SOMA 2012
Identity and Connectivity
Proceedings of the 16th Symposium on Mediterranean
Archaeology, Florence, Italy, 1–3 March 2012
VOLUME I
Edited by
Luca Bombardieri, Anacleto D’Agostino,
Guido Guarducci, Valentina Orsi
and Stefano Valentini
BAR International Series 2581 (I)
2013
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SOMA 2012. Identity and Connectivity: Proceedings of the 16th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology,
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Aegean Type Swords and Finds in Anatolia, Technology of Metals and
Structures, Written Sources and the Dating of Trojan War
Konstantinos Giannakos
(University of Thessaly, Civil Engineering Department)
Abstract
15th-14th century BC Anatolia: Evidence related to
Mycenaean Activities1
In Hattuša and the Land of Hatti, bronze swords of
Aegean type and other Mycenaean artifacts were found.
Silver as a rare and precious metal is -probablyconnected with Hattuša and Hatti in Iliad. The
technological level and know-how in Mycenaean Greece
were extremely high both in construction works and
production of metallic objects: bronze, silver and iron.
The archaeological evidence found in Hattuša, Egypt,
Greece and Cyprus and the Ancient Greek Literature are
combined in an effort to register the exchange of
technology among the countries around the Aegean Sea
at the LBA. A linguistic dating of the epics is attempted
and a proposition of the possible transcription of the
name Ἀγαµέµνων in Linear B is formulated. The
archaeological evidence is compared to the descriptions
in Homeric epics. Conclusions are derived for the
exchanges among Mycenaeans, Cretans, Hittites and
Egyptians, with the Aegean Sea being a connecting area.
Since technological level and its products are irrefutable
agents of the prosperity level of each era, they are used to
estimate the probability of a naval expedition over
Aegean Sea during LBA. Finally a hypothesis for a
probable dating of Trojan War is attempted.
Various objects of Mycenaean influence were found in
Hatti:
- A Type B bronze sword at Hattuša dated at the period
of Tudḫaliya II,2 commemorating his victory over
Aššuwa, mentioned also in his Annals, as well as
Wilusiya/ϝΙλιος and Taruisa/Τροία.
- A silver bowl referring to the conquest of Tarwiza by a
king Tudḫaliya (II).
- One bronze sword at Izmir and one at Kastamonu, of
Mycenaean type, dated c. the same era,
- A Mycenaean bronze spearhead at Niğde of advanced
technology of l4th-13th century BC,
- A ceramic bowl with a depiction of an Aegean(?)
warrior bearing a boar’s tusk helmet at Hattuša dated at
1400 BC,
- Fragments of wall paintings of Mycenaean technique in
Büyükkale,
- Imported Mycenaean pottery LHIIIA23 in Maşat
Höyük, in a LHIIIB context and
- A few Mycenaean shreds in Hattuša and Kusakli
(Thaler 2008, 293, 307-310) demonstrating the
importance of hearth building like in the Mycenaean
Palaces, as described in a Hittite ritual text dated at
Tudḫaliya IV era, reconstructed from older sources.
Keywords
Epics, Hattuša, sword, Mycenaeans,
Attarissiyas, Egypt, silver technology.
Ἀγαµέµνων,
Several texts were also found in Hettitic archives:
- Indictment of Madduwatta, notes that under Tudḫaliya's
II reign, Attarissiya, brother of the king of Aḥḥiyawa,
performed raids against Lukka and Alasiya/Cyprus, in
accordance to epics narrating Atreids' raids against
Cyprus. Attarissiya, could be transliterated as ‘Ἀτρείδης’
(Giannakos 2011a, 2011b).
- A Letter of a king of Aḫḫiyawa (Beckman et al., 2011,
134-139) to a Hittite king, refers that under Tudḫaliya's II
reign, the King of Aḫḫiyawa ‘(a-)Ka-ga-mu-na-aš’ owned
the islands, after a dynastic marriage. Janko4 proposed
that, if ‘(a-)Ka-ga-mu-na-aš’ is to be equated with a
Greek name, it is rather Ἀγαµέµνων. Iliad narrates that
Ἀγαµέµνων was King in many islands and in Argos
(Ilias, 2-108).
- The Alaksandu treaty, refers that Labarna
had
conquered Arzawa and Wilusa. Afterwards, Arzawa
began war and Wilusa/ϝΙλιος defected from Hatti, but
remained at peace. Later on Tudḫaliya (II) campaigned
against Arzawa but did not enter Wilusa since they were
Introduction
Homer, in Iliad and partly in Odyssey, described a naval
military expedition of a coalition of Mycenaean Greeks
with 1000 ships, across the Aegean sea, against Troy and
its allies at the northwestern coast of Asia Minor. A long
discussion about Trojan War, whether and when it took
place, is ongoing since the antiquity. There are two
possible dates for the Trojan War as derived by the
destruction layers in Troy VIh c. 1300 BC and VIIa c.
1180 BC. However, another minor destruction could be
verified in Troy VIf/g c. 1400 BC where an extended
‘house-cleaning’ was reported by Blegen. We have
proposed that this house-cleaning points to a change of
dynasty in Troy supported by the Mycenaen Greeks
(Trojan War?). We examine evidence from Hatti, Cyprus
and Egypt and relate it to the prosperity and destruction
periods of Mycenaen palatial centers. The linguistic
dating of the Homeric epics at an era earlier than 1400
BC also points to that direction.
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1
Details in Giannakos, 2011a, b, 2012, 7-44.
Absolute dates of Hittite Kings in Figure 1 and of Egyptian Pharaohs
in Figure 2.
3
Cline 2007, 197, ~1375-1340 BC. Figure 3 for dating of the periods in
Mycenaean Greece.
4
According to Wiener 2007, 16-17, n.104, 113. Starke: ‘Kadmos’.
2
427
!
at peace. It does not mention Aḫḫiyawa, probably because
by c. 1280 BC, Hittites did not consider Aḫḫiyawa as
serious power.
- An Oracle Report (Tudḫaliya's II era): ‘Concerning the
enemy ruler of Aḫḫiya..... Result: favorable’. This
unnamed enemy ruler of Aḫḫiya is -almost certainlyAttarissiya attested in the Indictment. It clearly refers to
a leader, or ruler of some kind, of Aḫḫiya who performed
warlike activities in Anatolia, Lycia and Cyprus.5
mouths of Nile (Coleman and Manassa, 2007, 203;
Redford 1992, 242, 2006, 196; Shaw 2003, 322).
Cyprus suffered a number of destructions around 1400
BC (Doxey 1987, 306), the era of Attarisiya: Enkomi was
destroyed in c. 1425 BC rebuilt and destroyed again in
1375 BC. Kourion was destroyed by fire. Phlamoudi,
Nitovitika and Nikolidhes were abandoned in a roughly
contemporaneous era. Whatever the cause of the Cypriote
destructions, they occurred at a point which immediately
preceded a notable influx of Mycenaean influence,
possibly even temporary control of the island, roughly
around the date of Knossos' destruction on c. 1375.
Tanaja is referred in Egyptian inscriptions up to the end
of the reign of Tutankhamun.7 After this period there is
no written reference to Tanaja in Egyptian inscriptions
until the Sea Peoples. Homer narrates that heroes Δαναοί
had visited Egypt -isolated and not in hordes as the later
Sea Peoples- either as friends or as raiders (Beckman et
al., 2011, 99, 97; Giannakos 2011a, b; Giannakos 2012,
67-68). This image is fitted rather to the era of
Amenhotep’s III and not Ramesses’ II, III era.
Material Evidence from 16th-14th century BC Egypt
and Cyprus
The relations of Egypt with Aegean are recorded in the
archaeological evidence which has been summarized in
literature (Giannakos 2011a, 2011b, 2012): from the
Hyksos period and Ahmose to the reigns of Thutmose I,
Thutmose III, Hatsepsut, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten and
Tutankhamun, c. 1600-1330 BC.
In the famous list of Amenhotep III at Kom-el-Hetan,
Keftiu, T/Danaja and the very well known Aegean places:
Amnisos, Knossos, Kydonia, Mycenae, Thebes, Ilion etc
are mentioned. Amenhotep's III close relations and his
particular sympathy to Achaean rulers is evident from
remnants of his Palace at Malkata and his faience plaques
at Mycenae (Philips 2007). Akhenaten performed two
wars against Hittites in Syria before his sixth and at his
fifteenth regnal years. This could offer an additional
argument for a hypothesis of a possible alliance with
Mycenaeans (Coleman and Manassa 2007, 198-199;
Leahy 2001, 258; Schulman 1988, 54, 57).
Gifts from T/Danaja -on the 42nd year of Thutmose IIIare listed: ‘..chief] of Tanaya: Silver: a jug of Keftiu
workmanship along with vessels of iron’ (Redford 2003,
96, n.226), indicating possibly advanced technology in
Crete and T/Danaja. An iron ring at Archanes is dated at
17th century BC. It appears that the reading ‘iron’ is
now widely preferred, … iron in this early stage was an
extremely rare commodity, being difficult to work (Kelder
2010, 36,105; Lucas 1948, 274; Ogden 2000, 167) and
consequently of cutting-edge technology. There are also
references for iron gifts to the Pharaoh in Amarna tablets
(Lucas 1948, 268-275; Moran 1992, EA22, EA25; Ogden
2000, 166-168). In Tutankhamun's tomb, several iron
objects were found.6
The king of Cyprus wrote to Pharaoh Akhenaton (Moran
1992, 111, EA38): ‘Indeed men of Lukki, year by year,
seize villages in my own country’. Are these Lukki (and
Danuna) forerunners (Giannakos, 2011a, 2012, 65) of the
Sea Peoples? In the early 18th Dynasty heavily armed
northern mercenaries appear in Egyptian documents and
the incursion of pirates, Dennen, Lukka and Sherden, had
become so serious by the reign of Amenhotep III that the
Egyptians constructed coastal forts and patrolled the
Rare Metal Silver: Hittites in Homeric epics?
The Ships' Catalogue,
includes in Trojan allies
‘Halizones, from Alybe, where is the birth-place of
silver’, most probably the inside Halys river bent region
(Giannakos 2011b). All the three main linguistic/racial
groups of the Land of Hatti were present as allies of Troy
in Iliad: Palaians/Paphlagones, Luwians /Lycians, and
Nesumnili/Nesites/Hatti probably as Ἀργύρου γενέθλη.
Hattuša and Hatti were sometimes written with the
Sumerogram for silver. The major objective of the trade
since the Assyrian Colony period c. 2200 BC, was to
obtain silver and gold from the Anatolian Plateau: 9
silver mines were inside Halys river bent. Three kings:
Ramesses II, a King of Arzawa(?) and Šuppilluliuma I
connect Hatti with silver. However in Greece, there has
been intensive exploitation, working and production of
silver from Laurion and Cyclades mines since Late
Neolithic. Consequently, Ἀργύρου γενέθλη of Iliad does
not represent the Mycenaean experience with silver
exploitation, but was probably transmitted, as oral
tradition for Anatolian Plateau, to the western Asia
Minor.
Dating the epics linguistically
Iliad's final version is a blend of two narratives one
sympathetic to the Trojans and focused on Hector as
tragic hero and another to the Greeks. The story of Troy
was first immortalized in hexameters some time between
1450-1050 BC.8 An Asianic, specifically Hittite, ideal of
unity among the groups representing four groups of fealty
leaves its trace in a Greek literacy topos in the post-1200
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5
7
Kelder 2010, 46,85; Philips 2007, 489-490: the graves at Mycenae,
contain Egyptian artefacts not later than ~1318/1295 BC, with a few
exceptions. Wachsmann 1987, 125: the contacts seems to cease with the
reign of Tutankhamun.
8
Bachvarova 2008, 103, n.424. For Trojan War's earlier dating: Morris
1989, 521; Vermeule 1986, 85, 206, 279, 297. More details for the
linguistic dating of the epics in Giannakos 2012, 114-119.
Beckman et al., 2011, 4, 5, 71, 97, 98, 219, 225. Bryce 2005, 129-130:
not officially recognized king of Aḫḫiya. Gurney 1990, 21, 38: an
Achaean Greek chieftain. Güterbock, 1983 200, 207: a lesser ruler not
regarded as king. Niemeier 1999, 149: a Mycenaean aristocrat.
6
Coleman and Manassa (2007, 77, 240, n.148), refer that it was an early
example of iron-working and it was not made from meteoric iron (Lucas
1948, 272; Muhly 2006, 22-25; Ogden 2000, 168).
428
period (Watkins, 2002, 169,175. West, 1988, 169).
Probably the bards were celebrating the noble qualities
and heroic enterprises of the King and his ancestors in the
expectation of liberal reward in both sides of Aegean. The
Greek epic poetry existed as early as the 15th century BC
and even before as an ancient tradition (Latacz, 2004, 267274, Palaima, 2008, 355, Ruijgh, 2011, 257-258, West,
1988, 151-154).
The hexameter is probably not native to any form or dialect
of Greek, and rather it was adopted from dactylic Minoan
hexameter, along with the script and various words lacking
known Indo-European roots (Ruijgh, 2011, 287). PreLinear B forms occur in Homer’s descriptions of Crete
and its chieftains Idomeneus and Meriones. The formula in
which Meriones is compared to the pre-Greek deity of war
Enyalius, later syncretized with Ares, is regarded as one of
the oldest in the Iliad ‘Μηριόνης τ’ ἀτάλαντος Ἐνυαλίῳ
ἀνδρειφόντῃ’. 9 Homer preserves a few reminiscence of
an early Mycenaean culture from a period well before the
destruction of Troy VIIa. There is linguistic evidence for
a much earlier period than the date of the adoption of the
Greek alphabet (Ruijgh, 2011, 262-294. West, 1988, 156159).
Kings ‘the elders, the excellent chieftains of the PanAchaeans’ (Ilias, 2/402-409), followed by Meriones.
After its destruction ca 1375 BC, Knossos functions only
as cult center, thus it was impossible for Idomeneus to
have reigned after 1375BC. Moreover a great number
of dismantled or ruined chariots are listed in Knossos’s
tablets around 1400 BC. Is it -possibly- pointing to internal
conflicts just after the return from Troy?
The destruction layers in Troy VIh and VIIa provide two
possible dates for the Trojan War. However, another
minor destruction could be verified in Troy VIf/g within
a generation or two around 1400 BC, where an extended
house-cleaning was reported by Blegen. Aeneas is the third
in prominence between the Trojans, opponent to Priam’s
family related to the pro-Greek Antenor. Could this point
at a possible houses’ refurbishment after a change of Royal
Dynasty supported by Mycenaean invaders, intruding in
the city by the pro-Greek side of Trojans, under Aeneas
and Antenor, after Wilusa’s defect from Ḫatti before or
during the reign of Tudḫaliya II?
Αγαμέμνων in Linear B’10
The first tholoi appeared in Proto- and Neo-palatial Crete
and afterwards they spread to Mainland Greece since
MH.14 These corbelled vault tholoi are three-dimensional
domes -with huge bearing capacity to undertake the
enormous earth pressure from the soil covering the
protruding section of the vault - demanding much higher
difficulty in conception, design and construction than the
two-dimensional arcs inside the walls bearing only their
own dead loads, the latter being a much easier application
in two-dimensional design (Giannakos,2011a, b. Palyvou,
(2005, 17), (2009, 117). Tassios, 2008, 29-30).
The results of structural analysis of the tholos at Thorikos,
indicate the remarkable adaptability of Mycenaean
Engineering, in constructing the appropriate foundation
to disappear the circumferential tensile stresses. For better
distribution of stresses in the vault regularly hewn stones
with an eventual decreasing height of the courses were
used, in oblique courses in the perpendicular direction to
the main compression stresses. The planning of the dams
and canals reveals a sophisticated knowledge of water flow
as well (Cremasco & Laffineur, 1999, 139,142. Crowley,
2008, 269. Laffineur, 2012, 714).
Fortification constructions, perhaps the earliest collective
large-scale technical walls, are all specimens of high
technology (Hitchcock, 2012, 206. Palyvou, 2005, 1617) since the late 5th mil. BC at Strofila and Zagani,
the 3rd mil. BC in Panormos, Kastri, Aegina, Lerna,15
Hagia Irini and Fylakopi. They comprise double
walls, many times 2 meters thick with inclined outer
surfaces and transverse bindings, towers, bastions
-rectangular or semi-circular- as in Kastri and Aegina,
How Αγαμέμνων should be written in Linear B? An
obvious orthography could be:11
qnJLV=a-ka-me-mo-no
In the sequence of two consonants the first is omitted
except: σμ, σϝ, μν, νϝ (Promponas, 1990, 18), implying
that μν keeps μ before ν and it should be followed by ο as
ν does: mo-no=μνω(ν) the final ν omitted. Moreover the
word αἲξ-αἲγα=goat is written with za and not ka for γα
(Promponas, 1990, 228,221):
EP=a3-za=ai-za
Syllables (Ventris & Chadwick, 1956, 44) beginning with z
spell a ζ: *gj, *dj, *j, but there are puzzling alterations with
the k-syllables as: a-ze-ti-ri-ja=a-ke-ti-ri-ja (Knossos)
and
ze-i-ja-ka-ra-na=ke-i-ja-ka-ra-na (Pylos). The
syllabograms (Hooker, 1994, 104§100). P=za, {=ze,}=zo
represent closed consonants, initially uranic, that sounded
as kja, gja, dja. So Agamemnon could be written:
qPJLV=a-gja-me-mo-no/or/a-*gja-me-mo-no
that echoes very close to a-ka-ga-mu-na of the Hittite
tablet from Tudḫaliya’s II era.
Idomeneus and destructions of Knossos and Troy VI,
key factors for Trojan War?12
Idomeneus Ἂναξ of Knossos was one of the most
prominent Kings, included in the Assembly of seven
9
Ilias, 2-651. Probonas, 1978, 156: from linguistic analysis the verse
was shaped at a time earlier than of Mycenaean tablets. Ruijgh, 2011,
283,287: this formulaic verse goes back to the Proto-Mycenaean, ca
1600-1450 BC and Meriones is a Pre-Greek name of a Cretan hero.
Wiener, 2007, 12.
10
Presented in Giannakos, 2011a. More detailed analysis in Giannakos
2012, 88-90..
11
Linear’s B’ fonts from Curtis Clark: http://www.mockfont.com/old/.
12
Giannakos, 2011a. Detailed analysis in Giannakos, 2012, 160-174.
Technological level of Constructions and Prosperity
Period13
Details in Giannakos 2012, `75-202.
Tassios, 2008, 29. In Argolid Early Mycenaean: Cavanagh, 2008, 328,
Crowley, 2008, 268, Voutsaki, 2012, 104: MHIII-LHI period.
15
c. 2100-2500 BC, Tassios, 2008, 30. Dickinson, 2002, 158: Lerna III
early fortifications in EHII.
13
14
429
!
ramparts, ditches, gates with elaborate system of
protection and postern gates for assaults.
The bearing capacity of a stone wall increases with the
width and this is a technical knowledge gained with the
experience, or trial-and-error procedure,16 e.g. from 2m
thick wall to 5m thick. The earliest cyclopean
fortification walls at Mycenae were erected as early as
LHIIIA (Dickinson 2002, 160; Kelder 2010, 95), but the
true Cyclopean style exists in the Third Palace Period of
Crete, archaeological evidence in contrast to the aspect:
such elaborate fitting of well-dressed blocks seems to be
present in Hittite examples only (Figures 4, 5, 6).17
At this point we should underline that the first tholoi
appeared in Crete c. 2100-2000 BC, era when the Hittite
empire had not yet been formed and in Messenia c. 1600
BC, when Hittite empire counted 60 years of life, since
the Hattuša’s Great Temple was in use (Seeher 2006, 14)
later enough on 14th-13th century.
The Minoan architecture knew a diffusion (Palyvou
2009, 117-120, 2005, 187; Shaw 2009, 65, 70) from LMI
to LHIII: to the Aegean islands and Menelaion, Mycenae
and Tiryns where the first Throne Room is dated at MHLHI the latest, the Great Megaron with the first
fortification walls in LHIIIA during 14th century (Maran
2012, 724-725). Overall the Minoan influence on the
architecture of Mainland Greece is clear in: access
systems (e.g. Lion Gate at Mycenae similar to Phaistos
Propylon), orthostates with single-block pier bases giving to the buildings stability and strength- replaced by
plastered rubble masonry, the pier-and-door partition,
tappering columns, pictorial design, imitated in friezelike forms playing a symbolic role, axiality in courts and
lobbies, having roots in the MH and Early LH periods
and the Grand Staircase in Mycenae which may have
been built even by Minoans of Crete (Palyvou 2009, 117124).
Conspicuous consumption due to prosperity is evident in
the period of the great projects in construction of the
tholos tombs and the other technical works. When the
Treasury of Atreus was built, houses were demolished,
thousands of tons of rock and rubble were excavated and
removed, blocks of limestone and conglomerate were
quarried and carted in, fine stones were shipped from
other parts of Greece and skilled craftsmen worked for
many months to finish it, requiring tens of thousands of
man-days in expenditure of effort (Cavanagh 2008, 337;
Voutsaki 2012, 104). The grave goods of MHIII-LHI
periods provide assemblages of material culture
indicating levels of prosperity, social complexity, artistic
influence and wealthy societal groups (Shelton 2012,
141), showing an emerging elite in Mycenae (Colburn
2007, 208-209; French 2012, 672), possibly the likely
result of Mycenaean military prowess in this period.
This period of prosperity with the construction of huge
structures depicting the conspicuous consumption and the
development of original know-how is more compatible to
an expansionist period.
Destructions in Palaces
A series of destructions of the main palatial centers took
place in the period from 1400 – 1050/1030 BC
(Middleton 2010, 14-17). The destruction of early
Mycenaean Greece in LHIIIA1, reflect conflicts and are
followed by the foundation of the palaces and the
emergence of a stricter hierarchical order, depicted in
burial customs (Niemeier 2005, 16). Through LHIIIA to
LHIIIB less effort and fewer resources are put into tomb
construction, with the prestige items entirely lacking in
chamber tombs. Everywhere in mainland palaces were
built and rebuilt during this period and several
widespread but localized destructions were usually
followed by rebuilding on a massive scale (Cavanagh
2008, 335; Kelder 2010, 99; Shelton 2012, 145). A date
before 1240 BC (Wiener 2007, 18) should be more
appropriate for a massive naval expedition.
The extended catastrophes evidenced all over Mycenaean
Greece from LHIIIA118 and onwards could imply that
approximately by 1350 BC the Mycenaean palaces were
facing a prosperity period, growth of population but at the
same time the destructions in Palatial centers are
observed together with a lack of rich offerings in tombs
and a gradual degradation of power.
Summary and Conclusions
The naval expedition of 1000 ships against Troy
described in ancient literature, demands peaceful
conditions of everyday prosperity in homeland, since in
case of turbulence and turmoil there is no room for
weakening ‘home’ by transferring -in a massive scale- the
military forces abroad. The prosperity period in Greece as the tholos tombs depict- is between 1600 and 1400 BC
since afterwards the destructions in Palaces begin with
increasing intense. This era was the heyday of
Mycenaean prosperity, technical achievements and
wealth. Their technological level and know-how were
extremely high and of cutting-edge both in construction
works and production of metallic objects: bronze, silver
and iron even since 16th century BC or even earlier. After
c. 1350 BC Egyptians and Hittites considered
Mycenaeans much less prominent.
After its destruction c. 1375 BC, Knossos functions only
as cult center. One of the most prominent Achaean
leaders -in Iliad-, Idomeneus is not at all possible to have
reigned after c. 1375 BC -at the latest- and a great
number of dismantled or ruined chariots are listed in
Knossos's tablets around 1400 BC. Is it -possiblypointing to internal conflicts just after the return from
Troy?
Troy VI during f/g phases present an extended
housecleaning (~1400 BC). Is it a possible houses'
refurbishment after a change of Royal Dynasty supported
by Mycenaean invaders, intruding in the city by the pro-
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16
See Laffineur 2012, 716: The experimental character of Mycenaean
architecture at Thorikos.
17
Thaler 2008, 298-299 comparing the Treasury of Atreus and the Great
Temple’s wall at Hattuša, and Maner (this volume) for the twodimensional arc in Hattuša and Tiryns.
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18
A summary of destructions is in Giannakos 2011a; a more detailed
description is in Giannakos 2012, 203-207.!
430
!
Greek side of Trojans, under Aeneas and Antenor, mainly
after ‘Wilusa's defect from Ḫatti’ before or during the
reign of Tudḫaliya II? (Giannakos 2011a). If so, after the
Troy's conquest during LHIIA2 (c. 1380-1310 BC) the
great period of Mycenaean impact and expansion on the
coast of Anatolia and Dodecanese was observed (Wiener
2007, 10,11).
The -relatively- ‘abundant’ evidence from Tudḫaliya's II
reign (~1425/1420-1400/1390 BC) of Mycenaean's
technology martial objects and depictions and the textual
evidence in Hittite archives of Aḫḫiyawan military
activities in Asia Minor, Lukka and Cyprus, is compatible
to ancient greek literature and Hittite and Egyptian
sources. Extended destructions in Cyprus at c. 1400 BC
have been recorded in archaeology, which immediately
preceded a notable influx of Mycenaean influence or
even temporary control of the island. Texts referring to
Tudḫaliya's era possibly refer Ἀτρείδης raiding to Cyprus
and Ἀγαµέµνων king of islands, similarly to Iliad's and
Egyptian archives' descriptions. All the three main
linguistic/racial groups of the Hittite kingdom were
present as allies of Troy in Iliad: Palaians/Paphlagones,
Luwians /Lycians, and Nesumnili/Nesa/Hatti probably as
‘Ἀργύρου γενέθλη’. Evidence from Egyptian archives
refers to T/Danaja from 42nd year of Thutmose III to
almost Tutankhamun (~1462-1350 BC) as well as well
known cities like Mycenae, Knossos, Phaistos, Ilion etc.
After this period Mycenaean palaces enter in a turbulent
period of turmoil quite unstable with gradually increasing
magnitude of destructions, not compatible to a huge (of
1000 ships) military expedition to Troy.
Is it possible that Trojan War is more ancient than
conventional dating accepted up to now and possibly
dated between 1425 and 1370 BC? If Iliad's verses are
dated at 16th-14th century (before Linear B tablets) with
Meriones, Ajax etc. we could infer that the story of Troy
was first composed sometime between 1450-1050 BC
and Iliad's final version was a blend of two narratives one
from the Trojan and one from the Greek side. Is it
possible to maintain a core of real events from
Tudḫaliya's II period?
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