the e x p e r i e n c e Emerson d e s c r i b e s i n Nature
his
concept o f the S o u l i s f o r m i d a b l e i n d e e d .
the s o u l a r e t o t a l l y inadequate
ing
Most modern n o t i o n s o f
t o Emerson's i d e a .
the s o u l i s u s u a l l y thought o f as an essence
which g i v e s l i f e t o man and which
In c u r r e n t t h i n k -
or v i t a l f o r c e
leaves a t death.
i n v o l v e s n o t o n l y t h e v i t a l essence
i s any i n d i c a t i o n ,
Emerson's i d e a
o f man b u t a l s o the r e l a t i o n s h i p
2 I n h i s essay on " E x p e r i e n c e " (W, I I I , 49-86) Emerson i n t e r p r e t e d t h e F a l l o f Man as h i s coming t o the l e v e l o f c o n s c i o u s awareness.
"Once we l i v e d i n what we saw;" he w r o t e , d e s c r i b i n g man's
o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n ( i n the Garden); "now, the r a p a c i o u s n e s s o f t h i s
new power, which t h r e a t e n s t o absorb a l l t h i n g s , engages u s " (W, I I I , 77)
Man l o s t h i s o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n when man became an e g o t i s t i c r a t h e r
than a s p i r i t u a l b e i n g : "The b l i n d n e s s o f the i n t e l l e c t b e g i n s when
i t would be something o f i t s e l f . The weakness o f the w i l l b e g i n s
when the i n d i v i d u a l would be something o f i t s e l f " (W, I I , 2 5 5 ) .
47
of t h i s essence w i t h
"Universal Being."
s o u l as a l i f e f o r c e has
In p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n ,
the
the added q u a l i t y of b e i n g some s o r t of
permanent " t h i n g " which s u r v i v e s death and
achieves
immortality.
Emerson might have concurred w i t h the i d e a of i m m o r t a l i t y , but
because man
has
a permanent s o u l ; f o r Emerson the s o u l was
" t h i n g " but always a p r o c e s s ,
a r e l a t i o n s h i p which u n i t e d
not
never a
"things."
Even the e t y m o l o g i c a l meaning of the s o u l (or psyche) suggests
t h a t i t i s m e r e l y one
i n Greek p h i l o s o p h y
"spirit."
The
f a c e t of the mind--a f a c e t which i s superceded
and
i n Pauline theology
by the pneuma, or
psyche i n t h i s sense amounts t o the sum
t o t a l of
i d e a s , h a b i t s , and m e n t a l t r a i t s which have s i n c e come under
domain of p s y c h - o l o g y .
The
soul-as-psyche i s v i r t u a l l y
the
identical
to K a n t ' s U n d e r s t a n d i n g , whereas Emerson's Soul i s c l o s e r t o K a n t ' s
Reason.
Yet u l t i m a t e l y Emerson's S o u l supercedes the
Reason:
i t i s more than s i m p l y
i s a l s o the u n i f y i n g £f
whole cosmos.
The
transcendental
the u n i f y i n g power of the mind; i t
t o t a l e x p e r i e n c e - - a n d u l t i m a t e l y , of
c a t e g o r i e s of t r a d i t i o n a l
theology,
the
philosophy,
and p s y c h o l o g y s i m p l y cannot c o n t a i n Emerson's S o u l ; whatever i t i s ,
i t i n v o l v e s the whole man
in active r e l a t i o n s h i p with t o t a l r e a l i t y .
J u s t as N a t u r e i s n o t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s t a t i c
but a dynamic web
"The
and
of i n t e r a c t i o n , so too i s the mind a p r o c e s s .
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y of I n t e l l e c t " Emerson wrote t h a t "An
mind ...
"things,"
is a fixation
In
individual
or momentary eddy i n which c e r t a i n s e r v i c e s
powers are taken up and m i n i s t e r
i n petty niches
and
localities,
48
and
t h e n , b e i n g r e l e a s e d , r e t u r n to the unbounded s o u l o f the
w o r l d " (W, X I I , 2 5 ) .
For Emerson, the " f i x a t i o n " of the mind had
t o be seen i n the l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f the t o t a l f l u x .
l i m i t s , but "who
(R, X I I , 1 5 ) .
n a t u r e , was
has found
And
the b o u n d a r i e s
o f human i n t e l l i g e n c e ? "
Emerson's t h e o r y of mind, l i k e h i s t h e o r y of
n o t an a b s t r a c t i d e a but a p r o d u c t of h i s
experience.
Fixation implies
own
He d e s c r i b e s t h i s e x p e r i e n c e i n a passage which sounds
v e r y s i m i l a r t o h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n i n N a t u r e ;
i n d e e d , h i s e x p e r i e n c e of the mind as p r o c e s s i n another
that o r i g i n a l
f a c e t of
relation:
In my thought I seem to stand on the bank of a r i v e r
and watch the e n d l e s s f l o w of the stream, f l o a t i n g
o b j e c t s of a l l shapes, c o l o r s and n a t u r e s ; nor
can I much d e t a i n them as they p a s s , except by
r u n n i n g b e s i d e them a l i t t l e way a l o n g the bank.
But whence they come or w h i t h e r they go i s n o t
t o l d me.
Only I have a s u s p i c i o n t h a t , as
g e o l o g i s t s say e v e r y r i v e r makes i t s own v a l l e y , so
does t h i s m y s t i c stream.
I t makes i t s v a l l e y , makes
i t s banks and makes perhaps the o b s e r v e r t o o .
(W, X I I , 15)
In s a y i n g t h a t "whence they come or w h i t h e r they go i s n o t
me,"
told
Emerson r e p u d i a t e s both Lockean s e n s a t i o n a l i s m , w h i c h would
make the mind m e r e l y an e f f e c t , and B e r k l e y a n i d e a l i s m which would
make i t m e r e l y a cause.
of a p r o c e s s , and
For Emerson, cause and e f f e c t are two
poles
the p o l e s are beyond man's comprehension.
In d e v e l o p i n g h i s p r o c e s s i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of the mind Emerson
r e s o r t e d a g a i n and a g a i n t o water imagery--strearns, r i v e r s , oceans,
i n l e t s - - t o suggest
the movement, the t r a n s a c t i o n a l f l u i d i t y of
thought.
49
But the f l u i d p r o c e s s he observed was n o t o n l y the f l o w o f
thoughts w i t h the passage of time--a f l o w which he c o u l d observe
w i t h i n the U n d e r s t a n d i n g .
I t was a l s o a f l o w which o c c u r r e d i n
the p r e s e n t moment, an u p w e l l i n g of the U n i v e r s a l I n t e l l e c t
the mind of man.
I n t e l l e c t , he w r o t e , was
into
"an e t h e r e a l s e a ,
which ebbs and f l o w s , which surges and washes h i t h e r and
thither,
c a r r y i n g i t s whole v i r t u e i n t o every creek and i n l e t which i t b a t h e s .
To t h i s sea e v e r y human house has a water f r o n t " (W, X I I , 14).
process, of which man
i s the t e r m i n a l , or v i s i b l e p o l e , was
u a l , r e c u r r i n g i n each i n s t a n t of t i m e :
source i s h i d d e n .
"Man
This
contin-
i s a stream whose
Our b e i n g i s d e s c e n d i n g i n t o us from we know n o t
whence" (W, I I , 252).
A t times Emerson r e s o r t e d t o the o r g a n i c
metaphor to d e s c r i b e t h i s e v e r - f l o w i n g p r o c e s s ; the Supreme B e i n g ,
he s a i d , "puts i t [ n a t u r e ] f o r t h through u s , as the l i f e of the
t r e e p u t s f o r t h new branches and l e a v e s through the pores of the
o l d " (W, I 6 8 ) .
v e g e t a b l e bud.
" A l l our p r o g r e s s i s an u n f o l d i n g , l i k e the
You have f i r s t an i n s t i n c t , then an o p i n i o n , then a
knowledge, as the p l a n t has r o o t , bud and f r u i t " (W, I I , 307).
And
a g a i n , i n e m p h a s i z i n g the u l t i m a t e wisdom o f the Supreme B e i n g , he
adopted
the metaphor of l i g h t :
"From w i t h i n or from b e h i n d , a l i g h t
s h i n e s through us upon t h i n g s and makes us aware t h a t we a r e n o t h i n g ,
b u t the l i g h t i s a l l "
(W, I I , 254).
Y e t d e s p i t e the names Emerson
g i v e s to the S o u r c e — I n t e l l e c t , the Supreme B e i n g , God, Wisdom,
J o v e — i t i s u l t i m a t e l y "the l a s t f a c t beyond which a n a l y s i s cannot
go"
50
.(W, I I , 6 4 ) ; i t i s t h e D i v i n e S p r i n g which i s known by i t s f l o w i n g
s t r e a m , t h e Supreme L i g h t r e v e a l e d i n i t s own i l l u m i n a t i o n .
process
By the
o n l y i s i t t o be known.
Because Emerson saw t h e d i v i n e i n f l u x as a c o n t i n u i n g
process
he was opposed t o t h e d o c t r i n e s o f the Church which r e l i g a t e d t h e
a c t i o n o f t h e s p i r i t t o t h e d u s t heap o f h i s t o r y .
t i o n was a c o n s t a n t
(W, I I , 263).
prophets,
For him, r e v e l a -
" i n f l u x o f t h e D i v i n e mind i n t o our m i n d "
"In how many c h u r c h e s , " he a s k e d , "by how many
t e l l me, i s man made s e n s i b l e t h a t he i s an i n f i n i t e
Soul;
t h a t t h e e a r t h and heavens a r e p a s s i n g i n t o h i s mind; t h a t he i s
d r i n k i n g f o r e v e r t h e s o u l o f God?" (W, I , 135).
For him the incarna-
t i o n was n o t a s i n g l e event o f t h e d i s t a n t p a s t ; " I n f a n c y i s t h e
p e r p e t u a l M e s s i a h , which comes i n t o t h e arms o f f a l l e n men, and
p l e a d s w i t h them t o r e t u r n t o p a r a d i s e " (W, I , 7 4 ) .
And t h i s was
the s e c r e t o f J e s u s who "saw w i t h open eye t h e m y s t e r y o f t h e s o u l . ...
A l o n e i n a l l h i s t o r y he e s t i m a t e d
the greatness
o f man....
He saw
t h a t God i n c a r n a t e s h i m s e l f i n man, and evermore goes f o r t h anew t o
take p o s s e s s i o n
o f h i s W o r l d " (W, I , 127-228).
The p r o c e s s o f t h e S o u l , however, i s n o t t o be summed i n t h e
t r a n s f e r e n c e o f t h e D i v i n e t o t h e human, t h e I n t e l l e c t t o t h e mind,
o f God i n t o every man.
The o p e r a t i o n o f t h e i n s p i r e d man i s n o t a
h a v i n g and a h o l d i n g ; i t i s n o t m e r e l y t h a t p a s s i v e a c c e p t a n c e o f
U n i v e r s a l Wisdom w h i c h Emerson termed " i n t e l l e c t r e c e p t i v e . "
was
a l s o t h a t a c t i v i t y which he c a l l e d
There
"intellect constructive"
51
(W,
I I , 312).
" I can
d i v e t o i t i n m y s e l f , " he w r o t e ,
grope f o r i t w i t h r e s e a r c h i n g
the broken r e l i e f s
and
was
"The
the message o f
Thinking."
t h e man
He
with
m i n d s " (W,
A m e r i c a n S c h o l a r " who
mind he has
I , 102-103).
" d i v i n g " o f man
law
torsos of r u i n e d v i l l a s "
t h e a c t i v e s o u l who
reciprocal process—an
a
f i n g e r s i n catacombs, l i b r a r i e s ,
i s to u t t e r "the o r a c l e s of
s e c r e t s o f h i s own
descended
i n t o the
an
no
This complete f u s i o n — a
see what the g r e a t
fused
bar
or w a l l i n the
found i n the p r e s e n t
i s the
i s not
and
"the
now
showeth"
a
manifestaThe
Divine
the
Soul:
as
and
out
i n the a c t i v e
"there
i s no
i n f i n i t e h e a v e n s , so i s
the
e f f e c t , ceases,
of
process
screen
there
and
God,
I I , 255).
moment, i t " d w e l l s
(W,
the f i n i t e mind w i t h
to the p r e s e n t ;
i t i s to
i n t h e h o u r t h a t now
o f t h e common d a y "
t r a n s a c t i o n of
confined
t h r o u g h man,
S o u l e x i s t s o n l y as a c t i v e p r o c e s s
experience
a
in a single reciprocal transaction,
s o u l , w h e r e man,
(W,
Because the
the
Soul
goal:
fusion which occurs
b e t w e e n o u r h e a d s and
the earnest
S o u l was
Supreme Wisdom.
i n t o man,
t h o u g h t — i s what Emerson meant by
the cause, b e g i n s "
it
are
c i r c u l a t i o n of S p i r i t
or c e i l i n g
the
Emerson l i k e n e d i t t o
Supreme W i s d o m , m a n i f e s t i n g
t h e m i n d o f man
endless
man.
of
and
the
So now i y o u , must: l a b o r w i t h y o u r b r a i n s , and
m i n d o f man
"Man
is
" i n s t r e a r n i n g " o f t h e U n i v e r s a l i n t o man
i s b o t h c a u s e and
Spirit
as
s e c r e t s of a l l
U l t i m a t e l y , the a c t i o n of
(W,
t i o n of the
This
t h e human h e a r t " ; h e
and
The
I I , 27).
Emerson d e f i n e d
you must f o r b e a r your a c t i v i t y
I I , 309).
(W,
as
and
" l e a r n s t h a t g o i n g down i n t o
i n t o the U n i v e r s a l .
of undulation.
"as w e l l
I I , 272).
the
i t "circumscribes
Yet
Infinite
be
i s , in
because
Mind i t
a l l things.. . .
52
i t abolishes
itself.
time and
s p a c e " (W,
i t contains
Eternity in
T h i s i s the message of Emerson's " H i s t o r y " i n w h i c h
writes, "I believe in Eternity.
S p a i n , and
and
I I , 256):
I can
f i n d Greece, A s i a ,
the I s l a n d s , — the g e n i u s and
o f a l l e r a s , i n my
own
a l l t h i n g s come to a f o c u s ;
he
Italy,
c r e a t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f each
mindV'(W, I I , 1 5 ) .
the Soul of man
which t a k e s i n the whole h i s t o r y of Mind.
I n the S o u l of
creates
a web
of
man
identity
Thus Emerson can
say,
"When a thought o f P l a t o becomes a thought to me,--when a t r u t h
that
f i r e d the s o u l of P i n d a r f i r e s mine, time i s no more . . .
we
meet i n a p e r c e p t i o n
biography
of the one
. . . run
i n t o one"
(W,
I I , 30);
"the
f o o l i s h p e r s o n we know i s , i n r e a l i t y , n o t h i n g l e s s than
the m i n i a t u r e p a r a p h r a s e of the hundred volumes of the
H i s t o r y " (W,
encompass E t e r n i t y and
" U n i v e r s a l H i s t o r y , " because i t was
the whole man
Universal
I I , 312).
Because the S o u l c o u l d
"The
two
the whole of
Emerson's o v e r - r i d i n g term f o r
i n a a c t i o n , i t became the key
to h i s e n t i r e p h i l o s o p h y .
e n t i r e p u b l i c work o f Emerson" w r o t e J o n a t h a n B i s h o p , ".
. .
may
be o r g a n i z e d i n one's mind as a d i s p l a y of the whole S o u l i n i t s
several distinguishable manifestations—that
Every f a c u l t y and
f u n c t i o n of man
of the S o u l .
because the t h i n k i n g man
And
was,
i s Nature w r i t
f o r Emerson, a
was
man
fimther
manifestation
exercising
h i g h e s t f a c u l t y , Reason ( i n the K a n t i a n sense)--an e x e r c i s e
3Emerson on the S o u l (Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s :
P r e s s , 1964), p. 79.
large."
Harvard
the
that r e l a t e d
University
53
man
through c i r c u l a r p r o c e s s w i t h t h a t L a r g e r Wisdom w h i c h Emerson
c a l l e d God, Supreme B e i n g , o r U n i v e r s a l S p i r i t — t h e s t u d y o f man
t h i n k i n g becomes a major key t o h i s concept of the S o u l .
the
But s i n c e
S o u l i n v o l v e d a l s o the t r a n s a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s o f man w i t h h i s
environment, the Me w i t h the Not-Me, i t i s perhaps most e a s i l y
approached through a s t u d y o f Emerson's t h e o r y o f p e r c e p t i o n .
And
f o r Emerson, the main organ o f p e r c e p t i o n was always the eye.
As i s w e l l known, Emerson e x p e r i e n c e d d i f f i c u l t y w i t h h i s
v i s i o n d u r i n g h i s c o l l e g e d a y s ; he s u f f e r e d from v i s u a l d e f i c i e n c y
throughout h i s l i f e ; and by the time he w r o t e N a t u r e , he c o u l d
imagine no g r e a t e r c a l a m i t y than the l o s s of h i s eyes.
S e e i n g was,
t h e n , o f supreme importance t o h i m , b e i n g the a c t i v e p r o c e s s by which
man
i s r e l a t e d to h i s w o r l d .
I n an e s s a y e n t i t l e d " B e h a v i o r , "
Emerson t r e a t e d the eyes a t some l e n g t h ; t h e y were the c h i e f
e v i d e n c e i n man
o f "the whole economy of n a t u r e " which he s a i d , " i s
bent on e x p r e s s i o n . "
d o i n g , how
"The f a c e and eyes r e v e a l what the s p i r i t i s
o l d i t i s , what aims i t h a s .
The eyes i n d i c a t e the
a n t i q u i t y of the s o u l , or through how many forms i t has a l r e a d y
a s c e n d e d " (W, V I , 170).
JBecause the eye f i g u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y i n h i s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the S o u l , Emerson looked c o n t i n u a l l y a t the eyes
of men
t o i n t u i t the l a r g e r w o r k i n g s o f the S o u l .
"obeys e x a c t l y the a c t i o n of the mind.
the
"The eye," he
said,
When a thought s t r i k e s u s ,
eyes f i x and remain g a z i n g a t a d i s t a n c e ; i n enumerating the
names of p e r s o n s o r o f c o u n t r i e s , as F r a n c e , Germany, S p a i n , Turkey,
54
the eyes wink a t each new name" (W, V I , 1 7 1 ) . The eyes "speak a l l
languages . . . . What i n u n d a t i o n o f l i f e and thought i s d i s c h a r g e d
from one s o u l i n t o another
through
them. " (W, VT, 172). " I f a man
i s o f f h i s c e n t e r , the eyes show i t "
1
(W, V I , 173); and "the reason
why men do n o t obey us i s because they see the mud a t the bottom o f
our e y e " (W, V I , 1 7 4 ) .
The
c e n t r a l i t y o f v i s i o n i n t h e o r g a n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the
S o u l i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e " t r a n s p a r e n t e y e b a l l " passage o f N a t u r e .
When t h e eye i s " t r a n s p a r e n t " the i n n e r w o r l d f l o w s i n t o the o u t e r
w o r l d , the e x t e r n a l w o r l d i l l u m i n a t e s t h e i n n e r w o r l d , and a t o t a l
f u s i o n takes p l a c e .
Man becomes " p a r t o r p a r c e l of. God."
I t i s not
s u p r i s i n g , t h e n , t h a t the c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e S o u l was l a r g e l y a matter
f o r Emerson o f the c u l t i v a t i o n o f the eye.
Emerson used v i s i o n as a metaphor f o r the w o r k i n g
D i f f e r e n t ways o f s e e i n g r e a l i t y corresponded
of the s o u l .
o f the S o u l .
to d i f f e r e n t actions
He was aware i n h i s own p e r c e p t i o n o f the paradox
p r e s e n t e d by the w o r l d — t h e
paradox o f " u n i t y i n v a r i e t y " (W, I , 4 8 ) .
Sometimes he c o u l d p e r c e i v e n o t h i n g b u t a m u l t i t u d e o f d i s p a r a t e
t h i n g s , " p i e c e by p i e c e , as t h e s u n , the moon, the a n i m a l , t h e t r e e "
(W, I I , 2 5 3 ) ; a t o t h e r times he c o u l d see t h a t "the huge heaven and
e a r t h a r e b u t a web" (W, V I I I , 3 0 ) . And t h i s power t o see the web
was a metaphor f o r t h e power o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n which can grasp the
"central identity, . . .
stream,
i s s e n s i b l e o f the sweep o f t h e c e l e s t i a l
from which n o t h i n g i s exempt" (W, V I I I , 2 5 ) . F o r Emerson,
55
the w o r l d seen as a fragmented
c o l l e c t i o n o f d i s p a r a t e t h i n g s was
p r o d u c t of narrow v i s i o n ; the w o r l d of the u n i f i e d whole was
w o r l d seen by d i s t a n t v i s i o n .
s i m p l y the w o r l d of
narrow v i s i o n c l a s s i f i e d , whereas the o r g a n i c w o r l d of
the w o r l d of v i s i o n from a f a r .
as a heap of broken fragments
i f the s p o t l i g h t of awareness was
of time and s p a c e — c o u l d u n i f y
I t was
transactional
The w o r l d c o u l d be seen
narrow, but the f l o o d l i g h t of the Soul--expanding
latedness.
the
Emerson would have f e l t t h a t the
atomized w o r l d of the Great Chain of B e i n g was
p r o c e s s was
a
i n t o the
too
immensity
this f l i n t y vision into a f l u i d re-
f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t Emerson p r e f e r r e d the r u r a l
landscape to the confinements
of the c i t y .
He needed the wide panorama
o f the h o r i z o n and the s k y , n o t o n l y t o s t r e t c h h i s v i s i o n t o i t s
u t t e r m o s t but a l s o to s y n t h e s i z e the w o r l d i n t o a s p h e r a l whole.
we
look w i d e r , " he w r o t e ,
" t h i n g s a r e a l l a l i k e " (W, I I , 130);
i m a g i n a t i v e f a c u l t y must be fed w i t h o b j e c t s immense and
(W,
I , 205).
Without
"the
eternal"
the v a s t panoramic v i s i o n of the whole
becomes a v i c t i m of "the cramp and p e t t i n e s s of human
"If
man
performances"
(W, V I I , 280).
In the v i s u a l metaphor the symbol f o r the r e l a t e d n e s s of
distant
v i s i o n was
h o r i z o n which
the c i r c l e .
"The
eye i s the f i r s t c i r c l e ;
i t forms i s the second, and throughout n a t u r e
p r i m a r y f i g u r e i s r e p e a t e d w i t h o u t end."
terms t h i s symbol r e v e a l e d "God
as a c i r c l e whose c e n t e r was
Translated into
the
this
spiritual
[Emerson i s h e r e q u o t i n g A u g u s t i n e ]
everywhere and i t s c i r c u m f e r e n c e nowhere"
56
(W, I I , 2 8 1 ) . The c i r c l e became i n h i s hands an emblem f o r t h e
c y c l i c a l p r o c e s s o f n a t u r e , "the f l y i n g P e r f e c t " (W, I I , 2 8 1 ) , and
u l t i m a t e l y f o r t h e expansive encompassing p r o c e s s o f the S o u l :
"The
l i f e o f man i s a s e l f - e v o l v i n g c i r c l e , w h i c h , from a r i n g
i m p e r c e p t i b l y s m a l l , rushes on a l l s i d e s outwards t o new and l a r g e r
c i r c l e s , and t h a t w i t h o u t end" (W, I I , 283-284).
And because " t h e r e
i s no o u t s i d e , no i n c l o s i n g w a l l , no c i r c u m f e r e n c e t o u s " and "the
o n l y s i n i s l i m i t a t i o n " (W, I I , 284, 2 8 7 ) , Emerson demanded a cont i n u a l expansion
of t h e S o u l u n t i l i t encompassed the whole u n i v e r s e .
As t h e p r i m a r y f a c u l t y o f t h e S o u l , t h e eye was o f c e n t r a l
importance
as a metaphor f o r the r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e S o u l t o the
whole u n i v e r s e .
Emerson c o u l d say t h a t "the u n i v e r s e i s the p r o p e r t y
of e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l i n i t "
(W, I , 2 5 ) , a p o s s e s s i o n of "the i n f o r m i n g
s o u l " (W, I , 6 0 ) , because he saw t h a t "nature i s the o p p o s i t e o f the
s o u l , answering
to i t part f o r p a r t .
One i s s e a l and one i s p r i n t "
(W, I , 8 8 ) . Man " i s p l a c e d i n the c e n t e r o f b e i n g s , and a r a y of
r e l a t i o n passes from every o t h e r b e i n g t o h i m . And n e i t h e r can man
be understood
w i t h o u t these o b j e c t s , n o r these o b j e c t s w i t h o u t man"
(W, I , 3 3 ) . U l t i m a t e l y , t h e w o r l d was "the shadow o f the s o u l "
CF.' "-> 96); "the firmament f l o w s b e f o r e h i m and takes h i s s i g n e t
and form" (W, I , 1 0 5 ) ; i t i s "a mere i l l u s t r a t i o n and f a b l e o f h i s
m i n d " (W, I , 1 2 0 ) . And t h i s v i s i o n of the w o r l d was p o s s i b l e by t h e
unifying
p r o c e s s o f s e e i n g which o c c u r s when "the a n g l e o f v i s i o n "
(W, X I I , 9) l i e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s o f t h e u n i v e r s e ; i t i s then
57
t h a t the w o r l d ceases t o be an opaque boundary and becomes
t o the outward e x p a n s i o n of the S o u l (W,
was,
I , 77).
transparent
Emerson's c o n c l u s i o n
t h e n , t h a t t r u t h i s t o be found " i n s e e i n g and
i n no
tradition"
(W, X I I , 6 ) .
"The
progress
of the i n t e l l e c t , " w r o t e Emerson, " i s t o the
c l e a r e r v i s i o n of c a u s e s , which n e g l e c t s s u r f a c e d i f f e r e n c e s " (W,
I I , 17),
a p i e r c i n g i n s i g h t which " f a r back i n the womb of t h i n g s sees the
rays
p a r t i n g from one
o r b " (W,
I I , 18).
s i g h t , comes a t r a n s p a r e n c y
outwards; man
And w i t h t h i s v i s i o n , t h i s i n -
of Soul which causes i n f i n i t e e x p a n s i o n
becomes "a bundle of r e l a t i o n s , a k n o t of r o o t s , whose
f l o w e r and f r u i t a g e i s the w o r l d " (W,
I I , 39).
The w o r l d becomes,
i n t h i s metaphor, the t e r m i n a l of a p r o c e s s which b e g i n s w i t h the
eye,
j u s t as i l l u m i n a t e d o b j e c t s are the t e r m i n a l o f a r a d i a t i n g l i g h t .
"Time and
space are b u t p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o l o r s w h i c h the eye makes, b u t
the s o u l i s l i g h t " (W,
I I , 66-7).
J u s t as "the r a y of l i g h t passes
i n v i s i b l e through space and o n l y when i t f a l l s on an o b j e c t i s i t
s e e n " (W,
I I , 312), so too does the t r a n s p a r e n t s o u l expand i n t o
w o r l d , becoming v i s i b l e o n l y i n the t h i n g s of the w o r l d :
o n l y appears i n the o b j e c t s i t c l a s s i f i e s " (W,
process
of e x p a n s i o n ,
I , 311).
the
"thought
And
in this
i t becomes apparent t h a t the Soul of man
is
known by the t h i n g s i t knows, i s seen i n the t h i n g s i t s e e s , i s f e l t
through the t h i n g s i t f e e l s .
Thus Emerson
concludes:
H i s t h o u g h t , - - t h a t i s the U n i v e r s e . H i s e x p e r i e n c e • i n c l i n e s
him t o behold the p r o c e s s i o n of f a c t s you c a l l the w o r l d ,
58
as f l o w i n g p e r p e t u a l l y outward from an i n v i s i b l e , unsounded c e n t e r i n h i m s e l f , c e n t r e a l i k e of him and of
them, and n e c e s s i t a t i n g him to r e g a r d a l l t h i n g s as h a v i n g
a s u b j e c t i v e or r e l a t i v e e x i s t e n c e , r e l a t i v e t o t h a t
a f o r e s a i d Unknown Centre of him. (W, I , 315)
And
again:
What i s the n a t u r e and power of t h a t s c i e n c e - b a f f l i n g
s t a r . . . the essence of g e n i u s , of v i r t u e , and of
l i f e , which we c a l l S p o n t a n e i t y or I n s t i n c t [ ? ] In t h a t
deep f o r c e , the l a s t f a c t behind which a n a l y s i s cannot
go, a l l t h i n g s f i n d t h e i r common o r i g i n . For the sense
of b e i n g which i n calm hours r i s e s , we know n o t how, i n
the s o u l , i s n o t d i v e r s e from t h i n g s , from space, from
l i g h t , from t i m e , from man, but one w i t h them and p r o - c
ceeds o b v i o u s l y from the same source whence t h e i r l i f e
and b e i n g a l s o proceed. (W, I I , 64)
Y e t the p r o c e s s i s by no means a u n i l a t e r a l movement, an
i n v e s t i n g of the whole cosmos by the S o u l .
True, "the w o r l d i s
mind p r e c i p i t a t e d " (W, I I I , 188), "the U n i v e r s e i s the e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n
o f the s o u l " (W,
I I I , 1 9 ) , but the mind and s o u l i s a c r e a t i o n of the
u n i v e r s e i t s e l f , a p r e c i p i t a t i o n of the c h a o t i c w o r l d of o b j e c t s i n t o
a u n i f i e d web
of p e r c e p t i o n .
R e f u s i n g to see n a t u r e e i t h e r as mere
s e n s o r y impacts on the r e t i n a o f the mind or as a p r o j e c t i o n of the
mind i n t o the e x t e r n a l w o r l d ; and s i m i l a r l y r e f u s i n g t o see t h e mind
as e i t h e r a t a b u l a r a s a or as the s o l i p s i s t i c "cause" of the w o r l d ;
Emerson c r e a t e d a u n i t y of the seer and the seen, the e x p e r i e n c e r a n d
the e x p e r i e n c e .
H i s whole l i t e r a r y output c o m p r i s e s , t h e r e f o r e , n o t
an a n a l y t i c p h i l o s o p h y o f the d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of the u n i v e r s e and
of the mind, but r a t h e r a s y n t h e t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f the "ebb
o f the t r a n s a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s t h a t o c c u r s i n every thought,
and f l o w , "
experience,
59
or a c t .
The e x t e r n a l w o r l d was r e l a t e d t o the I n t e r n a l w o r l d as
c i r c l e and c e n t e r , where t h e c e n t e r i s everywhere and t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e
nowhere.
and
"Old Two-Face, c r e a t o r - c r e a t u r e , mind-matter . . . the end
the means, t h e gamester and the game" (W, I I I , 233) marry i n the
"endless c i r c u l a t i o n s " o f t r a n s a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s .
Emerson's " a l l - d i s s o l v i n g u n i t y , " t h e n , was t h e S o u l , o r as
he c a l l e d i t i n one e s s a y ,
" t h a t O v e r - s o u l , w i t h i n which every man's
p a r t i c u l a r being i s contained
and made one w i t h a l l o t h e r " (W, I I , 2 5 2 ) .
Words cannot d e s c r i b e t h e u n i t y because words depend upon v a r i e t y ,
upon c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , d i v i s i o n s , and c o n t r a s t s .
To descend t o
c r e e d a l s t a t e m e n t s about the c e n t r a l i d e n t i t y o f a l l t h i n g s i s t o
s u b s t i t u t e "tropes" f o r " p r i n c i p l e s " ; i t i s to l i m i t the v i s i o n to
the c l u t t e r o f immediate t h i n g s and f a i l t o expand the mind t o the
i n f i n i t e c i r c l e o f the A l l .
d i s t i n c t t h i n g s arranged
I t i s t o create a s t a t i c world of
i n a p a t t e r n r a t h e r than t o see the e t e r n a l
undulation that d i s s o l v e s the pattern i n process.
Perhaps Emerson
r e a c h e s h i s most p e r f e c t e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s
o f the Soul i n
"The
O v e r - s o u l " when h e w r i t e s :
We l i v e i n s u c c e s s i o n , i n d i v i s i o n , i n p a r t s , i n p a r t i c l e s .
Meantime w i t h i n man i s t h e s o u l o f t h e w h o l e ; the w i s e
s i l e n c e ; t h e u n i v e r s a l b e a u t y , t o which every p a r t and
p a r t i c l e i s e q u a l l y r e l a t e d ; the e t e r n a l ONE. And t h i s
deep power i n w h i c h we e x i s t and whose g e a t i t u d e i s a l l
a c c e s s i b l e t o u s , i s n o t o n l y s e l f - s u f f i c i n g and p e r f e c t
i n e v e r y h o u r , b u t t h e a c t o f s e e i n g and the t h i n g seen,
the seer and the s p e c t a c l e , the s u b j e c t and the o b j e c t ,
are one. We see the w o r l d p i e c e by p i e c e , as the s u n ,
the moon, the a n i m a l , the t r e e ; b u t the w h o l e , o f which
60
these a r e the s h i n i n g p a r t s , i s the s o u l . . . . I d a r e
n o t .speak f o r i t . . . . A l l goes to show t h a t the s o u l
i s n o t an o r g a n , b u t animates a l l the o r g a n s ; i s n o t a
f u n c t i o n . . . i s not a f a c u l t y , but a l i g h t ; i s not
the i n t e l l e c t and the w i l l ; i s the background of our
b e i n g , i n w h i c h they l i e , - - a n immensity n o t possessed
and t h a t cannot be p o s s e s s e d . From w i t h i n or from b e h i n d ,
a l i g h t s h i n e s through us upon t h i n g s and makes us aware
t h a t we a r e n o t h i n g , but the l i g h t i s a l l . When i t
b r e a t h e s through h i s i n t e l l e c t , i t i s g e n i u s ; when i t
b r e a t h e s through h i s w i l l , i t i s v i r t u e ; when i t f l o w s
through h i s a f f e c t i o n , i t i s l o v e . . . . Language cannot paint i t with h i s c o l o r s .
I t i s too s u b t i l e . I t
i s i n d e f i n a b l e , unmeasurable; b u t we know t h a t i t p r e vades and c o n t a i n s u s . . . . I t c o n t r a d i c t s a l l e x p e r i ence. . . . I t a b o l i s h e s time and space. . . . The s o u l
knows o n l y the s o u l ; the web of events i s the f l o w i n g
robe i n w h i c h she i s c l o t h e d . (W, I T , 253-257)
The S o u l was,
thought was
f o r Emerson, the r a d i a t i n g c e n t e r on which h i s whole
founded.
Because he c o u l d a f f i r m t h a t
"I--this
thought which i s c a l l e d I - - i s the mould i n t o which the w o r l d i s
poured l i k e m e l t e d wax"
(W, I , 316), he was a b l e t o a f f i r m the
p r i n c i p l e s of " S e l f - R e l i a n c e " and "Compensation" which r i n g
his
work.
throughout
Moreover, he was a b l e t o e v o l v e a dynamic concept of " A r t , "
.or "Beauty," and of a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n , o f which h i s own e s s a y s ,
o r a t i o n s , and poems a r e the supreme examples.
I t i s to t h i s dynamic
t h e o r y o f a r t and a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n t h a t we must now
turn.
61
CHAPTER I V
THE PROCESS OF ART
Beauty i s the moment o f t r a n s i t i o n ,
as i f the form were j u s t ready t o
f l o w i n t o o t h e r forms. Any f i x e d n e s s , h e a p i n g , or c o n c e n t r a t i o n on
one f e a t u r e , ... i s the r e v e r s e o f t h e
f l o w i n g , and t h e r e f o r e deformed.
"Beauty"
Emerson's concept of the S o u l as p r o c e s s p r o v i d e d the groundwork f o r a t o t a l p h i l o s o p h y o f man embracing e v e r y f i e l d o f human
activity.
Not o n l y was N a t u r e , and man's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t ,
trans-
a c t i o n a l , b u t " s o c i e t y i s f l u i d ; t h e r e a r e no such r o o t s and c e n t e r s ,
but any p a r t i c l e may suddenly become the c e n t e r o f the movement and
compel t h e system t o g y r a t e round i t "
(W, I I I , 191). Emerson's p r o -
c e s s i v e p h i l o s o p h y i s t h e r e f o r e one k e y t o the p o s i t i o n of man i n
t h a t n o n - s t r a t i f i e d , t r a n s a c t i o n a l s o c i e t y were every man can become
an e x p r e s s i o n o f the D i v i n e .
t i c democracy.
T h i s i n essence i s the b a s i s o f humanis-
And, i n t h i s view, man h i m s e l f i s the c r e a t i v e key t o
the whole; he i s t h a t c e n t e r o f a c r e a t i v e c u l t u r e which was the aim
of American c i v i l i z a t i o n .
A s t u d y o f Emerson's concept o f man as t h e c r e a t i v e c e n t e r
c o u l d be conducted from numerous p o i n t s o f view--from the s t a n d p o i n t
o f s o c i a l a c t i o n , p o l i t i c a l r u l e , or d e m o c r a t i c freedom.
But t h i s
62
study i s most e a s i l y and most a p t l y approached through h i s t h e o r y o f
a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n , s i n c e Emerson, b e g i n n i n g w i t h "The American
S c h o l a r , " c o n t i n u a l l y sought t o d e f i n e man's t o t a l b e i n g from the standp o i n t o f the c r e a t i v e a c t o f a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n .
"The s o u l a c t i v e , "
he w r o t e , "sees a b s o l u t e t r u t h and u t t e r s t r u t h , or c r e a t e s .
In
t h i s a c t i o n i t i s g e n i u s " (W, I , 9 1 ) . I n c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y man n o t
only partakes
o f d i v i n e c r e a t i v i t y ; he h i m s e l f becomes the C r e a t o r .
U n d e r s t a n d i n g the Soul t o be n o t o n l y a p r o c e s s
o f the U n i v e r s a l Mind
f l o w i n g i n t o man's mind, b u t a l s o t h a t t r a n s a c t i o n i n which man i s
fused w i t h the e x t e r n a l w o r l d , i t was i n e v i t a b l e t h a t Emerson would
see the a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s
i t s e l f as p a r t of t h i s f l o w i n g and f u s i o n .
Concerned a l l h i s l i f e w i t h c o m m u n i c a t i o n - - f i r s t ,
i n his Unitarian
sermons, l a t e r , i n h i s l e c t u r e s and p u b l i c s p e e c h e s — a n d c o n s t a n t l y
engaged i n s e t t i n g down h i s moments o f i n s p i r a t i o n i n j o u r n a l s ,
l e t t e r s , and p o e t r y , the p r o c e s s
key
themes.
o f c r e a t i o n became one o f Emerson's
More than a dozen e s s a y s - - i n c l u d i n g "The P o e t " (W, I I I ,
7-46), "Beauty" (W, V I , 265-290), " P o e t r y and I m a g i n a t i o n "
(W, V I I I ,
9-76), " I n s p i r a t i o n " (W, V I I I , 255-282), and "The P r e a c h e r "
(W, X,
207-228)--concern themselves w i t h v a r i o u s k i n d s o f a r t i s t i c
production.
Moreover, every e f f o r t t o make sense o f the p r o c e s s
p l a c e the a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s
N a t u r e and the S o u l .
to,
of a r t seeks t o
i n the w i d e r c o n t e x t o f the p r o c e s s e s o f
What happened i n a r t was, t h e r e f o r e , the k e y
and p r o o f o f , what happened i n every f a c e t o f l i f e .
She n a t u r e
o f a r t has been a concern o f p h i l o s o p h e r s and poets
63
ever s i n c e the time of P l a t o .
I n the t e n t h book of P l a t o ' s R e p u b l i c
S o c r a t e s proposes a t h e o r y of a r t based on the P l a t o n i c n o t i o n of the
R e a l w o r l d as a shadow of the I d e a l w o r l d .
of a bed as h i s example.
S o c r a t e s uses a p a i n t i n g
In the I d e a l w o r l d t h e r e e x i s t s the
ideal
"bed"; i n the r e a l w o r l d t h e r e a r e many beds which are i m i t a t i o n s of
the I d e a l bed.
f o r men
Because of t h i s i m i t a t i o n , of c o u r s e , i t i s p o s s i b l e
to r e c o g n i z e many d i f f e r e n t f o u r - l e g g e d p i e c e s of f u r n i t u r e - -
whether wooden or m e t a l , wide or n a r r o w , o r n a t e or p l a i n - - a s beds.
A p a i n t i n g of a bed, p o i n t s out S o c r a t e s , i s an i m i t a t i o n of one
of
these beds i n the R e a l w o r l d , and i s t h e r e f o r e an " i m i t a t i o n o f an
imitation."
By t h i s p i e c e of p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e a s o n i n g , S o c r a t e s
was
a b l e t o show, t h a t a r t i m i t a t e s the w o r l d of appearance r a t h e r than
o f e s s e n c e ; hence a r t takes on a r a t h e r unimportant
philosophy.
status i n Platonic
Whether or not we agree w i t h the p h i l o s o p h i c s t r u c t u r e
u n d e r l y i n g t h i s P l a t o n i c d e f i n i t i o n of a r t , one t h i n g i s c l e a r :
e s t a b l i s h e d a d e f i n i t i o n of a r t - a s - i m i t a t i o n - - w h i c h dominated
Plato
critical
t h e o r y u n t i l near the end of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
A r i s t o t l e , t o o , d e f i n e d a r t as i m i t a t i o n .
In h i s P o e t i c s he
d e f i n e d p o e t r y of v a r i o u s k i n d s - - e p i c , t r a g e d y , comedy--as "modes of
i m i t a t i o n , " adding t h a t "the o b j e c t s of i m i t a t i o n are men
i n action."'''
W a l t e r J a c k s o n B a t e , ed., C r i t i c i s m : The Major Texts
H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company, 1952), pp. 19, 20.
(New
York:
64
Because A r i s t o t l e d i d n o t h o l d P l a t o ' s n o t i o n of the R e a l w o r l d as
an
i m i t a t i o n of the I d e a l , he d i d n o t p l a c e a r t i s t i c i m i t a t i o n i n the
l o w l y p o s i t i o n a f f o r d e d i t by P l a t o .
a r t - a s - i m i t a t i o n i n these two key
Nevertheless,
t h i n k e r s was
the emphasis on
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the
d o m i n a t i o n of the i d e a f o r the n e x t two thousand y e a r s .
The
i d e a of
a r t as i m i t a t i o n reached a peak i n the n e o - c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d of
e a r l y eighteenth century.
Thus Pope, w r i t i n g i n 1711,
the
gave the
f o l l o w i n g advice to c r i t i c s :
F i r s t f o l l o w N a t u r e , and your judgement frame
By h e r j u s t s t a n d a r d , which i s s t i l l the same:
Unerring Nature! s t i l l d i v i n e l y b r i g h t ,
One:.- c l e a r , unchang'd and u n i v e r s a l l i g h t ,
L i f e , f o r c e , and b e a u t y , must t o a l l i m p a r t ,
A t once the s o u r c e , and end, and t e s t of a r t . 2
And
i n d e f i n i n g the Rules of A r t , he
added:
Those R u l e s of o l d d i s c o v e r ' d , n o t d e v i s ' d ,
A r e N a t u r e s t i l l , but N a t u r e methodized.3
As M. H. Abrams has
p o i n t e d out i n h i s book, The M i r r o r and
Lamp, "In any p e r i o d , the t h e o r y of mind and
to be i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d and
or submerged."^
The
the t h e o r y of a r t tend
t o t u r n upon s i m i l a r a n a l o g u e s , e x p l i c i t
a r t - a s - i m i t a t i o n i d e a was
based on the n o t i o n of
^Essay on C r i t i c i s m , 11. 68-73.
3 l b i d . , 11. 88-89.
^New
York:
W. W.
the
Morton and Company, I n c . , 1958,
p.
69.
65
the mind as a " m i r r o r , " t h a t i s , a p a s s i v e r e f l e c t o r of e x t e r n a l
reality.
T h i s i d e a , as emphasized e a r l i e r , reached i t s l o g i c a l con-
c l u s i o n i n J o h n Locke's t h e o r y of the mind as a t a b u l a r a s a - - a
stereotyped
image of the mind which dominated p o e t i c t h e o r y
out most o f the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
The r e s u l t i n g view of
metaphor was
the i d e a t h a t a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n was
reassembling
i d e a s and
this
l a r g e l y a m a t t e r of
images which were an exact
t e r n a l r e a l i t y ; and a r t i t s e l f was
through-
" r e f l e c t i o n " of
ex-
judged by the degree to which i t
" m i r r o r e d " the w o r l d .
When W i l l i a m Wordsworth d e f i n e d p o e t r y as "the spontaneous
overflow of powerful
p o e t i c mind.
f e e l i n g s , " he i n t r o d u c e d a new
A r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n was
no
r o l e f o r the
longer s i m p l y a m a t t e r of u s i n g
the mind as a r e f l e c t o r of the e x t e r n a l w o r l d ; the poet c o n t r i b u t e d
something i n the p r o c e s s — i n t h i s case,
of new
"feelings.'/
A whole c l u s t e r
metaphors developed w h i c h r e p l a c e d the Lockean m i r r o r i d e a .
C o l e r i d g e , i n h i s poem "The
E o l i a n H a r p , " i n t r o d u c e d the i d e a of
mind as a wind-harp on the window l e d g e , s u g g e s t i n g
b o t h a c t e d upon and a c t i n g .
And
a g a i n , i n The
the
t h a t the mind i s
Stateman's Manual, he
spoke o f the mind as a k i n d o f p l a n t , growing out of i t s p e r c e p t i o n ,
a s s i m i l a t i n g the elements of e x p e r i e n c e , and b r i n g i n g f o r t h i t s own
p e c u l i a r k i n d of f r u i t . B u t
phors o f the r o m a n t i c
the most i m p o r t a n t
and
s u g g e s t i v e meta-
p e r i o d were those which d e r i v e d u l t i m a t e l y
I.A. R i c h a r d s , ed., The P o r t a b l e C o l e r i d g e (New
P r e s s , 1950), p. 394.
York:
Viking
66
from the P l o t i n i a n i d e a of c r e a t i o n as emanation, so t h a t the mind
was
l i k e n e d t o a r a d i a t i n g sun,
an o v e r f l o w i n g
o r - - i n the key mataphor of Abram's t i t l e — t h e
f o u n t a i n of
light,
lamp.
In terms of h i s a r t i s t i c t h e o r y , Emerson i s f u l l y one
romantics.
He
adopted the metaphors of the f o u n t a i n , the sun,
growing p l a n t , and
the lamp t o d e s c r i b e
w o r t h , C o l e r i d g e , and
sterile
of
the mind:
S h e l l e y , he i n t e n d e d
and,
l i k e Words-
Because of these
mataphors f o r the mind, the a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s ceased to be
"expression"--in
meaning of " o u t e r - a n c e . " ^
the
new
"imitation";
the l i t e r a l sense of e x - p r e s s u s
(from ex-premere, "to p r e s s out ; ) — o r
1
the
them as c o r r e c t i v e s t o
Lockean view of the mind as a m i r r o r .
i t became i n s t e a d
the
1
"utterance"--in i t s etymological
F u r t h e r m o r e , because the mind a c t i v e l y
worked on the images of the e x t e r n a l w o r l d which i t r e c e i v e d ,
thereby
a d d i n g to them, the concept of the work of a r t a l s o changed.
It's
v a l u e no
l o n g e r r e s i d e d i n i t s correspondence or resemblance t o
ternal reality;
i t s u n i t y no
longer
i m i t a t e d the u n i t y of n a t u r e .
f i n a l l y , because the mind of the viewer (or r e a d e r ,
or l i s t e n e r )
i t s e l f more than a mere r e c e i v e r , the concept of a r t i s t i c
and
a p p r e c i a t i o n l i k e w i s e changed.
The
t o t a l r e s u l t was
the a r t i s t ,
and
And
was
reception
that
the
work of a r t bore an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s e t of r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o
world,
ex-
the
the a u d i e n c e .
For Emerson, the source of the a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n was
found n e i t h e r i n the s t i m u l u s
6Ab rams, The M i r r o r and
of e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y
the Lamp, p.
48.
t o be
on the mind nor
in
67
the
s u b j e c t i v e e f f o r t of the mind i t s e l f .
Emerson t h e r e f o r e d i s a g r e e d
w i t h the i d e a o f a r t as pure " c r a f t , " an i d e a which was p o p u l a r i n
n e o - c l a s s i c a l a r t i s t i c t h e o r y and which i s s t i l l found i n the t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y i n the work o f W i l l i a m B u t l e r Y e a t s , James J o y c e , and T. S.
Eliot. 1
F o r Emerson, the s o u r c e o f the a r t i s t i c i m p u l s e was
beyond the c o n t r o l o f the a r t i s t :
In an essay c a l l e d
i t came through
largely
inspiration.
" I n s p i r a t i o n , " Emerson l a i d out numerous ways i n
w h i c h i n s p i r a t i o n c o u l d be a i d e d or promoted.
Health i s important,
and, Emerson t h o u g h t , good food--"wine, no doubt, and a l l f i n e f o o d ,
as of d e l i c a t e f r u i t s , f u r n i s h some e l e m e n t a l wisdom" (W, V I I I , 2 6 6 ) .
The w r i t i n g o f l e t t e r s ,
sensibility"
will.
for
too, could provide a " d a i l y r e n o v a t i o n of
(W, V I I I , 2 6 7 ) , and sometimes the sheer e x e r c i s e o f the
Emerson found the morning t o be a p a r t i c u l a r l y p o t e n t p e r i o d
i n s p i r a t i o n , and " s o l i t a r y converse w i t h n a t u r e " (W, V I I I , 271)
a p a r t i c u l a r l y potent s i t u a t i o n .
the
l o n e l y v i g i l o f the a r t i s t
" S o l i t u d e of h a b i t " (W, V I I I , 2 7 2 ) ,
i n "certain l o c a l i t i e s ,
as mountain-
tops], the s e a - s i d e , the shores of r i v e r s and r a p i d b r o o k s , n a t u r a l
p a r k s o f oak and p i n e , where the ground i s smooth and unencumbered,
are
e x c i t a n t s o f the muse" (W, V I I I , 2 7 5 ) .
Emerson a l s o found con-
v e r s a t i o n t o be "a s e r i e s of i n t o x i c a t i o n s " (W, V I I I , 2 7 6 ) , as w e l l
7
F. 0. M a t t h i e s s e n , American R e n a i s s a n c e : A r t and E x p r e s s i o n i n
the Age of Emerson and Whitman (New Y o r k : Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1941), p. 25.
68
as the r e a d i n g
of p o e t r y new
t o the r e a d e r .
i s beyond the r e a l c o n t r o l of the a r t i s t .
are i n t e r r u p t e d and
t a s k , at w i l l , but
But u l t i m a t e l y , i n s p i r a t i o n
"Man's i n s i g h t and
o c c a s i o n a l ; he can see and do t h i s or t h a t cheap
i t steads him n o t beyond.
u l t e r i o r s t e p by m e c h a n i c a l means.
He
(W,
...
V I I I , 258-259).
We
i s f a i n t o make the
I t cannot so be done" (W,
For i n s p i r a t i o n i s "with us a f l a s h of l i g h t ,
a f l a s h again.
power
VTII,
257).
then a l o n g d a r k n e s s , then
cannot make the i n s p i r a t i o n c o n s e c u t i v e "
L i k e the A e o l i a n h a r p , w r o t e Emerson, the mind
can r e m a i n "dumb" a l l day, w a i t i n g f o r the s p i r i t u s , a wind t h a t does
n o t come; y e t a t times " i t i s g a r r u l o u s
the w o r l d "
(W,
VIII,
and
t e l l s a l l the s e c r e t s
of
259).
These f l a s h e s of " e l e m e n t a l wisdom" were beyond the
conscious
c o n t r o l of the a r t i s t because they were, q u i t e l i t e r a l l y , i n - s p i r e d ,
"breathed-in"
from beyond.
T h e i r source was
that "universal soul
w i t h i n or b e h i n d " the i n d i v i d u a l l i f e of man
Spirit
man
was
animated a l l t h i n g s :
an o v e r f l o w i n g
N a t u r e was
of the O v e r - S o u l .
cess, that Divine S p i r i t ,
(W,
One
Divine
emanated s p i r i t , the s o u l of
And,
i n the a r t i s t i c
pro-
t h a t O v e r - S o u l , worked i t s c r e a t i n g powers
by f l o w i n g through the mind i n a f l u i d i n f l u x of
The
I , 33).
inspiration.
i d e a t h a t a r t i s a p r o d u c t of i n s p i r a t i o n was
not
^new
w i t h Emerson; i t , l i k e most i m p o r t a n t i d e a s , t r a c e s back t o the Greek
philosophers—in
t h i s case, P l a t o .
In the Ion P l a t o s a i d t h a t good
p o e t s were " i n s p i r e d and p o s s e s s e d " ; i n d e e d , he went as f a r as
say
"they are s i m p l y
to
i n s p i r e d to u t t e r t h a t to which the Muse impels
69
them, and t h a t o n l y . "
I n s p i r a t i o n was a k i n d of complete p o s s e s s i o n ,
f o r P l a t o , i n which the a r t i s t became a mouthpiece f o r d i v i n e wisdom.
T h i s view became, i n Emerson's t h e o r y , m e r e l y one aspect o f the
a r t i s t i c process:
b a l a n c i n g the i n f l u x o f S p i r i t i n t o the c r e a t i n g
mind was the e f f l u x o f i m a g i n a t i v e v i s i o n which flowed out from the
mind t o grasp and u n i f y the w o r l d i n t o the s t u f f o f a r t .
process—be
L i k e every
i t the p r o c e s s o f N a t u r e or the p r o c e s s o f the S o u l — t h e
a r t i s t i c process
f o r Emerson i s r e c i p r o c a l .
The i n f l o w i n g power o f
i n s p i r a t i o n i s matched by the o u t f l o w i n g power of c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n —
the two m a r r i e d
i n a b i l a t e r a l transaction.
Emerson c a p t u r e s
the p r o c e s s o f the i m a g i n a t i o n when he w r i t e s
i n "The P o e t " t h a t "the q u a l i t y of the i m a g i n a t i o n i s t o f l o w , and
n o t t o f r e e z e " (W, I I I , 3 7 ) .
T h i s f l u i d i t y of i m a g i n a t i o n i s what
Emerson r e f e r s t o when he w r i t e s t h a t the mind, " p e n e t r a t e d w i t h i t s
sentiment
o r i t s thought, p r o j e c t s i t outward on whatever i t b e h o l d s "
so t h a t "the w o r l d i s t h o u r o u g h l y
anthropomorphized, as i f i t had
passed through t h e body and mind o f man, and taken h i s mould and f o r m "
(W_, V I I I , 16, 2 7 ) .
Emerson d e f i n e s the Genius as the man who has "a
s e n s i b i l i t y t o a l l the i m p r e s s i o n s o f the o u t e r w o r l d " b u t goes on t o
add t h a t mere s e n s i t i v e n e s s i s n o t enough;
a l l , b u t i t must render
all.
" I t must n o t o n l y r e c e i v e
And the h e a l t h o f man i s an e q u a l i t y o f
i n l e t and o u t l e t , g a t h e r i n g and g i v i n g " (W, X, 7 8 ) .
B a t e , C r i t i c i s m , p. 43 (My i t a l i c s ) .
T h i s concept o f
70
mind i s v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o Wordsworth's, as suggested
i n "Tintern
Abbey" when he w r o t e "of a l l the m i g h t y w o r l d / Of eye, and
both what they h a l f c r e a t e , / And what p e r c e i v e . "
ear,—
I t i s this half-
c r e a t i n g power of the mind, t h i s g i v i n g or outward f l o w of the mind
into nature—the
i m p r e s s i n g of the w o r l d of t h i n g s w i t h the
of the m i n d — w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s i m a g i n a t i o n .
thoughts
(W,
"The
s e n s u a l man
to t h i n g s ; the poet conforms t h i n g s t o h i s
conforms
thoughts"
I , 56).
But t h e r e i s another
sense i n which the Genius must "render
i n v e s t i n g the w o r l d w i t h i m a g i n a t i o n i s not enough.
the p u b l i c a t i o n of the thought was
I I , 312).
f o r Emerson the h i g h e s t
of mankind; as he wrote a t the end of "The
all";
"To genius must
always go two g i f t s , the thought and the p u b l i c a t i o n " (W,
And
thoughts
Preacher":
"The
calling
open s e c r e t
of the w o r l d i s the a r t of s u b l i m i n g a p r i v a t e s o u l w i t h i n s p i r a t i o n
o f the g r e a t and p u b l i c and d i v i n e S o u l from which we
228).
Thus Emerson r e p u d i a t e d the dichotomy of man
i n the c r e a t i v e a c t the d u a l i s m of man
X,
and the u n i v e r s e ;
and e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y i s d i s s o l v e d
i n the f l u i d p r o c e s s of t r a n s a c t i o n : "a man
p o r t i n g , and
l i v e " (W,
i s the f a c u l t y of r e -
the u n i v e r s e i s the p o s s i b i l i t y of b e i n g r e p o r t e d " (W,
IV,
251).
The most obvious i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f Emerson's t h e o r y of e x p r e s s i o n
are h i s own w o r k s — m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , h i s e s s a y s .
9
" T i n t e r n Abbey," 11. 105-107.
Emerson*s ' o r i g i n a l
71
c a r e e r was t h a t o f the p r e a c h e r ; he preached
f o r some t h r e e y e a r s
b e f o r e g i v i n g up h i s U n i t a r i a n m i n i s t r y and l a u n c h i n g on a c a r e e r as
a l e c t u r e r and w r i t e r .
But the i m p o r t a n t p o i n t about h i s t o t a l c a r e e r
was t h a t d e s p i t e the change i n d i r e c t i o n i n 1832 Emerson was always
a man s p e a k i n g t o m e n — f i r s t as a p r e a c h e r , l a t e r as a l e c t u r e r .
His
t h e o r y o f e x p r e s s i o n t h e r e f o r e h i n g e s l a r g e l y upon h i s own e x p e r i e n c e
as a p u b l i c s p e a k e r — u p o n h i s own p r o f e s s e d p u r p o s e s , methods, and
u l t i m a t e aims.
As F. 0. M a t t h i e s s e n has r i g h t l y i n d i c a t e d , i t i s
w i t h Emerson's u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Eloquence
t h a t we should b e g i n i n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g Emerson's t o t a l i d e a o f e x p r e s s i o n . ^
P l a t f o r m s p e a k i n g f o r Emerson was never a m a t t e r o f c l a r i f y i n g
h i s own o p i n i o n s , n o r was i t merely
ideas or f a c t s to h i s l i s t e n e r s .
t h e attempt
t o convey a s e t o f
No s i m p l e i d e a o f "communication"
w i l l a d e q u a t e l y summarize t h e c o n s t a n t purpose o f h i s eloquence.
Emerson's g o a l was always a l a r g e r one:
T h i s i s t h e s e c r e t o f eloquence, f o r i t i s t h e end o f
eloquence i n a h a l f - h o u r ' s d i s c o u r s e , - - p e r h a p s b y a few
s e n t e n c e s , - - t o persuade a m u l t i t u d e o f persons t o r e nounce t h e i r o p i n i o n s , and change the course o f l i f e .
They go f o r t h n o t t h e men they came i n , b u t s h r i v e n ,
c o n v i c t e d , and c o n v e r t e d . (W, X, 268)
Eloquence was, f o r Emerson, a p r o c e s s o f p e r s u a s i o n , of changing
people,
c o n v i n c i n g and c o n v e r t i n g them t o a new way o f t h i n k i n g and l i v i n g .
And t h i s was a dynamic f l o w o f i n f l u e n c e from speaker
t o audience:
lOMatth i e s s e n , i n h i s American R e n a i s s a n c e , moves from "Eloquence
(pp. 14-23) t o " E x p r e s s i o n " (pp. 24-29), t o Emerson's t h e o r y o f
language (pp. 30-43), o n l y g r a d u a l l y w o r k i n g i n t o a : wider treatment
o f Emerson's thought.
72
"The o r a t o r . . . pours out the abundant streams of h i s thought . . .
conquers h i s audience by i n f u s i n g h i s s o u l i n t o them" (W, V I I I ,
111-112).
Emerson so p e r c e i v e d t h e dynamism o f t h i s k i n d o f eloquence
t h a t he l i k e n e d i t t o a c t i o n .
"The o r a t o r must ever stand w i t h
forward f o o t , i n the a t t i t u d e of advancing
to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a c t i o n .
. . . . H i s speech i s n o t .
I t i s the e l e c t r i c i t y o f a c t i o n .
I t i s a c t i o n , as t h e g e n e r a l ' s word o f command o r c h a r t o f b a t t l e i s
a c t i o n " (W, V I I I , 1 1 3 ) . And because
the stream o f thought poured out
by the o r a t o r was d e s i g n e d t o move men t o a new p o i n t of view, t o unfold
f o r them a new v i s i o n o f r e a l i t y , these thoughts had t o be
dynamic, f l u i d ,
and p e r s u a s i v e - - a n d t h e r e f o r e embodied i n "a language
a l l g l i t t e r i n g and f i e r y w i t h i m a g i n a t i o n " (W, V I I I , 1 1 2 ) .
The. n a t u r a l r e s u l t o f Emerson's t h e o r i e s of i m a g i n a t i o n and
e x p r e s s i o n was a s u p p o r t i n g t h e o r y o f language.
In h i s f i r s t published
work, Emerson s e t f o r t h t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s o f language by which i t i s
shown t h a t "nature i s the v e h i c l e o f thought":
1. Words a r e s i g n s o f n a t u r a l f a c t s .
2. P a r t i c u l a r n a t u r a l f a c t s a r e symbols o f p a r t i c u l a r
facts.
3. N a t u r e i s the symbol o f s p i r i t .
spiritual
(W, I , 31)
T h i s t h e o r y o f language seems s i m p l e enough, b u t t h i s apparent
c i t y c o n c e a l s a dynamic p r o c e s s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f words.
simpli-
Charles
F i e d e l s o n , J r . , has p o i n t e d out t h a t each statement b u i l d s upon,
and a l t e r s the p r e v i o u s s t a t e m e n t ; and t h a t by t h e time we r e a c h the
third
s t a t e m e n t , " n a t u r a l f a c t i n t h e sense o f h i s f i r s t
proposition
73
no
l o n g e r e x i s t s , the i n s t r u m e n t a l s i g n becomes an autonomous symbol,
and s p i r i t i s s i m p l y the meaning of f a c t as s y m b o l I n
developing
the i d e a t h a t the r e f e r e n t s of words are no l o n g e r " n a t u r a l f a c t s "
but are i n s t e a d " s p i r i t u a l f a c t s , " Emerson i s moving language away
from the a r e a of s t a t i c , one-for-one a l l e g o r y and i n t o the a r e a of
p r o c e s s i v e , c o n n o t a t i o n a l symbolism.
Words are not . f i n i t e ,
or
l i m i t e d , or f i x e d i n t h e i r meanings, f o r t h e i r meanings range a l o n g
the spectrum of s p i r i t which i s i n - f i n i t e ,
unlimited, flowing.
Yet
the v e r y r e a s o n why words can r e p r e s e n t " s p i r i t " i s t h a t , i n the
v e r y p r o c e s s of language f o r m a t i o n , words emerge out of s p i r i t when
i t i s i n c a r n a t e d i n the p h y s i c a l f l e s h of n a t u r a l f a c t .
t h e o r y of language,
Emerson's
i n f a c t , i s c l o s e l y t i e d to h i s p r o c e s s i v e theory
o f the emanation of the w o r l d out of s p i r i t , so t h a t words are formed
when "thought.
. . . [ i s ] e j a c u l a t e d as Logos, or Word" (W, I I I , 4 3 ) .
I t i s i n t h i s sense t h a t the poet i s a c r e a t o r — i s The
for
j u s t as the w o r l d i s c r e a t e d by the commandments of God
Creator—
(?Let
t h e r e be l i g h t " ) , by the Word of God which c r e a t e s the f l e s h
by
"becoming i t " (John 1:1-14), the w o r l d i s r e - c r e a t e d i n the u t t e r a n c e
of the poet who
i s "the s a y e r , the namer, and r e p r e s e n t s beauty.
Beauty i s the c r e a t o r of the u n i v e r s e " (W,
i s found
I I I , 13).
The
. . .
same emphasis
i n "The American S c h o l a r , " when Emerson, s p e a k i n g of the
Symbolism and American L i t e r a t u r e ( U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago
1959), p. 132.
Press,
74
" a c t i v e s o u l " says t h a t "the s o u l a c t i v e sees a b s o l u t e t r u t h and u t t e r s
t r u t h , o r c r e a t e s " (W, I , 9 1 ) . Moreover, the " a c t i v e s o u l " i s n o t o n l y
man as a "poet" or a " s c h o l a r , " f o r the Supreme B e i n g p u t s f o r t h the
world
through man--"man h a s a c c e s s t o t h e e n t i r e mind o f the C r e a t o r ,
i s h i m s e l f t h e c r e a t o r i n t h e f i n i t e " (W, I , 6 8 ) . Because o f t h i s
creative,
q u a l i t y o f words, because "words a r e a l s o a c t i o n s , and
a c t i o n s a r e a k i n d o f w o r d s " (W, I I I , 1 4 ) , p o e t r y i t s e l f i s n o t a s t a t i c
s t r u c t u r e o f words w i t h f i x e d meaning.
I t i s i n s t e a d a f l u i d movement o f
meaning t h a t always l e a p s beyond t h e l i m i t s o f d e n o t a t i o n i n t o t h e f l e x i b l e realm o f connotation.
I t ' s meaning i s s p i r i t u a l , and can o n l y be
conveyed by symbols, " f o r a l l symbols a r e f l u x i o n a l ; a l l language i s
v e h i c u l a r and t r a n s i t i v e , and i s good, as f e r r i e s and h o r s e s a r e , f o r
conveyance, n o t as farms and houses a r e , f o r homestead" (W, I I I , 3 7 ) .
T h i s view o f t h e f l u i d , p r o c e s s i v e q u a l i t y o f meaning i n p o e t r y
was extended by Emerson i n t o the whole o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n .
For him,
an a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n was n o t a s t a t i c p i e c e o f r e a l i t y s e p a r a b l e
from
i t s t o t a l c o n t e x t ; he r e f u s e d t o see t h e a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n a p a r t from
the a r t i s t or the a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s , a " p r o d u c t " d i v o r c e d from i t s
"producer."
Rather,
the a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n was p a r t o f a dynamic p r o -
cess i n v o l v i n g a c o n t i n u a l a c t i v i t y o f the a r t i s t through h i s a r t .
J u s t as S p i r i t moves through N a t u r e , j u s t as the Soul moves out i n p e r c e p t i o n through
the whole f i e l d o f p e r c e p t i o n , so too d i d the i m a g i n a t i o n
o f the a r t i s t move through
t h e forms he c r e a t e s .
to be t o the eye what d a n c i n g i s t o t h e l i m b s "
" P a i n t i n g , " he s a i d "se
(W, I I , 3 3 2 ) . A
75,
work of art could not be judged in i s o l a t i o n ; consequently,
best of beauty i s a finer charm than s k i l l in surfaces,
"the
in o u t l i n e s ,
or rules of art can ever teach, namely a radiation from the work of
art,
of human character,—a wonderful expression through stone,
or
canvas, or musical sound, of the deepest and simplest attributes
our nature" (W, I I ,
334).
of
Just as the S p i r i t , that "last fact beyond
which analysis cannot g o , " cannot be reduced to tropes or creeds without reduction and l o s s , so too can the art form never be reduced to
a mere " t h i n g , " with surfaces,
"True art
o u t l i n e s , or definable l i m i t s .
i s never f i x e d , but always flowing" (W, I I ,
340);
i t i s the
dancing of the a r t i s t ' s eye, the embodiment of thought in f l u i d motion,
character in action.
The a r t i s t moves into i t ,
through i t , and out
of i t in a f l u i d process of s p i r i t and imagination.
It i s not surprising to discover that Emerson was c r i t i c a l
of those p l a s t i c arts which tended to freeze r e a l i t y into a s o l i d form.
His reference point was always the l i v i n g f l u i d i t y of l i f e i t s e l f ,
that there was "no statue l i k e this l i v i n g man" (W, I I ,
sequently, he was c r i t i c a l of p a i n t i n g :
333).
so
Con-
"the best pictures are rude
draughts of a few of the miraculous dots and lines and dyes which make
up the ever-changing 'landscape with f i g u r e s ' amidst which we d w e l l "
(W, I I ,
332).
The "nonsense of o i l and easels,
was ' h y p o c r i t i c a l rubbish" (W, IIj". 333);
of marble and c h i s e l s "
r e a l "art
. . .
i s impatient
of working with lame or tied hands, and of making cripples and monsters,
76
such as a l l p i c t u r e s and s t a t u e s a r e " (W, I I , 338).
Of s c u l p t u r e
he was even more c r i t i c a l , f o r s c u l p t u r e l a c k e d the f l u i d i t y , the
l i v i n g , dynamic
for
q u a l i t y which i s the beauty o f l i f e ; hence i t was
h i m "the game o f a rude and y o u t h f u l p e o p l e , and n o t the manly
l a b o u r o f a w i s e and s p i r i t u a l n a t i o n . "
I n t h i s s t a t i c f r e e z i n g of the
p r o c e s s o f the w o r l d i n t o s o l i d form, Emerson s a i d , " c r e a t i o n i s
d r i v e n i n t o a c o r n e r " (W, I I , 339).
For Emerson, mere ornament,
did
not c o n s t i t u t e beauty.
superfluous l a v i s h
decoration
A l l a r t was judged t o the degree t o which
i t c a p t u r e d the movement o f s p i r i t through m a t t e r , the movement of
i m a g i n a t i o n through form.
"We
a s c r i b e b e a u t y t o t h a t which i s s i m p l e ;
w h i c h has no s u p e r f l u o u s p a r t s ; w h i c h e x a c t l y answers i t s end; w h i c h
stands r e l a t e d t o a l l t h i n g s " (W, V I , 274).
And i n t h i s
emphasis
on r e l a t i o n , Emerson was coming back a g a i n t o h i s b a s i c v i s i o n o f a
u n i v e r s e where r e a l i t y was
was
found i n i n t e r a c t i o n , where the b e a u t i f u l
t h a t which was ' a l i v e , moving, r e p r o d u c t i v e " (W, I I , 342).
I s o l a t e d form and a b s t r a c t e d segments o f r e a l i t y , e x a l t e d i n t o a
f r o z e n form would n e v e r do. " A l l b e a u t y must be o r g a n i c " (W, V I , 2 7 5 ) ;
" n o t h i n g i n t e r e s t s us which i s s t a r k or bounded, b u t o n l y what
streams w i t h l i f e .
. . . Beauty i s the moment of t r a n s i t i o n , as i f
the form were j u s t r e a d y t o f l o w i n t o o t h e r forms.
Any
fixedness,
h e a p i n g , or c o n c e n t r a t i o n on one f e a t u r e , - - a l o n g nose, a sharp c h i n ,
a hump-back,--is
the r e v e r s e of the f l o w i n g , and t h e r e f o r e
deformed"
(W, V I , 2 7 7 ) .
T h i s was n o t t o say t h a t Emerson r e j e c t e d the p l a s t i c a r t s
77
altogether.
They were c a p a b l e o f t h a t f l u i d beauty which i s
" h o v e r i n g and e v a n e s c e n t " (W, I I , 1 7 0 ) . Emerson d e s c r i b e d j u s t such
a beauty i n h i s essay c a l l e d
"Love":
The s t a t u e i s then b e a u t i f u l when i t b e g i n s t o be incomp r e h e n s i b l e , when i t i s p a s s i n g o u t o f c r i t i c i s m and can
no l o n g e r be d e f i n e d by compass and measuring-wand, b u t
demands an a c t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n t o go w i t h i t and t o say
what i t i s i n the a c t o f d o i n g . The god o r h e r o o f the
s c u l p t o r i s always r e p r e s e n t e d i n a t r a n s i t i o n from
t h a t w h i c h i s r e p r e s e n t a b l e t o the s e n s e s , t£ t h a t which
i s n o t . Then f i r s t i t ceases t o be a s t o n e . (W, I I , 171).
Art,
the
p r o p e r l y c o n c e i v e d , i s always " i n the a c t o f d o i n g , " always on
verge o f f l o w i n g out o f i t s e l f .
Aesthetic appreciation
therefore
demands a h i g h e r awareness than mere s e n s o r y e x p o s u r e ; i t i s n o t an
e x p e r i e n c e o f the U n d e r s t a n d i n g , b u t o f the whole s o u l .
J u s t as t h e
c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t must move o u t i n t o the w o r l d o f
brute matter, investing i t with s p i r i t u a l
form, t r a n s f o r m i n g i t i n t o
f l u i d p a t t e r n , so too must t h e s o u l apprehending the a r t i s t i c
creation
move o u t i n t o t h a t c r e a t i o n , "going w i t h " i t through " a c t i v e imagination" until
reality.
i t verges on t h a t f l u i d i t y which c h a r a c t e r i z e s
living
The f l u i d m o t i o n o f o r g a n i c a r t i s n o t a r t i s t i c form con-
f r o n t i n g the mind; i t i s a r t i s t i c form i n v e s t e d w i t h mind, b r o u g h t t o
l i f e by the v i t a l f o r c e o f i m a g i n a t i v e v i s i o n .
Organic a r t i s
i m a g i n a t i o n o b j e c t i f i e d , and i t e l i c i t s i m a g i n a t i v e a c t i v i t y from t h e
viewer.
I t i s s p i r i t form-ulated, but only i n a f l u i d
formulation,
a momentary eddy, always on t h e p o i n t o f d i s s o l v i n g form i n p r o c e s s .
W i t h the i m a g i n a t i v e p e r c e p t i o n o f a r t i s t i c form, t h e t o t a l
78
p r o c e s s o f a r t comes f u l l c i r c l e — t h e i n s p i r a t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t
has passed through the a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n t o be r e c r e a t e d i n the mind
of the o b s e r v e r .
V i v i a n H o p k i n s , i n h e r book S p i r e s o f Form:
A
Study o f Emerson's A e s t h e t i c Theory, has drawn a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s
c i r c u l a r f l o w of c r e a t i v i t y through a r t i s t , a r t , and a p p r e c i a t o r .
She p o i n t s o u t t h a t Emerson's A e s t h e t i c Theory c o n s i s t s o f "a c y c l e
of t h r e e p h a s e s , i n t e g r a l l y connected w i t h each o t h e r .
phase i s the c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s ;
The
first
the second, the completed work o f
12
art;
the t h i r d , the r e c e p t i o n of a r t by the o b s e r v e r . "
This cycle
of c r e a t i v i t y i s an ongoing p r o c e s s which Emerson images i n the s p i r a l :
A subtle chain of countless r i n g s
The n e x t unto the f a r t h e s t b r i n g s :
(W, I , 8)
I n the r e c e p t i o n of a r t the o r i g i n a l c r e a t i o n o f the a r t i s t
i s re-
c r e a t e d through i m a g i n a t i v e v i s i o n and the o u t f l o w i n g movement o f
the s p i r i t .
The embodied s p i r i t o f the a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n and the
a c t i v e s o u l o f the o b s e r v e r ,
cess.
r i s e up, meet, and c r o s s i n a d u a l
pro-
A r t r o u s e s the s o u l i n t o l i f e , the eye r e c r e a t e s the m a t t e r
of a r t i n t o e s s e n t i a l s p i r i t .
The a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e
becomes,
then,
a f u s i o n of t h e a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n w i t h the mind, and hence t h e m e e t i n g
p l a c e where minds meet i n c r e a t i v i t y .
1 2 V i v i a n H o p k i n s , S p i r e s o f Form: A Study o f Emerson's A e s t h e t i c
Theory (Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s ; H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1951), p.
2. F o r a s h o r t study o f Emerson's A e s t h e t i c t h e o r y from the p r o c e s s i v e
p o i n t o f view see P e r c y W. Brown, "Emerson's P h i l o s o p h y o f A e s t h e t i c s , "
J o u r n a l o f A e s t h e t i c s and A r t C r i t i c i s m , XV (1957), 350-354.
Thus, i n the c y c l e o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i v i t y , o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r e
i n a r t , and
a r t , we
the i m a g i n a t i v e r e c r e a t i o n t h a t o c c u r s i n the r e c e p t i o n o f
see the s i n g l e f l u i d movement o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i v i t y .
Every
phase of the movement i s fused through
i n t e r a c t i o n ; every process i n
the c y c l e i s a b i l a t e r a l t r a n s a c t i o n .
The
i n t o the mind of man
and
in-spiring spirit
flows
f l o w s out a g a i n i n i m a g i n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n :
the i d e a i s embodied i n form, the word becomes f l e s h , s p i r i t i s manifested i n m a t e r i a l design.
And,
i n the a p p r e c i a t i v e moment o f
e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t i n s t a n t when a r t i s t i c form takes on f l u i d i t y
the eyes, the s p i r i t f l o w s out of the a r t form and
a c t i o n of s p i r i t w i t h i n the o b s e r v e r .
artistic
before
i l l i c i t s a similar
A r t i s t and p e r c e i v e r a r e
l i n k e d i n a dynamic i n t e r c h a n g e o f f l u i d s p i r i t p a s s i n g through
m e d i a t i n g work o f a r t .
the
C r e a t i o n and r e c r e a t i o n work t o g e t h e r , sub-
j e c t s and o b j e c t s m a r r y , matter
seen become one
thus
i s married
to mind, the seer and
i n the moment o f s e e i n g , and a l l becomes one
a l l - d i s s o l v i n g u n i t y o f the s o u l .
the
i n the
The p r o c e s s o f a l l t h i n g s d i s s o l v e s
i n a s i n g l e p r o c e s s , a m u l t i - l a t e r a l t r a n s a c t i o n where a l l p o l a r i t i e s
f u s e i n the web
o f the One.
Perhaps the most p e r f e c t e x p r e s s i o n o f
t h i s f u s i o n i s found i n Emerson's poem "Brahma" which c e l e b r a t e s
the H i n d u Brahman, the One
God who
i s a u n i t y o f Brahma the C r e a t o r ,
13
V i s h n u the P r e s e r v e r , and
S h i v a the D e s t r o y e r
:
13Emerson's "Brahma," as has been p o i n t e d o u t , i s m i s t i t l e d .
The
p e r s o n a o f the poem i s n o t Brahma, as the t i t l e would i n d i c a t e , but
Brahman who i s a u n i t y o f Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva. See K.R. Chandrasekharan,
"Emerson's Brahma: An I n d i a n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " NEQ, X X X I I I (1960),
506-512.
If the red slayer think he slays,
Or i f the s l a i n think he i s s l a i n ,
They know not w e l l the subtle ways
I keep, and pass, and turn again.
Far or forgot to me i s near;
Shadow and sunlight are the same;
The vanquished gods to me appear;
And one to me are shame and fame.
They reckon i l l who leave me out;
When me they f l y , I am the wings;
I am the doubter and the doubt,
And I am the hymn the Brahmin sings.
The strong gods pine for myabode,
And pine in vain the sacred seven;
But thou, meek lover of the good.
Find me, and turn thy back on heaven.
(W, IX, 170-171)
1
81
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION:
EMERSON AND
THS TWENTIETH CENTURY
In the h i s t o r y o f i d e a s Ralph Waldo Emerson must be p l a c e d
s q u a r e l y i n the Romantic t r a d i t i o n .
A l o n g w i t h K a n t , the p o s t -
K a n t i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s , and the E n g l i s h R o m a n t i c s , Emerson waged a
war t y p i c a l o f the R o m a n t i c s :
he r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t the e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y view o f the u n i v e r s e as a s t a t i c c o l l e c t i o n o f " t h i n g s , " the
mind as a " m i r r o r " o f r e a l i t y , and a r t as " i m i t a t i o n . "
In r e j e c t i n g
these concepts he was r e j e c t i n g a way o f s e e i n g r e a l i t y which i m p l i e d
t h a t the u n i v e r s e i s f i n a l l y e x p l a i n a b l e i n t h e o l o g i c a l c r e e d s ,
mathematical
e q u a t i o n s , or l o g i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s .
And i n p l a c e o f
t h i s s t a t i c p h i l o s o p h y Emerson s u b s t i t u t e d a p h i l o s o p h y o f p r o c e s s ,
a way o f s e e i n g man and n a t u r e and God i n terms o f m u l t i - l a t e r a l
transaction.
Considered
from t h i s p o i n t of v i e w — t h e
adopted i n t h i s t h e s i s — E m e r s o n
p o i n t o f view so f a r
i l l u s t r a t e s the n a t u r e o f the Romantic
movement i n terms o f i t s r e j e c t i o n o f the p a s t .
But by now i t should
be apparent t h a t Emerson a l s o p o i n t e d t o the f u t u r e , and t o a number
of p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s w h i c h were o n l y f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e d i n the
twentieth century.
Although
i t i s n o t the i n t e n t i o n t o show t h a t
Emerson was a " t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y man" l i v i n g b e f o r e h i s time, the
82
analogues o f h i s thought i n r e c e n t decades i s i n s t r u c t i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n a s s e s s i n g the main accomplishments o f the Romantic p e r i o d
For Emerson
generally.
and most o f the major Romantic p h i l o s o p h e r s and p o e t s
a n t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r t h i n k i n g a number of d i s t i n c t l y
twentieth-
century developments—general r e l a t i v i t y , process philosophy,
field
and systems t h e o r y , a n d — i n s c i e n t i f i c theory--emergent e v o l u t i o n and
b i o l o g i c a l ecology.
By an e x a m i n a t i o n of a number of modern t h e o r i e s ,
t h e n , i n s c i e n c e , p h i l o s o p h y , and p s y c h o l o g y , the r e s t of t h i s
thesis
w i l l attempt t o t r a c e some of the ways i n which Emerson i s s i g n i f i c a n t
for twentieth-century readers.
Emerson's i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t U n i t a r i a n i s m may appear, on
f i r s t e x a m i n a t i o n , t o be o f i n t e r e s t o n l y as an i s o l a t e d event i n
American l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y .
But i n r e c e n t y e a r s a s i m i l a r r e a c t i o n has
been r e c o r d e d i n the w r i t i n g s of the p h i l o s o p h e r A l f r e d N o r t h Whitehead.
H a r r y Modean Campbell has c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s i n h i s s h o r t s t u d y
of
"Emerson and Whitehead,"' ' i n w h i c h he f i n d s "remarkable s i m i l a r i t i e s
1
between
the v i e w s o f Emerson and those of Whitehead."
Campbell does
n o t attempt t o prove t h a t Emerson was a major i n f l u e n c e on Whitehead,
b u t r a t h e r " t h a t Whitehead's
t o t a l achievement i n the p h i l o s o p h y o f
r e l i g i o n i s l i k e t h a t o f E m e r s o n — t h a t , r e l i g i o u s l y , Whitehead
1
PMLA, LXXV (1960), 577-582.
may
•83
he s a i d t o be a k i n d o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Emerson,"
To p u t i t more s p e c i f i c a l l y , j u s t as Emerson was a l e a d e r
i n the r e l i g i o u s ( r o m a n t i c - t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t ) r e v o l t a g a i n s t
the a n a l y t i c a l r a t i o n a l i s m o f t h e age o f " E n l i g h t e n m e n t , " so
Whitehead's i d e a s on r e l i g i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s l a t e r books)
have become i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e s i m i l a r r e v o l t
a g a i n s t t h e ' p h i l o s o p h y o f l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s ' and o t h e r
p h i l o s o p h i e s t h a t make ours an 'age o f a n a l y s i s , t h e end
of w h i c h i n a new s y n t h e s i s (a "myth f o r m i n g a t t h e h e a r t
o f t h e w o r l d , " t o quote L o u i s e Bogan) h a s been p r e d i c t e d
by S o r o k i n , Toynbee, T i l l i c h and o t h e r i m p o r t a n t prophets.3
1
E r n e s t Bernbaum, one o f t h e foremost
i n t e r p r e t e r s o f t h e Romantic
Movement, h a s c a r r i e d through a s i m i l a r i d e a i n h i s Guide Through t h e
I b i d . , p. 577.
3
I b i d . , p. 582. The r e f e r e n c e o f t h e " p h i l o s o p h y o f l o g i c a l
a n a l y s i s " i s to the l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s t s , discussed i n the s e c t i o n of
t h a t t i t l e i n B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l ' s H i s t o r y of Western P h i l o s o p h y (New
Y o r k , 1945), pp. 828-836; t h e "age o f a n a l y s i s " i s taken from Morton
G. W h i t e , e d . , The Age o f A n a l y s i s ( B o s t o n , 1955); L o u i s e Bogan's
quote i s found i n Amos N. W i l d e r , Modern P o e t r y and t h e C h r i s t i a n
T r a d i t i o n (New Y o r k , 1952), p. 258; f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s a r e t o P i t i r i m
S o r o k i n , The R e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Humanity (Boston, 1948), A r n o l d J .
Toynbee, An H i s t o r i a n ' s Approach t o R e l i g i o n (New Y o r k , 1956), and
P a u l T i l l i c h , The P r o t e s t a n t E r a ( C h i c a g o , 1948). Campbell comments:
"This i s n o t t o i m p l y t h a t t h e s y n t h e s i s proposed b y any o f these
t h i n k e r s i s l i k e t h a t o f Emerson and Whitehead, b u t they a l l c o n s i d e r
an a n a l y t i c a l , ' a t o m i s t i c ' p h i l o s o p h y as an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e s p i r i t u a l
chaos o f t h e a g e " (p. 582, n . 2 7 ) .
84
Romantic Movement.
The Romantic i d e a s o f n a t u r e , s p i r i t , and a r t i s t i c
c r e a t i o n were g e n e r a l l y out o f f a v o r a f t e r the p u b l i c a t i o n o f Darw£n's
O r i g i n o f S p e c i e s (1859) when the modern upsurge o f m e c h a n i s t i c ,
positivistic,
" a t o m i s t i c " p h i l o s o p h i e s began.
However, the importance
o f Romantic i d e a s h a s i n c r e a s e d i n the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , as Berbaum
makes c l e a r :
D u r i n g the 1920's and even e a r l i e r , i n p h y s i c s , z o o l o g y ,
b i o l o g y , p s y c h o l o g y , and o t h e r s c i e n c e s , many phenomena a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n t h a t c o u l d n o t be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e x p l a i n e d on the m a t e r i a l i s t i c h y p o t h e s i s . The p r o g r e s s o f knowledge i m p e r a t i v e l y c a l l e d f o r a r a d i c a l r e v i s i o n
i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f n a t u r e . I n works o f t h e h i g h e s t
s c i e n t i f i c o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l importance--by L l o y d Morgan,
A. N. Whitehead, S i r A r t h u r E d d i n g t o n , J . D. H a l d a n e ,
. J o h n Oman, J a n C h r i s t i a n Smuts, and many o t h e r s - - t h e r e
was no l o n g e r t h a t contempt f o r r o m a n t i c i d e a s about
N a t u r e and Man which has r u l e d f o r two g e n e r a t i o n s .
S i n c e t h e r i s e o f E i n s t e i n , R u t h e r f o r d , and H e i s e n b e r g ,
the n o t i o n t h a t S c i e n c e (and S c i e n c e o n l y ) would be a b l e
t o reduce a l l n a t u r e t o the d e f i n i t e l y knowable and
f u l l y p r e d i c t a b l e h a s been abandoned. The new s c h o o l
admits t h a t t h e r e a r e l i m i t s t o what can be a s c e r t a i n e d
through s c i e n t i f i c methods; and h e n c e f o r t h those o t h e r
f i e l d s o f human e x p e r i e n c e and o t h e r methods o f i n q u i r y
w h i c h the Romantics b e l i e v e d i n a r e reassuming t h e i r
former d i g n i t y .
Because Emerson was p a r t o f t h e Romantic r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t
Second e d i t i o n , c o p y r i g h t 1949; o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n 1930.
Berbaum's statement h a s been r e p r i n t e d i n p a r t as "The Romantic
Movement," i n Robert F. G l e c k n e r and G e r a l d E. Enscoe, e d s . ,
Romanticism: P o i n t s o f View (Englewood C l i f f s , N.J.; P r e n t i c e - H a l l ,
I n c . , 1962), pp. 88-96.
G l e c k n e r and Enscoe, Romanticism, pp. 92-93.
85
Enlightenment
p h i l o s o p h y — t h a t view o f r e a l i t y which c l a i m e d
that
n a t u r e c o u l d be reduced t o "the d e f i n i t e l y knowable and f u l l y p r e d i c t a b l e " - - h i s p h i l o s o p h y aimed a t something q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from
explanation.
Emerson's p r o c e s s i v e view o f r e a l i t y demanded t h a t he
f o r e g o a l l attempts
at explanation, f o r "explanation" quite
literally
i m p l i e s a " l e v e l l i n g " ( e x p l a n a r e , " t o l e v e l , f l a t t e n , o r spread o u t " ) .
A c a r e f u l examination
o f Emerson's p h i l o s o p h y shows t h a t i t e x p l a i n s
n o t h i n g , and c o n s e q u e n t l y
avoids the f a l l a c y o f e x p l a i n i n g away—
r e d u c i n g t h e s p i r i t u a l t o t h e p h y s i c a l ( m a t e r i a l i s m ) or the p h y s i c a l
to the s p i r i t u a l
(idealism).
I n p l a c e o f e x p l a n a t i o n Emerson sub-
s t i t u t e d d e s c r i p t i o n , an approach which the modern p h i l o s o p h e r
Leon h a s termed " d e s c r i p t i v e p h i l o s o p h y . " ^
To c o u n t e r
Philip
t h e approach
t o r e a l i t y which e x p l a i n s away o r r e d u c e s , Leon advocates "unprej u d i c e d o b s e r v a t i o n n o t a i m i n g a t a n y t h i n g more than d e s c r i p t i o n , "
r a t h e r than the u s u a l e x p l a n a t o r y approach which " p r e c l u d e s o r
annihilates":
And i f we make a h a b i t o f t h i s p a t i e n t and s u b m i s s i v e
w a i t i n g upon t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e i n s t e a d o f
r u s h i n g i n e x p l a n a t o r i l y where a n g e l s f e a r t o t r e a d ,
we s h a l l f i n d o u r s e l v e s i n an i n t r i g u i n g and e x c i t i n g
u n i v e r s e i n which near and f a r , h e r e and t h e r e , t h e
same and the d i f f e r e n t , the one and t h e many, t h e q u i c k
and t h e dead, a r e a n t i t h e s i s u s e f u l , and indeed n e c e s s a r y ,
f o r a l i m i t e d number o f p u r p o s e s , b u t n o t a b s o l u t e ,
e s c h a t o l o g i c a l , l i k e the s e p a r a t i o n i n t o t h e sheep and
the goats a t t h e end o f a l l t h i n g s . 7
^Beyond B e l i e f and U n b e l i e f : C r e a t i v e N i h i l i s m (London: V i c t o r
G o l l a n c z , 1965), pp. 59 f f .
7
I b i d . , pp. 60-61.
86
Emerson's r e p u d i a t i o n of t h e e x p l a n a t o r y p h i l o s o p h y o f the
Enlightenment
i n f a v o u r o f what P h i l i p Leon c a l l s
"descriptive
p h i l o s o p h y " i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the t h e o r y o f g e n e r a l r e l a t i v i t y ,
w h i c h p o s t u l a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s no a b s o l u t e or u n i v e r s a l t r u t h which
can be summarized i n a m e a n i n g f u l p r o p o s i t i o n . E v e r y t h i n g which
i s s o , i s so o n l y f o r a s p e c i f i c o b s e r v e r , o r i n r e l a t i o n t o a
specific situation.
S i n c e i t i s q u i t e o b v i o u s l y i m p o s s i b l e t o speak
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from o r f o r a l l p o s s i b l e p o i n t s o f view, t h e r e i s no
way o f making avy f i n a l l y v a l i d p r o p o s i t i o n about R e a l i t y , B e i n g , or
the n a t u r e o f t h i n g s .
T o t a l r e a l i t y e l u d e s man's
because i t i s always " s t a n d i n g - u n d e r " man.
"under-standing"
Thus when Emerson a t t a c k s
the t h e o l o g i c a l tendency t o c l i n g t o " t r o p e s " r a t h e r than
(W, I , 1 2 8 ) , o r t h e " l i n e a r l o g i c " o f t h e Enlightenment
"principles"
(W, I V , 1 0 1 ) ;
when he i n s i s t s t h a t "we can n e v e r s u r p r i s e n a t u r e i n a c o r n e r ; never
f i n d t h e end o f a t h r e a d ; n e v e r t e l l where t o s e t the f i r s t
(W, I , 190) ; he i s w o r k i n g
relativity.
stone"
i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the modern t h e o r y o f
Indeed, Emerson's whole corpus o f Essays
implicitly
c o n t a i n s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f r e l a t i v i t y , a p a r t from h i s more e x p l i c i t
r e l a t i v i s t i c statements.
Emerson's " p h i l o s o p h y " was such t h a t i t
could never r e c e i v e a f i n a l , absolute f o r m u l a t i o n .
Consequently,
we
see h i m coming a g a i n and a g a i n a t t h e same fundamental i d e a s from
s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f view, w o r k i n g out h i s d o c t r i n e o f the s o u l
" r e l a t i v e " t o the O v e r - S o u l , N a t u r e , Eloquence, A r t , I n s p i r a t i o n ,
H i s t o r y , H e r o i s m , and many v a r i a t i o n s o f these themes.
This
accounts,
87
on the one hand, f o r the amazing v a r i e t y o f t o p i c s covered by h i s
e s s a y s over the y e a r s and, on the o t h e r hand, the d i s t i n c t
one has t h a t he i s m e r e l y
emphasis.
feeling
s a y i n g the same t h i n g a g a i n w i t h d i f f e r e n t
Emerson's " t r u t h " i s not t o be found i n any one
essay,
b u t i s w r i t t e n between the l i n e s o f a l l o f them.
The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e of r e l a t i v i t y - - t h a t n o t h i n g i s a b s o l u t e
and a l l i s r e l a t i v e — p r e s u p p o s e s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a l i t y as everchanging, p r o c e s s i v e , f l o w i n g .
A b s o l u t e t r u t h s demand f i x e d o b j e c t s ,
stable "things," definable l i m i t s .
F i n a l p r o p o s i t i o n s presuppose an
i s o l a t e d r e a l i t y , a u n i v e r s e which can be p a r t i t i o n e d ' i n t o p i e c e s
w i t h no r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
For Emerson, however, "the u n i v e r s e e x i s t s
o n l y i n t r a n s i t " (W, X I I , 5 4 ) , " T h i s a l l - c r e a t i n g n a t u r e
and
f l u i d as a c l o u d o r the a i r " (W,
r e l a t i o n s " (W,
way
I I , 1 8 ) , "man
[is] soft
i s a bundle of
I I , 3 9 ) ; c o n s e q u e n t l y a b s o l u t e e x p l a n a t i o n has t o g i v e
to processive d e s c r i p t i o n .
continually shifting
And
t h i s fluid I d e s c r i p t i o n — w i t h i t s
t e r m i n o l o g y , and e v e r - c h a n g i n g
d e s p i t e the h a n d - w r i n g i n g
metaphors—
f r u s t r a t i o n i t has g i v e n to s y s t e m a t i c
p h i l o s o p h e r s , i s n e v e r t h e l e s s the k i n d o f p o e t i c use o f words which
i s today c r o p p i n g up i n the w r i t i n g s of modern s c i e n t i s t s and p h i l o s o p h e r s .
T e i l h a r d de C h a r d i n , f o r example, the famed d i s c o v e r e r of P e k i n g
Man
( s i n a n t h r o p u s ) i n 1929
and one o f the foremost exponents o f
r e a l i t y as p r o c e s s , w r i t e s o f the u n i v e r s e i n these words:
C o n s i d e r e d i n i t s p h y s i c a l , c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y , the
s t u f f of the u n i v e r s e cannot d i v i d e i t s e l f b u t , as
a k i n d o f g i g a n t i c 'atom , i t forms i n i t s t o t a l i t y
. . . the o n l y r e a l i n d i v i s i b l e . . . .
The cosmos
i n which man f i n d s h i m s e l f caught up c o n s t i t u e s , by
1
88
r e a s o n of the unimpeachable wholeness o f i t s w h o l e , a
system, a totum, and a quantum: a system by i t s
p l u r a l i t y , a totum by i t s u n i t y , a quantum by i t s
energy; a l l t h r e e w i t h i n a b o u n d l e s s c o n t o u r . . . .
The f a r t h e r and more d e e p l y we p e n e t r a t e i n t o m a t t e r
. . . the more we a r e confounded by the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e
of i t s p a r t s . Each element of the cosmos i s p o s i t i v e l y
woven from a l l the o t h e r s : from beneath i t s e l f by the
m y s t e r i o u s phenomenon o f ' c o m p o s i t i o n ' , which makes i t
s u b s i s t e n t through the apex o f an o r g a n i z e d w h o l e ; and
from above through the u n i t i e s o f a h i g h e r o r d e r which
i n c o r p o r a t e and dominate i t f o r t h e i r own ends.8
When Emerson w r o t e t h a t " t h e r e
i s no o u t s i d e , no i n c l o s i n g w a l l , no
c i r c u m f e r e n c e t o u s " (W, I I , 2 8 4 ) , t h a t we can n e v e r draw the l a s t
c i r c l e because
"around e v e r y c i r c l e a n o t h e r can be drawn" (W, I I , 2 8 1 ) ,
he was p o i n t i n g t o the same "boundless c o n t o u r " d e s c r i b e d by de
C h a r d i n - - t h e u n b e l i e v a b l e web
o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h i c h enmeshes e v e r y
p a r t and p a r t i c l e o f the whole.
Emerson's u n i v e r s e was a u n i v e r s e o f p r o c e s s :
unifying
t h i s was
the
t r a n s a c t i o n a l movement which brought e v e r y p a r t of the
cosmos i n t o r e l a t i o n w i t h the r e s t .
One of the k e y c o n c e p t s i n h i s
t h e o r y was, as we have seen, the i d e a o f e v o l u t i o n .
The u n i v e r s e
was n o t a s t a t i c c o l l e c t i o n o f unchanging " l e v e l s " or l i n k s i n a
C h a i n of B e i n g ; i t was an a s p i r a t i o n o f lower forms toward h i g h e r
forms, a movement o f m a t e r i a l n a t u r e toward s p i r i t .
wished t o say something more about t h i s movement.
Yet Emerson
He wanted t o say
t h a t i n the p r o c e s s o f m a t t e r e v o l v i n g toward s p i r i t , s p i r i t
i t s e l f operative.
was
And i n e v i t a b l y , t h i s landed h i m on the main
problem o f h i s whole t h e o r y :
The Phenomenon of Man
s p i r i t had t o be b o t h c r e a t e d and
(London:
C o l l i n s , 1959), pp. 43-44.
89
creating.
Emerson attempted to solve this problem by incorporating
the neo-Platonic doctrine of emanation, suggesting that material nature
was an "emanation" or expiration of s p i r i t u a l nature.
Yet because of
h i s inherited model of r e a l i t y , the Great Chain of Being, emanation
became a radiation down the Chain, a transaction with the evolutionary
movement up_.
Somehow, the two processes were one; yet Emerson was
never able to find the key to their u n i t y .
And there the matter stood,
in the h i s t o r y of ideas, for a f u l l century.
Darwinian evolution, because i t emphasized the movement of
physical forms up the scale of being, found no place for the impulse
of s p i r i t .
Evolution became, in the latter h a l f of the nineteenth
century, largely a mechanistic matter, a product of random mutation
and natural selection according to the p r i n c i p l e of the s u r v i v a l of the
fittest.
It was not u n t i l the twentieth century that evolutionists moved
9
beyond the m a t e r i a l i s t i c implications of m a t e r i a l i s t i c evolution.
1907,
In
Henri Bergson published L'Evolution Creatrice (Creative-Evolution),
finding the impulse of l i f e ' s movement i n the elan v i t a l ( v i t a l s p i r i t )
There were s p i r i t u a l i z e d approaches to evolution i n the nineteenth
century; Tennyson's In Memoriam (1850) i s a notable example. Generally
speaking, however, s c i e n t i f i c theory lagged behind poetic i n s i g h t .
90
w h i c h moved m a t t e r from w i t h i n .
G r a d u a l l y the emphasis on s p i r i t
the impulse of e v o l u t i o n i n c r e a s e d , u n t i l S i r J u l i a n H u x l e y
as
and
T e i l h a r d de C h a r d i n extended e v o l u t i o n to cosmism, the e v o l u t i o n o f
the cosmos.
De C h a r d i n summarizes t h i s way
of t h i n k i n g :
I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o deny t h a t , deep w i t h i n o u r s e l v e s , an
' i n t e r i o r ' appears a t the h e a r t of b e i n g s , as i t were
seen through a r e n t . T h i s i s enough to ensure t h a t , i n
one degree or a n o t h e r , t h i s ' i n t e r i o r ' s h o u l d obtrude
i t s e l f as e x i s t i n g everywhere i n n a t u r e from a l l t i m e .
S i n c e the s t u f f o f the u n i v e r s e has an i n n e r a s p e c t a t
one p o i n t o f i t s e l f [ i . e . , i n man], t h e r e i s n e c e s s a r i l y
a double a s p e c t t o i t s s t r u c t u r e , t h a t i s t o say i n
e v e r y r e g i o n of space and t i m e — i n the same way, f o r
i n s t a n c e , as i t i s g r a n u l a r : c o - e x t e n s i v e w i t h t h e i r
W i t h o u t , t h e r e i s a W i t h i n to t h i n g s . IP
Because man
has a s p i r i t u a l " W i t h i n , " de C h a r d i n concludes
whole u n i v e r s e has a s i m i l a r s p i r i t u a l " W i t h i n , "
has e v o l v e d from i n e r t m a t t e r
t h a t the
To assume t h a t
i s to i m p l y t h a t l i f e and
consciousness
a r e n o t h i n g but s p e c i a l forms o f n o n - l i f e and u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s — a
c l u s i o n t h a t e n t a i l s a v e r y u n s c i e n t i f i c l e a p i n t o the darkness
i l l o g i c and a b s u r d i t y .
Thus de C h a r d i n c o n c l u d e s :
life
"In a
conof
coherent
p e r s p e c t i v e o f the w o r l d : l i f e i n e v i t a b l y assumes a ' p r e - l i f e ' f o r as
far
back b e f o r e i t as the eye can
Rather
see."' '''
1
than s e e i n g s p i r i t as a d i s t i n c t and s e p a r a t e d r e a l m o f
The Phenomenon of Man, p. 56.
In h i s " I n t r o d u c t i o n " t o de Chard i n * s
book S i r J u l i a n H u x l e y c o i n e d h i s own word f o r the " W i t h i n " o f t h i n g s :
"Comparative study makes i t c l e a r t h a t h i g h e r a n i m a l s have minds of a
s o r t , and e v o l u t i o n a r y f a c t and l o g i c demand t h a t minds should have
e v o l v e d g r a d u a l l y as w e l l as b o d i e s and t h a t a c c o r d i n g l y m i n d - l i f e (or
'mentoid', t o employ a barbarous word t h a t I am d r i v e n t o c o i n because
o f i t s u s e f u l n e s s ) p r o p e r t i e s must be p r e s e n t throughout the u n i v e r s e "
(p. 16).
11
I b i d . , p.
57.
91
b e i n g which i s o n l y an "epiphenomenon," a scum upon the craggy
g r a n i t e o f the m a t e r i a l u n i v e r s e , s p i r i t
things.
nature
In man,
i s a " W i t h i n " of t h i n g s , a l l
t h a t " W i t h i n " i s v i s i b l e and m a n i f e s t ; i n i m m a t e r i a l
i t i s i n v i s i b l e and u n m a n i f e s t , e n f o l d e d
i n the shrouds o f m a t t e r
E - v o l u t i o n i s , q u i t e l i t e r a l l y , a " r o l l i n g - o u t w a r d s " ( e v o l v e r e , to r o l l
out);
the de-velopment o f l i f e i s an "un-wrapping" ( d e - v e l o p e r , O.Fr.,
to unwrap), an "emanation" (emanare, t o f l o w out) from w i t h i n .
As
l o n g as s p i r i t remained above m a t t e r ,
chain
o f b e i n g , emanation was
once s p i r i t was
and
as a separate
l i n k i n the
bound to appear as o p p o s i t e to e v o l u t i o n ; but
t r a n s f e r e d w i t h i n , e v o l u t i o n and emanation became one
the same:
the slow p r o c e s s by which the u n i v e r s e t u r n s
itself
i n s i d e - o u t , the i m p l i c i t becomes m a n i f e s t , t h e . p o t e n t i a l takes
actuality.
And
de C h a r d i n ' s
this
" w i t h i n " of t h i n g s — b e
on
i t Bergson's e l a n v i t a l ,
" p r e - l i f e " , or Emerson's " s p i r i t " — i s
t h a t cause behind
the p r o c e s s w h i c h i s a t once c r e a t e d and c r e a t i n g .
Emerson's p o s i t i o n i n the h i s t o r y of i d e a s i s c r u c i a l .
the
between the i s o l a t i v e , s t a t i c p h i l o s o p h y o f ^ E n l i g h t e n m e n t
unified,
and
Standing
the
p r o c e s s i v e approach of modern e v o l u t i o n , he embodies b o t h i n
the apparent paradox o f e v o l u t i o n and emanation w i t h i n the Chain of B e i n
He
stood a t t h a t p o i n t when s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y was
just starting
t o move w i t h i n from i t s p l a c e above.
j u s t about t o , or
There i s perhaps
no f i n e r example o f the t o t a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of thought t h a t
occurred
i n the Romantic p e r i o d than t h i s s u b t l e attempt to r e c o n c i l e a "modern"
understanding
w i t h a w o r l d - v i e w i n h e r i t e d from the p a s t .
92
The
seen, was
his
" a l l - d i s s o l v i n g u n i t y " i n Emerson's p h i l o s o p h y , as we have
the S o u l .
And,
i n k e e p i n g w i t h h i s emphasis on p r o c e s s
r e p u d i a t i o n of s t a t i c conceptions
a web
Me and
o f mind, the Soul was
o f r e l a t i o n s h i p between the mind of man
the Not-Me, the seer and
a
process—
and U n i v e r s a l M i n d , the
the t h i n g seen.
Emerson's Soul must
be understood as t h a t which a r i s e s i n t r a n s a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s ,
w h i c h c r e a t e s the u n i v e r s e by i t s own
and
a c t i v i t y and
that
i s i n turn created
by i t .
A t t h i s p o i n t i n h i s p h i l o s o p h y , Emerson p o i n t s d i r e c t l y t o
the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y .
Because the p r o c e s s e s
of p e r c e p t i o n
and
t h i n k i n g can o n l y be s t u d i e d as p a r t s o f the s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h
they
o c c u r , modern p s y c h o l o g i s t s are more and more t r e a t i n g the mind as a
12
s e r i e s of t r a n s a c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i t s environment.
" t r a n s a c t i o n a l " approach was
B e n t l e y , i n 1949
This
f i r s t used by J o h n Dewey and A r t h u r
t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e the p r o c e s s e s
F.
i n v o l v e d i n "knowing"
from p r e v i o u s models of m e n t a l a c t i v i t y which emphasized i n t e r a c t i o n
13
or s e l f - a c t i o n .
Both i n t e r a c t i o n and
b i f u r c a t i o n o f r e a l i t y i n t o 'knower" and
s e l f - a c t i o n presuppose a
"known," " s e l f " and
"environment,"
See f o r example H a d l e y C a n t r i l , "A T r a n s a c t i o n a l I n q u i r y Conc e r n i n g M i n d , " T h e o r i e s of the M i n d , ed. J o r d a n Scher (New Y o r k : The
F r e e P r e s s of G l e n c o e , 1962), pp. 330-353.
13
I t should be n o t e d t h a t the term " t r a n s a c t i o n a l " was new w i t h
Dewey and B e n t l e y ; the a p p r o a c h , however, goes back some f i f t y y e a r s .
Edmund H u s s e r l (1859-1938), around the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y , developed
h i s "pure" or " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l " phenomenology of c o n s c i o u s n e s s by means
o f correlated s t u d i e s of the i n t e n t i o n a l a c t ( n o e s i s ) and i t s o b j e c t i v e
r e f e r e n t (noema), thus a v o i d i n g f a c t u a l i n g r e d i e n t s o f any k i n d .
This
approach passed i n t o e x i s t e n t i a l i s m v i a J e a n P a u l S a t r e ' s "essay on
93
whereas " t r a n s a c t i o n " d i s s o l v e s these p o l a r i t i e s i n p r o c e s s .
own procedure
to
"Our
i s the t r a n s a c t i o n a l , i n which i s a s s e r t e d t h e r i g h t
see t o g e t h e r , e x t e n s i o n a l l y and d u r a t i o n a l l y , much t h a t i s t a l k e d
about c o n v e n t i o n a l l y as i f i t were composed o f i r r e c o n c i l e a b l e
o p p o s i t e s . D e w e y and B e n t l e y o b j e c t t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f the
knower from the known, "as i f they were t h e p r e c a r i o u s p r o d u c t s o f
a s t r u g g l e between severed realms o f ' b e i n g ' " :
Our p o s i t i o n i s s i m p l y t h a t s i n c e man as an oganism
has e v o l v e d among o t h e r organisms i n an e v o l u t i o n c a l l e d
" n a t u r a l , " we a r e w i l l i n g under h y p o t h e s i s t o t r e a t a l l
h i s b e h a v i n g s , i n c l u d i n g h i s most advanced knowings, as
a c t i v i t i e s n o t o f h i m s e l f a l o n e , n o r even as p r i m a r i l y
h i s , b u t as p r o c e s s e s o f the f u l l s i t u a t i o n o f organismenvironment; and t o take t h i s f u l l s i t u a t i o n as one w h i c h
i s b e f o r e us w i t h i n the knowings, as w e l l as b e i n g the
s i t u a t i o n i n which the knowings themselves a r i s e . 1 5
Emerson's u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f the s o u l , t h e n , as the whole mind i n t r a n s -
a c t i o n w i t h i t s environment p o i n t s d i r e c t l y t o the modern emphasis on
f i e l d t h e o r y and c o n t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s .
No s i n g l e p a r t o f the w o r l d -
p r o c e s s can be i s o l a t e d ; "knower" and "known" a r i s e and e x i s t o n l y i n
relationship.
phenomenological o n t o l o g y " (L'Etre e t l e n e a n t , 1943). S a r t r e d e f i n e d
e x i s t e n c e i n terms o f H u s s e r l ' s concept o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s r a t h e r than
by o n t o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s t y p i c a l o f p r e v i o u s p h i l o s o p h i e s .
^ J o h n Dewey and A r t h u r F. B e n t l e y , Knowing and the Known
Beacon P r e s s , 1949), p. 69.
I b i d . , p. 104.
(Boston:
94
I t has a l r e a d y been p o i n t e d o u t ; w i t h r e f e r e n c e
Whorfian hypothesis,
the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the s t a t i c w o r l d
Great Chain of B e i n g and
of
the
the s t a t i c , permanent q u a l i t i e s o f the noun-
o r i e n t e d languages i n which t h i s view f l o u r i s h e d .
may
t o the
The
same o b s e r v a t i o n
be made i n the f i e l d of p s y c h o l o g y , s i n c e words l i k e "mind" or
" i m a g i n a t i o n " c a r r y w i t h them the s t a t i c permanence and
l i m i t s of the noun.
definable
H a r o l d Kelman, Dean o f the American I n s t i t u t e
of P s y c h o a n a l y s i s , makes t h i s
observation:
Our language s t r u c t u r e , s u b j e c t / p r e d i c a t e i n form,
d i c h o t o m i z e s and h y p o s t a t i z e s p r o c e s s e s .
I t i s nouno r i e n t e d and makes p r o p o s i t i o n s about t h i n g s , among them
the s t a t i c o b j e c t s i n t o which p r o c e s s e s have been made.
Other l a n g u a g e s , l i k e Burmese, J a p a n e s e , and Eskimo,
v e r b - o r i e n t e d , make p r o p o s i t i o n s about e v e n t s , or a c c u r a t e l y e v e n t i n g , which m i n d i n g i s . 1 6
A c c o r d i n g l y , Kelman works out a d e f i n i t i o n of mind "as v e r b , i n i t s
p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e form, namely as m i n d i n g " - - t h u s showing t h a t mind i s
n o t a " t h i n g " which "does" c e r t a i n a c t i o n s , n o t a "form s e p a r a t e
its
"functions."
is forming."
i 7
On
the c o n t r a r y , "forming
i s f u n c t i o n i n g and
from
functioning
Thus, i t becomes apparent t h a t Emerson's p r o c e s s i v e
approach t o the s o u l - - a s
" s o u l i n g " ( ? ) - - although
with a s e m i - r e l i g i o u s vocabulary
i t i s shot through
v e r g i n g on m y s t i c i s m ,
i s not f a r from
18
the modern i d e a of "mind as p a r t i c i p a t i o n , "
1
fi
"Toward a D e f i n i t i o n of M i n d , " T h e o r i e s
1 7
pp.
as i t has been developed
I b i d . , p.
•^Jordan M.
354-375.
of the M i n d , p.
243.
244.
Scher, "Mind as P a r t i c i p a t i o n , " T h e o r i e s
o f the M i n d ,
95
by Dewey, B e n t l e y , and
The
others.
" r e l i g i o u s " q u a l i t y of Emerson's whole p h i l o s o p h y i s ,
however, one of the most p a r a d o x i c a l f a c t o r s i n any f i n a l e v a l u a t i o n .
A t f i r s t g l a n c e , Emerson appears t o have f o l l o w e d a l i n e of pure
s p e c u l a t i o n f a r removed from c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y .
Henry David Gray, f o r
example, has commented t h a t " I am not aware t h a t any t h i n k e r has
a c t u a l l y gone f a r t h e r w i t h pure p h i l o s o p h i c t h e o r y than d i d Emerson i n
his
deepest i n s i g h t s . " ^
Yet the end r e s u l t of h i s p h i l o s o p h y i s n o t
a p u r e l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l statement
a new
statement
of t r a n s c e n d e n t a l r e a l i t y b u t , r a t h e r ,
about the n a t u r e of c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y .
For, u l t i m a t e l y ,
Emerson's p h i l o s o p h i z i n g was n e g a t i v e , i n the sense t h a t he
finally
showed the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of any r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f the u n i v e r s e
along transcendental l i n e s of enquiry.
And
t h i s i n turn led to a
f u r t h e r n e g a t i v i t y , f o r Emerson's s p e c u l a t i o n s l e d him to the p o i n t o f
g i v i n g up p h i l o s o p h y f o r q u e s t i o n s of l i f e i t s e l f i n the c o n c r e t e w o r l d .
S p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y s i m p l y c o u l d n o t be a b s t r a c t e d from the r e a l w o r l d ,
for
" s p i r i t " and
" m a t t e r " f e l l t o g e t h e r i n a dynamic p r o c e s s which
s i m p l y , the w o r l d as i t i s . And,
took on a new
i n t h i s process, concrete
d i m e n s i o n , a dimension
was,
reality
of s p i r i t u a l i t y .
Modern s c i e n c e has a r r i v e d a t p r e c i s e l y the same p o i n t .
w i t h the i n d e s c r i b a b l y b e a u t y o f the m a t h e m a t i c a l
Faced
u n i v e r s e , the amazing
Emerson: A Statement of New England T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m as Expressed
i n the P h i l o s o p h y o f I t s C h i e f Exponent ( P h i l a d e l p h i a ; R u s s e l l P r e s s ,
1917), p. 70.
96
dance and tumble o f s p i n n i n g e l e c t r o n s and i n t e r a c t i n g f i e l d s
of f o r c e ,
the modern a t o m i c p h y s i c i s t i s faced w i t h a m a t e r i a l w o r l d w h i c h verges
on pure s p i r i t , an immense p a t t e r n of "someting unknown ... . d o i n g we
don't know w h a t . " ^
A new
concept of c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y has emerged
w h i c h i s perhaps b e s t summed up i n the words o f Robert L i n s s e n :
The 'God of M a t t e r ' has j u s t taken o f f h i s mask of g l a c i a l
i m m o b i l i t y , and, b e h o l d , i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a p r o d i g i o u s l y
moving, f l u i d , i m p a l p a b l e energy. H i s countenance, which
once appeared sombre and d u l l , i s now l i t up w i t h ever more
d a z z l i n g c l a r i t y . The s i l e n t f a i r y l a n d o f l i g h t , p e r p e t u a l l y u n f o l d i n g i n the h e a r t of the s m a l l e s t g r a i n of sand,
f a r exceeds i n s p l e n d o u r the most b r i l l i a n t d i s p l a y of
f i r e w o r k s t h a t we c o u l d ever hope t o see.
The p h y s i c i s t s g i v e us a g l i m p s e o f the essence o f
m a t t e r t a k i n g on such a s p i r i t u a l c h a r a c t e r t h a t i t l o o k s
as though modern p h y s i c s i s i r r e s i s t i b l y l e a d i n g us t o the
c r e a t i o n of a s p i r i t u a l materialism.^^Perhaps " s p i r i t u a l m a t e r i a l i s m " b e s t d e s c r i b e s Emerson's u n i v e r s e .
For
him, n a t u r e i s s p i r i t - i n - p r o c e s s , a p r o j e c t i o n outwards o f man's own
s o u l , a d i s t i l l a t i o n o f the d i v i n e ; Man
i s the s p i r i t i n c a r n a t e d - - o r
S i r A r t h u r E d d i n g t o n , The N a t u r e o f the P h y s i c a l World
J . M. Dent, 1935)., p. 280.
(London:
21
L i v i n g Zen, t r a n s . Diana A b r a h a m s - C u r i e l (London: George A l l e n
and Unwin, L t d . , 1958), p. 70. On one or two o c c a s i o n s Emerson came
c l o s e t o L i n s s e n ' s " s p i r i t u a l m a t e r i a l i s m , " when he w r o t e , f o r example,
t h a t "Chaucer's h a r d p a i n t i n g and h i s C a n t e r b u r y p i l g r i m s s a t i s f i e s
the s e n s e s . Shakespeare, Spenser and M i l t o n , i n t h e i r l o f t i e s t a s c e n t s ,
have t h i s n a t i o n a l g r i p and e x a c t i t u d e o f mind. T h i s m e n t a l m a t e r i a l i s m
makes the v a l u e o f E n g l i s h t r a n s c e n d e n t a l g e n i u s " (W, V, 2 2 3 ) ; and a g a i n ,
"In our d e f i n i t i o n s we grope a f t e r the s p i r i t u a l by d e s c r i b i n g i t as
invisible.
The t r u e meaning o f s p i r i t u a l i s r e a l ; t h a t law which exe c u t e s i t s e l f , w h i c h works w i t h o u t means, and which cannot be c o n c e i v e d
as n o t e x i s t i n g " (W, V I , 206).
97
b e t t e r , "incarnating"--and the o b j e c t s of a r t are s p i r i t captured i n
m a t e r i a l form.
L i f e i s judged by i t s s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t y ; man i s judged
by t h e degree t o which the s p i r i t
art
f l o w s through h i m and i n h i m ; and
i s judged as p e r f e c t when i t l e a p s i n t o the f l u i d movement o f
s p i r i t i n process.
The
for
s t u d y o f Emerson as a p r o c e s s p h i l o s o p h e r i s s i g n i f i c a n t
a number o f r e a s o n s .
W h i l e the term " p r o c e s s " has o n l y become
p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y r e s p e c t a b l e i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e concept
itself
emerged much e a r l i e r , d u r i n g the l a t e r y e a r s o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
g e n e r a l l y , and i n the work o f the Romantic w r i t e r s ,
specifically.
A m e r i c a n t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m was p a r t o f t h i s movement, and, i n the work
o f Emerson, p r o c e s s emerges as a dominant k e y t o h i s thought.
Indeed,
a p p r o a c h i n g h i s t h e o r i e s o f N a t u r e , the S o u l , and A r t through
the i d e a
of p r o c e s s appears t o be much more v i a b l e than an approach
e i t h e r K a n t i a n " i d e a l i s m " or Swedenborgain "correspondence."
and
through
Kant
Swedenborg were Emerson's s t a r t i n g p o i n t s , b u t u l t i m a t e l y he moved
f a r beyond them.
The change from h y p o s t a t i c t o p r o c e s s i v e t h i n k i n g - - a change
which i s o n l y b e g i n n i n g t o have i t s f u l l e f f e c t on man's t h i n k i n g - began more than a c e n t u r y and a h a l f ago.
Emerson's importance
h i s t o r y of i d e a s i s t h a t he worked out perhaps t h e f i r s t
process philosophy.
his
i n the
comprehensive
F o r over a c e n t u r y he has been dismissed because o f
f l u i d vocabulary, h i s lack of clear d i s t i n c t i o n s , h i s f a i l u r e t o
d e f i n e h i s terms.
Y e t because h i s p h i l o s o p h i c b a s i s was p r o c e s s ,
this
98
d i s m i s s a l i s an u n f a i r one, f o r the k e y f e a t u r e of p r o c e s s i s p r e c i s e l y
that:
i t i s f l u i d ; i t l a c k s c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n s ; t h e r e a r e no
to d e f i n e .
P r o c e s s does n o t l e n d i t s e l f t o r a t i o n a l , l o g i c a l
terms
formu-
l a t i o n ; i t i s f e l t , or i n t u i t e d ; i t i s "seen" and "not s e e n " a t once,
and t h e r e f o r e e l u d e s e x p l a n a t i o n .
Thus Emerson's p h i l o s o p h y i s d e s c r i p t i v e ,
m e t a p h o r i c a l , and p o e t i c , b u t never r i g i d l y p r e c i s e .
Emerson's importance l i e s i n h i s a p p l i c a t i o n of p r o c e s s
t h i n k i n g to e v e r y f a c e t o f l i f e .
I n a corpus o f Essays w h i c h a r e
p o w e r f u l and e l o q u e n t , he worked out the p l a c e of man
in a fluid universe,
the f u n c t i o n o f a r t i n the l i v i n g s i t u a t i o n , the n a t u r e o f the S o u l i n
active transaction.
U l t i m a t e l y , he worked through p h i l o s o p h y and beyond
p h i l o s o p h y , always w o r k i n g out h i s s p e c u l a t i o n s i n terms of p r a c t i c a l
a c t i o n i n the c o n c r e t e w o r l d .
A l t h o u g h h i s w r i t i n g s d w e l l , or appear
t o d w e l l i n a r e a l m of p o e t r y , h i s i n t e r e s t s were those of t h i s w o r l d :
h i s f a m i l y , h i s books, h i s f r i e n d s on b o t h s i d e s of the A t l a n t i c , h i s
l e c t u r e t o u r s , h i s t r i p s abroad, and ^contemporary
literary,
political,
22
and economic a f f a i r s .
America:
Emerson d i d n o t want to breed m y s t i c s i n
he wanted t o c r e a t e whole men,
" s y m m e t r i c a l men"
(W, I I I , 216).
" f i n i s h e d " men
(W, I , 3 2 5 ) ,
C o n s e q u e n t l y , h i s tendency was
to
reduce r e l i g i o n to e t h i c s , s a y i n g t h a t "the p r o g r e s s of r e l i g i o n i s
s t e a d i l y t o i t s i d e n t i t y w i t h m o r a l s " (W, X, 2 0 0 ) , and t h a t "the n e x t
See H e l e n M. Connor, "Emerson's I n t e r e s t i i Contemporary
A f f a i r s , " EJ_, X X X V I I I (1949), 428-431.
Practical
9:9
age w i l l b e h o l d God i n the e t h i c a l l a w s " (W, X, 214).
He
continually
saw the s p i r i t u a l w o r k i n g through the m a t e r i a l w o r l d ; thus he c o u l d
write:
"Mankind
f o r the moment seem t o be i n s e a r c h of a r e l i g i o n .
The J e w i s h c u l t u s i s d e c l i n i n g ; the D i v i n e , o r , as some w i l l s a y , the
t r u l y Human, h o v e r s , now
seen, now unseen, b e f o r e u s " (W, X I , 333).
And i n t h i s t r a n s f e r e n c e of the s p i r i t u a l to a p l a c e w i t h i n the w o r l d ,
to a p l a c e w i t h i n man h i m s e l f , Emerson e x a l t e d humanity
of
the h u m a n i s t .
a ' f i n i s h e d man,'
the
As P a t r i c k F. Quinn p u t s i t , "Emerson's hopes f o r
f o r ' s p h e r a l p e o p l e ' and
hbpes o f a h u m a n i s t . "
' s y m m e t r i c a l men,'
And he went on t o add:
than a l i t e r a r y a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s t o the phrases 'New
and
i n the s t y l e
'American R e n a i s s a n c e . '
were
"There i s more
England R e n a i s s a n c e
1
J u s t as the Renaissance i n Europe i n -
v o l v e d a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t the t h e o l o g i c a l , o t h e r - w o r l d l y o r i e n t a t i o n
of
the M i d d l e Ages i n f a v o r of an e x p a n s i v e humanism, so Emerson, the
k e y f i g u r e o f the American R e n a i s s a n c e , r e j e c t e d the narrow
of
emphasis
P u r i t a n i s m and developed h i s v i s i o n of r.man i n h i s p l e n i t u d e . "
Emerson's thought, t h e r e f o r e , i s one k e y to modern h u m a n i s t i c c u l t u r e ,
f o r he s u c c e s s f u l l y f u s e d the human w o r l d w i t h the d i v i n e w o r l d , thus
e x a l t i n g man
to a p o s i t i o n where he c o u l d , l i k e R e n a i s s a n c e man,
t r o l h i s w o r l d and b u i l d h i s own
con-
destiny.
"Emerson and M y s t i c i s m , " AL, XXI (1949),
413. C f . Rene W e l l e k ,
"Emerson and German P h i l o s o p h y , " NEC;, XVI (March, 1943), 41-62, who
writes:
"Emerson was no m y s t i c , except i n the v e r y l o o s e s t sense of the
term . . . "
(P. 4 4 ) . The p r a c t i c a l , " h u m a n i s t i c " emphasis i s brought
out, t o o , i n L e s t e r Mondale, "The P r a c t i c a l M y s t i c i s m of R a l p h Waldo
Emerson," M y s t i c i s m and the Modern Mind, ed. A l f r e d P. S t i e r n o t t e (New
Y o r k : L i b e r a l A r t s P r e s s , 1959), •
43-59.
"Emerson and M y s t i c i s m , " AL, X X I (1949),
413, n.
65.
100
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