University of Nigeria
Research Publications
UGWUOKE, Modesta .I.
Title
Faculty
Arts
Department
Linguistics and Nigerian Languages.
February, 1997
Signature
Applied Linguistics: A Selected
Bibliographical Study of its meaning.
Date
PG/MA/93/14871
APPLIED LINGUISTICS t A SELECTED
BJBLIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF ITS MEANING.
A PROJECT
PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
MASTERS DEGREE ( M . A ) IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS
BY
HODESTA I J E O M A UGWUOKE
FEBRUARY, 1997.
CERTIFICATION
Modesta Ijeoma Ugwuoke, ~ G / ~ A / 9 3 / 1 4 8 7 1 , a
p o s t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t i n t h e Department of L i n g u i s t i c s
a n d N i g e r i a n Languages, U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka,
ha6 s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o m p l e t e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c o u r s e s
and p r o j e c t worke f o r. t. h e , d e g r e e o f M a s t e r o f Arte (H.A)
i n Applied L i n g u i s t i c s .
..
The work embodied i n t h i s p r o j e c t r e p o r t i s
o r i g i n a l and has n o t been s u b m i t t e d i n p a r t o r i n f u l l
f o r any dipJoma o r d e g r e e o f t h i s o r a n y o t h e r U n i v e r s i t y .
P r o f e s s o r B.O. O l u i k p e
Supervisor
Department o f L i n g u i s t i c s &
N i g e r i a n Languages
U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a , Nsukka.
D r (Mrs) C.1.
Urekeonwu
Head o f D e p a r t m e n t
Department of L i n g u i s t i c s &
N i g e r i a n Languages
U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka.
Engr..
Ernclrn I J p ~ ~ o k c
A rnrp b r o t h ~ r
For t h e l o v e
For the inopi.rntion
F o r t h e encouragement
F o r what w o r d s c a n n o t e x p r e s s .
and
To
God A l m i g h t y
For e v e r y t h i n g
F o r i t ; i s his w i l l
t h q t we l i v e
t o r e a l i s e t h i s dream,
ABSTRACT
The t ; h e o r a t i c ~ ldevcloprnentn i n a p p l i e d linguistics
i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g c o u p l e d w i t h t h e e m e r g e n c e o f new
a r e a s o f l i n g u i s t i c a p p l i c a t i o n h a v e made t h e u s e o f t h e
t e r m a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o a p p e a r ambiguous.
In the
l i g h t of t h e a b o v e , d i f f e r e n t a t t e m p t s by d i f f e r e n t
authors t o discuss applied l i n g u i s t i c s r e s u l t i n different
v i e w s of t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e
c o n c e p t o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s becomes s l i p p e r y a n d
elusive. .
We h a v e , t h e r e f o r e , s e l e c t e d a number of l i t e r a t u r e ,
c o l l a t e d a n d s t u d i e d them a g a i n s t t h e b a c k d r o p o f some
.. . - .
evaluative criteria.
I n t h i s s t u d y , we a r e a b l e t o
d e t e r m i n e t o what e x t e n t e a c h o f t h e s e l i t e r a t u r e can
contribute t o the understanding of applied linguistics.
We h a v e a l s o , b a s e d on t h i s s t u d y , t r i e d t o p i n down t h e
.
.
concept of applied l i n g u i s t i c s .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I t i s j o y f u l t o s e e a dream r e a l i s e d , more j o y f u l
when t h e drcam i s n o b l e , and most j o y f u l when t h e dream i s
R
p r o d u c t of n o b l e m i n d s ,
It i s , t h e r e f o r e , my p l e a s u r e
t o ncknowledge t h e n o b l e mindn t h n t worked t o g e t h e r i n
v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s t o b r i n g t h e dream t o f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n ,
My p r o f o u n d g r a t i t u d e g o e s t o my a c a d e m i c f a t h e r a n d
s u p e r v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r B.0,
Oluikpe,
As a f a t h e r h e t o o k
i t upon h i m s e l f as a c h a l l e n g e a n d saw t o i t t h a t I was n o t
overcome by f i n a n c i a l p r o b l e m s ,
He l i s t e n e d p a t i e n t l y t o
my b o r i n g p r o b l e m s w i t h o u t g e t t i n g b o r e d a n d p r o f f e r e d
p r o m p t s o l u t i o n e t h a t g a v e p s y c h o l o g i c n l b u f f e r t o my
a c a d e m i c work.
A. t t h i s p o i n t , I must n o t f a i l t o t h a n k
.
h i s w i f e Mrs E.N.
co-operation.
Oluikpe f o r h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and
As a s u p e r v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r O l u i k p e ,
in his
shrewd i n t e l l i g e n c e , academic a s s i d u i t y and t e n a c i o u s
i n c l i n a t i o n t o perfection, turned an almost impossible
.
~ i t u a t i o na r o u n d .
*
By h i s c r i t i c a l comments, h e b r o u g h t
me b a c k t o . t h e r i g h t t r a c k when I seem t o w a n d e r i n t o t h e
.
.
.
..
unknown a n d p a t i e n t l y g u i d e d me t o t h e end o f t h i s work.
Daddy, I c a n n o t t h a n k you enough.
I am h i g h l y i n d e b t e d t o D r P.I.
Ndukwe who i c n o t
-.
o n l y i n s t r u m e n t a l t o my p o s t g r a d u a t e a d m i s s i o n b u t a l s o
t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e programme.
I found
i n him n d e p e n d a b l e b r o t h e r who k e p t h i s d o o r o p e n f o r me
whenever I n e e d e d h i s h e l p .
He g a v e me s p e c i a l i n s p i r a t i o n
ant1 cncouragpment which I w i l l l i v e t o remember.
I a l s o have f i p e c i a l f a t h e r s , b r o t h e r s and f r i e n d s
;.n l).r F . A .
Ilr P7.E.
Nwachukwu, D r O.S.
Iwundu, C.N.
Ogwuel-eka, B.N.
Okebalama, a n d 1.17.
~'~~asiudu,
Nwadike.
Each
o f t h e s e n o b l e men has a t o n e t i m e o r t h e o t h e r o f f e r e d
b o t h m a t e r i a l and moral a s s i s t a n c e .
I a l s o wish t o
a c k n o w l e d g e t h e immense i m p a c t c r e a t e d on my s t u d i e s by
i n s p i r a t i o n s from my a c a d e m i c m o t h e r s , s i s t e r s a n d f r i e n d s :
D r ( ~ r s )C . I .
M.
I k e k e o n ~ , G.1.
Onyejakwe, E. U t i p , a n d E.A.
Nwaozuzu, R . I .
Okorji,
Ogbonna-Ohuche.
I have a l s o g r e a t l y enjoyed t h e companionship of t h e
f o l l o w i n g c o l l e a g u e s a n d f r i e n d s ; Mr B o n i f a c e M.
ash,
who w i t t i n g l y s t i m u l a t e d me i n t o a c t i o n w h e n e v e r a n y t r a c e
o f l a x i t y s e t i n , Mrs R.O.
Nenne.
Okeke, Mr a n d Mrs Bmoh, Madam
They a l l g a v e t h e i r i n v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o
t h i s noble course.
I w i l l n o t be a b l e t o f o r g e t t h e
1993/94..- ~ o s t g. .r a d u a t es t u d e n t s o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f
L i n g u i s t i c s a n d N i g e r i a n Languagee.
p l a y e d , e x c. h a. n g e d j o k e s ,
As c l a s s m a t e s , we
c r i t i c i s m s a n d humour which h e l p e d
t o s h a p e my work a n d o u t l o o k t o l i f e .
They i n c l u d e :
M o n s i e u r L e o n a l d O k o l i , M r C h r i s t i a n A n o z i e , Mr Femi B a l o g u n ,
Adewole, M r A l i , Bro. F e s t u s E z e ,
a n d Rev. J i k e j i o f o r .
Memory o f them w i l l . c o. n t i n u e t o r a n k l e .
My a p p r e c i a t i o n a l s o g o e s. t.o Miss G.N.
C.0.
E ~ a m a , F.N.
,
Onyishi,
Eze (Mrs) A. I. Ugwu, Nr a n d Mrs D a n i e l Ugwuoke,
viii
b / i -1 1 in m Odo,
Mr Pnul N n n d j
TJ oc.nc, T h a o p h 3 . 1 ~Nwokpor
~
,
,
M r Ccl r . n t l n o Mridu
,
Jutlc
a n d P e t c r Neuuta f o r t h e i r
jmrncnse f i n n n c j - n l and m o r a l s u p p o r t t h r o u g h o u t t h e d u r a t i o n
o f t h i R programme.
I hnvc a l s o f o u n d good r e l a t i o n s i n M r C.I.
my a b l e t y p i s t , M
r I. O z i o k o , M r Ekeleme E.,
E l d e r Uka, M r C.S.
Amoke, M r S.C.
Ojobor,
Mrs O b a y i ,
Ugwuijem a n d M r O k p o r i e .
I owe you a g r e a t d e a l .
I s i n c e r e l y a c k n o w l e d g e my g r e a t i n d e b t e d n e s s t o
M r George O k e d i n a c h i I l o e n e , a d a r l i n g b r o t h e r a n d f r i e n d ,
who p r o m p t e d , p r o d d e d a n d p r o p e d m e t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e e m i n g
i n t e r m i n a b l e p e r i o d of t h i s study.
He o f f e r e d h i s
i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e , b u t more t h a n t h a t , p r o d u c e d
i . n g e n i o u s comments a n d c r i t i c i s m s which h e l p e d t o s h a r p e n
my clumsy i d e a s .
D e a r , y o u r e n c o u r a g e m e n t was a g r e a t p r o p
t o m y self c o n f i d e n c e .
My g r a t i t u d e a l s o g o e s t o my a b l e s t e p f a t h e r
M r J o s e p h Ugwuoke Eyaka ( ~ g b o o ) , my g r a n d - m o t h e r ,
Mrs N g o z i k a
Agbogo U g G o k e (Mama I j e o r n a ) , a n d m y m o t h e r Mrs C a r o l i n e
Ovute Ugwuoke, who d e s p i t e a l l o d d s h a v e p a t i e n t l y b o r n e
my o v e r d u e b u r d e n s .
May God l e t thorn l i v e t o r e a p t h e
f r u i t s of t h e i r l a b o u r .
I a l s o c o u n t on t h e a ~ s i s t a n c e
o f my f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s : M r s S u z a n Ugwuoke, M r a n d Mrs
I j o n i f a c e Ugwuoke
, Peter
Ugwuoke
, Miss
I f eoma N n a d i ,
Olcwudili Nnadi, Mceiru a n d my p e t C a r o l i n e Ugwuoke.
ix
Great; i.s my i n d e b t e d n e s s t o Engr.
n brother par excellence,
ccncrousity.
Erneka Ugwuoke P h i l i p ,
f o r h i s u n r e s e r v e d l o v e , c a r e and
Ae i s my r e l i a b l e a n d d e p e n d a b l e g u i d e and
..
mentor a n d w i t h h i s s o l i d a n d u n d a u n t e d s u p p o r t we a r e a b l e
t o conquer a t l a s t .
B r o t h e r , i t i s o n l y God who c a n t h a n k
you enough.
F i n a l l y , I am g r a t e f u l t o God A l m i g h t y t o whom we owe
o u r v e r y e x i s t e n c e a n d power t o c o n q u e r and s u b d u e e v e r y
problem.
I t i s h i s i n f i n i t e w i l l a n d by h i s s p e c i a l g r a c e
a n d mercy t h a t dl t h e s e h e l p s a n d a s s i s t a n c e came.
g i v e him all t h e G l o r y i n J e s u s '
name.
We
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pnge~
i
1'1TJJ3
C JX'L'I F'ICA'I.!lON
DEll1CATION
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CRAPTER
INTRODUCTION
Background To The S t u d y
S t a t e m e n t s f The P r o b l e m
P u r p o s e o f The S t u d y
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f The S t u d y
Scope and D e l i m i t a t i o n
BIBLIOGBAPHICAL STUDY
I n t r o d n c tion
Books
Articles
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Summary
Conclusion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ii
iii
iv
V
vi
1 1 i s t ; o t y assoo.iated language s t u d y with t r a d i l i o n a l
p,~-an~l~ra
b ru, t b s i ' o r o
hlc..; t e r n
1 ' 1 t~o ,
world,
ttle
was o t'
ill
1 9 t h c e n t u r y , l a n ~ u n g e ,i n t h o
t c r e s t only t o philosophers.
t h e Greek p h i l o s o y t l e r ,
f o r instance, w a s t h e
I ' . i r s t persol1 t o d : L s t i ~ ~ g u i sbl el t w e e n n o u n s a n d v e r b s .
Ilowever,
i n the
1 9 t h c e n t u r y , t h e s t u d y of l a n g u a g e
ac1optc.d i n i t s a y p r o a c l l ,
t l l c scientific a p p r o a c h .
' l ' l ~ i s n e w apl)r.oach b o c n ~ r ~we h a t
.I .i
II(:IJ
i s r e f e r r e d to a s
is t.Lcs.
I.,inf;l.li.s t s o f p a s t and p r e s e n t
g e n e r n t i o n s have
c o.l>cer.nod t h e m s o l v e s w i L1i the developmon t o f t h e o r i e s
a n d p r - i n c i p l e s about;
t h e n a t u r e o f human l a n g u a g e .
'I'11j.s t h e o r e t i c a l . d e v e l o p m e n t h a s p r o g r a s s e d i n the
areas o f h i s t;or.icol/coutprrra t i v a l i n e u i s t i c s ,
sy
01.
1.1
{ . a x ar~rl serr~nnt.i.cs wtlich
t i ~ e o ~t.i.ca1.
-o
1L
I
It ~ c
yhonol-ogy,
lo(;et h e r c o n s t i t u t e p u r e
'i'he t h e o r e t i c a l linguist
s l ; ~ ~ c l i e .lsa n g r ~ a g o f o r its own s a k e .
He is i n t o r e s t e d
i n t h e i n h t ? r e n t n a t u r e o f Inn{,uap,e a n d d e s i r e s t o
1,:it1/;11np,e
tins
CI
1
HO
l > o e ~ si 1 1 1 d j
o t . l ~ c r .n ~ p c c tol'
~ IIUIIIIII~ l j f o .
r e l a t 1.011 t o
SOIIIC
' I ' l r l ~ i s b o c : r u ! r o "tk1or.e
i m p o r t a n t human p r o b l c n ~ s i n t o w h l c h 1ane;uage e r l t e r s
3t.c'
j 11 L i m a t e l
i
111
11 f ' l
y arid on u l ~ i c li ~t e x e r t s s u c h a p r o f o u n d
lrollco t t ~ tn a n u l ~ d o r s t n r l c l i nof'
~
c : o ~t, r l l , u t e
'~'~IIIs,
i t 8
m ~ c h a n i a n lw o u l d
mat or-1n.l Ly to tlio.Lr sol11t i o n " ,
Gleoeon
( 196 1: 1 )
n t l i e r s p e c l a l l a t s l i k e t h e psychologists, a o c i a l
nri t h r o p o l o g i a t ~ ~~, o c i o l o g i tss , s p e e c h t h e r a p i a t e ,
c o m p u t e r s c i e n t i s ? ~ , t o nsnre j u s t a f e w , h n v e a l l
s t l ~ d i e dl i n g u i s t i c p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r own
fi o l d s .
However,
eacil s p e c i a l i s t h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d
w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of' l a n g u a g e t h a t t o u c h e s on
l l i s o r h e r own s t u d i e s .
. I a ~ l ~ ; . : u a ~ i=ne , p a r t ,
or. b e l l a v i o u r ,
"The p s y c h o l o g i s t s e e i n g
a s a manifestation o f mental a c t i v i t y
the speech patho.logist being i n t e r e s t e d
i n t l ~ en o r m a l p r o c e s s o f l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o ~a~n d
r e t e n t i o n a n d how a b n o r m a l p a t t e r n s d e v i a t e f r o m t h i s ,
a n d t h e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s e e i n g l a n g u a g e a s a medium
lor- 1itorature,
etc.",
A l l e r t o r l ( 197952).
A 1 1 t h o s e a s p e c t s o f I ) u n ~ a rp~r o b l e m s n e e d
S ir1y71.1 i s t i c knowledge a s a nroans t o p r o v i d i n g t h e i r
solutions.
Hence,
tltcories generated i n the appropriate
a r e a s o f p u r e l i n g u i s t i c s f i n d their a p p l i c a t i o n s
F o r tliis r e a s o l i ,
JIPT'C!.
t.11:1
t.
such problorn-solving e x e r c i s e s
J . i n g i l i s t i c k~iowle d g e a r c c o . l l e c t i v e l y c e l l e d
1 1 3 ~
.
- 3 "Such f i e l d s
app.1 i o d l i n g u i s t i c s ( i n a b r o a d s e n s e ) .
of
s t l ~ d i e sL i k e psycliol i r r l : u . i s t i c s ,
; i l ~ c l tIie
s o c i o l i r 1 ~ ; u ls t i c s ,
l i k e a r o i n some s e n s e p a r t
l i l i f = u i s t i c s but
of applied
t h e y llava growl1 t o s u c i l a n e x t e n t t h a t
t l i e y n r e now f u l l - f l e d c o d
sopara t e
disciplines".
ELgirl ( 1 9 7 9 1 1 8 % ) .
S i r n i l a r l y 'Applied Lin(;uis t i c s '
in
Lhe t i t l e o f
i n the s e n s e u s e d
t h i s work i s a d i s t i n c t f i e l d of study
w11 i c h i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s a p p l i e d l i n g t r i s t i c s i n
J . a l l f ; u a ~ e tenclliri(: or- edllcil Liorlal l i n g u i s t i c s ( c f .
1980, S t e r n
Spolsky
1983) b e c a u s e i t Grew o u t of a J - i r i g u i s t i c
approach t o language teaclli~ig.
T h e o r i ~ : i n o f n y p l i e d l i n / : u i s t i c s 3s u s e d i n t l ~ c
t h i s work Ilas i t s r o o t s i n a c o n s c i o u s
t i t l e of
a t tempt
t o provi.de l i n g u i s t i c answers t o t h e p r o b l e m s
o f s e c o n d and f o r e i / ~ i1anguny;o
teaching.
The whole
o x ~ r c i s es t a r t e d a r o u n d 1 9 4 0 ' s a t tile o u t s e t o f
s e c o l i d wor.Ld w a r , M n c k c y
the
( 1 9 6 6 ) , S t ~ a r w o o d s mLh
i
( 197'7) ,
Elor~Lton ( 196'j), S t e r i l ( 1 9 8 3 ) , Van K l s et a t ( 1 9 8 4 ) .
Tlie o u t b r e r t l t of
secorici w o r l d war s i g n a l l e d t o t h e
UII i t e d S t a t o s army thn t
ccattered
t 1 i e i r s o l d i e r s would s o o n be
t l : r o u ; ; l ~ o ~ ~t tl l e (:lobe.
TJley,
therefore,
saw
a n 11r-gent n e e d t o ost:\l, l is11 L:rl~y,ua~:n t r a i r i i r ~ gf n c i l i t i o s
of'
t l i c i r own t o erl:~I)Lo t l i e i r s o 1 d i c r . s t o l e n r n a s T a s L
a s p o s s i1)l.e t h c new I a n g ~ ~ : i t ; s o
sf
t h ~ i re n e m i e s .
-
0 -
t l ~ cs t t ~ t i ct?s~ ~T o r f o r - d : ; n
III;I l s l t s
1~:):;
1.11 (?
.I:\r~(:ll:r(;ct e a c l l i ~ i ~ : . 'rllis
tlirb i t i ( : c ? ~ ) t . i ool'
~ ~ C o r ~ L r n tsi . v e A11o1ysj.s ( C A )
;\tlv:\t~cc?tlt,y I{ol,c?r.t J,:)tlo,
:I
t ~ r Lo
l 1 i llt:rJa 1
rrlc?
1.n t l ~ o 1 9 5 0 ' s ,
;)lltf
011
,
wlli.cli
w l l l c l ~ wag t ) a s e ( l
.
1.l1otls
soine . I . ~ I I i~s; tI Is grew dissn t i s f i o t l
w i L l i s t r u c t u r a l i a m a n d tlie lo11t:uage t e a c h i n g nio t h o d
ansociated with i t .
Chornsky ( 1957) s i g n a l l e d t h e e r a
grnnlrnar w h i c h sllook
ol' T r o n s f o r r n a t i o n a l G e n e r a t i v e ( T G )
t l i e f o u n d a t i o n s o f s t r u c t u r a l i s n ~i n l i n g u i s t i c s , a n d
by i n i p l i c a t i o ~ ~osf a u d i o l i n g u a l i u m i n l a n g u a g e t o a c l r i n g
a s a t t a c k s i n t o n s . i . f ' i e c 1 on t l i e e r n p i r i s t i c l i n g u i s t i c s
n11cl b e h a v i o u r i s t
p s y c l l o l o ~ y of' tile a u d i o l i n g u a l t l l e o r y ,
A s nri a l t o r n a t i v e ,
a 'rat;ionalist'
o r 'cognitive'
t h o o r y e m e r g e d i n w h i c h t r a n s f'or~riat i o n a l g e n e r a t i v c
c o n c e p t s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e l i n g u i s t i c conrponen ;t
b ~ i c a ~ ia~s es o c i a t e d w i t h a
psychology of lan.pngo
'co[piitivo8
learning.
view o f
and
Llle
"This theory w a s
p l a c e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o an ' e a ~ p i r i c i s t ' t h e o r y ,
that i s ,
p e d a g o g i c a l l y a u d i o l i l ~ p a l . i s r r ~p,s y c h o l o g i c a 1 l . y
b c i ~ a v i o u r i s m , and l i n g u i s t i c a l l y s l ; r u c t u r a . l i s m "
,
S term
( 1983; 1 6 9 ) .
Around
1 9 6 0 ' s o t ~ d7 0 ' s
,
d e s c r i l ~ t i v elin(:uis
ts
rrlade i n s i t ~ k i t i n t o t h o s t u d y of' I . a n ~ u a g ea s a s o c i a l .
. f ' ~ r n c t i o n ,e v o . 1vod k l l e model
1'nr.t;
of
s e l ~ l a ~ ~ t ai n
cd
s accepted that
t i l e r ~ ~ o n n i ro~fg a 1v'07--(1OX'
S ~ I I ~ O I I C Ol i e s
i n tlre
rl:\ t c 1 1 . c
o f m e a n i n g , i n s i p J ~ t s f r o m s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s i n to
s c i c i l c e a n d e t l u c a t i o n or] t l ~ e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n l a i i ( ; u a g e
:111cl
c d u c a t i o l ~ a lp l a n n i n g a r c a 1 1 n v a i l a b l e i n t i l o
c o u r s e d e s i g n t o s a t i s f y t i l e w i d e r a n g e o f interests
r e p r e s e n t e d i n the a c t i v i t y o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g " .
A s i d e a s fx.onl t h o s e v a ~ . . i c i u sd i s c i p l i n e s w e r e
i l l
tegrn ted,
a new a p p r o a c h t o 1anei;uuge t e a c t ~ i n gk ~ ~ o w r i
a s f u n c t i o n a . l / ~~ t i o r i a l o r C o l ~ ~ r r ~ c ~ r l i c a at ipvper o a c h t o
I n r ~ ~ tue a~ c h
~ i n~ g e e v o l v e d .
nn arialysjs,
'l'l~i.-, ap1)roacll a d v o c a t e s
s y ~ i t h e s . i s , illld t e a c h i n ( ; of
dynamic d i s c o u r s e
r a t h e r than the decorltextualized sentence.
Consetiue11t.7y ,
-
.-
)j
I . i ~ ~ ~ ; ~t it .cis! i F ? C L U S ~ V B . I y ,
1)111;
o r . 1nl11.t i d i s c i p 1 . i n n r . y Tic2l.d
w a s
~ ~ o ~ ) ~ ~ l : ~a sr - ai sI IoI P d
;~IIS
I . c ; t ~ - n o r 5w i t 1 1 :>
r , c ? o ( l g o l'
c o t l r s e s t h a t would
of' s t ; u t l j .
an
ill
t(jr-di:icil)l.i~t:~ry,
c l r n w j lie f'rSonl v a
:I
i ous
T l ~ ec o r ~ c ~ , ?of'
t N e e d s A11a.1.y3 . i ~( N A )
d.isciplinos.
sollrco
cc.1 P C t i c ,
lnec
o [ ' s t u t i y i 1 ) g t11e l a n ~ t u a { ; e
v.i.ow l o d ( ! ~ : i ~ r ~ i lr:ilgr ~ ~ ~ ~ n f , : o
t tllcir. needs.
Hence,
language
f o ~ s. ~ ) e c i . r i c / ~ : a r ~ c r ap. ul r p o s e s e m e r g e d a s a C o r o l l a r y .
STATEMENT 01' THE' PlWHLEs'Pi
1 .2
A s t h u d e v e l o p r n e r ~t of
applied linguistics i n
. I n ~ ~ k ; u a g et e n c t j i n g c o n t i n u e d ,
r o l . l . i ~ ~ogu t .
a l o t of' l i t e r a t u r e w e r o
V e r y r~larly o f t l l e s e li t a r a t u r e a r e
of' t 1 1 n s u b j e c t , rnally o t l i e r s a r e c i e i ' i t l i t i v e ,
are
ill
trotiuctory
l. L v ( ~ a n d ,
.
crj-tical
y e t othctrs
I n t r u t h , many o f t h e m a r e a u t h o r i t a -
t ~ o ~ ~ co
e n, s t i t u t e f r a r n e s of.' r e f e r e n c e s .
l i o w e v e r , i t a p p e a r s t o us t h a t
some of
v a c c o u s a s f a r a s t h c s u b j e c t i s concerned.
thorn a r e
T h i s stems
f r c s n ~ t h e i r inadequacy oi' t l l e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n ,
f a l s o dichotomies,
t l ~ ei r r e l e v a i t~ o p p o s i t i o n s ,
the
t h o \qcak.
c o ~ ~ c ~ y t u a . tl ii oz na s , a11d t h e n e g l . e c t o f r e a l l y c r i t i c a l
i s s u e s and v a r i a b l e s .
t11ei:r
I n o t h e r words,
some a u t h o r s b a s e
d . i . ! ; c u s s i o ~ l on p r e t e n t i o u s o ~ t dunfourldnd a s s u m p t i . o n s .
'l'lie- r o s u l t
i s t11a t
tlla d e i ' i r ~Lioii
i
of' a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
h a s remained s l i p p e r y and e l u s i v e .
c i r l n ~ i n a t e di n a f u z z y g r a s p
npll-licrl
or
This s t a n c e has
the very essence of
l i n ~ u i tsi c s t o otlucri t i o n a . 1 a r i n ~ i n i tra
s
tors,
- 3 I :1~1(~,11ap,o
toactiors
I i~
I ~ ; Ii I~ ; t , i ( : 9 ,
,
a1~1
Q V U I I 91, I I < I V I ~ t s o f n ] ) l ) l i . n d
t o tilt)
I v n r n o r s oi' npj)l i c ? c l
I>III
111
no
~ I.a n ~ ) p l i o dl i n ( ; u i s t i c s alld
1 irl;:rii s t i css n r
s t l i t , o f son10 aspect. 0 1 .
c.x i n t.c.r~cc. i s b y
i l l
O X ~ C I J ~t. l
Illcri>rls
P
s a i d t o be
i l l
> 1 1 1 / , 1 1 i : i t i c S roal.i.t,y whoso
o l > vi u c r s .
a l l e v e n t s , i t i s ovidont tt~crt t h i s confusion
tlio d c f illi. t i o n of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ,
h a s found
s x p r e s s i o n i n tho p e r e n i a l complaints about t h o
u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a t e o f lnrlgllage t e a c h i n g arid a b o u t i t s
ineffectiveness.
T h i s u n f o r t u n a t e s i t u a t i o n h a s beon
r e v e a l e d i n the restlessrioss i n the language teaching
prof'ossion,
tlie v a i n s e a r c h f o r a p a n a c e a ,
with language i n s t r u c t i o n ,
011
l o n ~ t l n g etonchirig,
b a t t le s
,
tho impatience
t l ~ or a p i d t u r n o v e r o f i d e a s
t h o lorip, l l i s t o r y o f t h e method
a n d o f d i s c o v e r i e s a l ~ db r e a k t h r o u g l i s a n d t l l o i r
c o r i c o i n ~ r ~ i t at n d i s e n c h a n t m e n t
.
A l l t h e s e c a s t a gloomy
a11d s a d c n v a l c a d e o f d i s d a i n o v e r a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s
a n d the f i e l d o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .
stake,
therefore,
The p r o b l e m at
i s , t o wlja t e x t e n t d o the l i t e r a t u r e
c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s s l i p p e r y and e l u s i v e n a t u r o o f a p p l i e d
1 - i n g u i s t i c s and i t s a s s o c i a t e d problems?
1 .3
YIIIIPUSE OF
s'rmy
I n l i n e w i t h t h e problonl s t a r t e d a b o v e , i t i s t h o
p u r p o s e o f t h i s work t o make a c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l ol'
e;>tr11
o f n s e l e c t e d n1~111ber
of' I l . i l ; e r o t u r e on a p p l i e d
tile e s s e n c e of' a p p l i e d 1 i . n g u i s t i c s would be
I)y
captured
t11.i~
o x o r c i s o , arid t i l e ovornJ.1 n v a l u a . t i o n o f
tlle
1.e
l n t i v e t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s o f t h e s o u r c e s attained.
l q i
I L a l s o be made o b v i o u s h o w
1I;
tile a u t h o r s , a p p r o a c t i i ~ l g
t h e s u b j e c t f r o m s u c h d i f f e r e n t s t a n d p o i n t s , come t o
I n t h o a n d , i t w i l l be c l e a r t h a t w h i l e some
l i t e r a t u r e a r e most s u i t e d S o r t h e s t u d y of applied
Ij.n[;uis t i c s ,
o t h e r s a r e l e a s t s u i t e d f o r tile same
pr~rj>osc. 1t i s o u r f u ~ ~ l n n ~ cL :ar1l ~ b ~ j e c t i v eh ,e n c e ,
to
s i f ' t . t l ~ og r a i ~ rf r o m tile clinf'l' b y r e v e a l i n g t h r o u g h
tkrjs s t u d y t h o s e a p p l i e d I j . n ( ~ u i s t i c sl i t e r a t u r e t h a t
I,;>vc? nr.r.i.vod a t
SII
a n ova 1 . 1 ~ nivc!
t.
,jucly;cn~erlt of' t l l c rel.al,.i.vc
I;l~o s e t
i t ; n l , i 1 i. 1.y o f
rlxlcinr.s t ; ; ~ r ~ d i n [oy. T
1
I
i .I i
.
I;lic?
1.i t e r - ; r t , ~ ~ r - .r i?~ ~ tr h e o v e r n - l 1
t , l i o o r - y a r ~ r l ~ ) r - ; ~ c i , i co ef a p j ) l i e d
F o r - ~ ) ~ ~ r ' l ) o so cf '! !v ~
n l ic1.i t y
sr1(:11n v n . l . ~ ltn i v e
too1.s n s O b j c c t i v i t;y,
,
wo
s l ~ ILL
a
~?III~).~O)'
Cohorel~co,
E x p l n r ~ a t o r y f o r c e , d e p t l i of' c o v e r a g e and c o n s i s t e n c y i n
orlr. nlla l y s i s of' t h o s e t I . . i t e r n t r . ~ r o .
A t t h i s poilit,
sonit? b r ' i e f
n o t e s would h e l p t o
e x p l i c n t o o u r c o r i c e p t i o r ~o f
tliese e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a .
Objectivity:
t11e a u t h o r s a r e b o u n d t o ,
by
Heirit;
~UIWIIIS,
t l ~ e i rp e r s o n a l d i s p o s i t i o n , b e s w a y e d o r c a r r i e d
away b y s e n t i m e n t s .
Tlie a s s u r r i p t i o r ~ of
a11 n ~ ~ t l l ow ri l l d o f ' i n F t e l . y a f ' f ' e c t
.J..iI;c!.rature
.'
t h i s s t a n c e by
the q u a l i t y of h i s
L)epending on l l i s t l i s p o s i t i o n t o t h e s u b j o c t
,
] ) o si t i v o or' ~ l e c o t i v o , h e nlny d o c i.dc t o i n f l a t e o r
d c ? t ' l a t ; o i 5 s u s s alld f a c t s a r i s i . r i g therein.
tilerefore,
expec tod
I t is,
ttia t a g o o d a u t h o r be d e v o i d o.C
s e l l t i m e n t arid a s o b j e c t i v e a s p o s s i b l e ,
presenting
v e r i f ' i a 1 , l . e a , ~ da u t h o r i t a t i v e f a c t s a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t
u n t l n r c l i . r c ~ ~ s . ~ i i oA~t i] . n u t l ~ o r ' s .LoveJ o f o b j e c t i v i t y ,
t i l e p r o b l o n ~a t s t a k e ( i . e .
Col~crence: T h i s
i.3
t l ~ ei l l u s i v e n a t u r e o f a p p l i e d
a110t . l t o r e v n l
I I : ~t
i v e t o o l employod
- 1::
1 j
I
1
J
t
I I : , ~ . O , ~ ~ I o !l It
i
11 0 1 1 1 %
i
III~II(IS
a11
;
I
;III
J
I)rc-rtbll
r . c ~ l ; l l i o t ~ . i t1r1:1y
~ l l ~ lot I)(.
irlll
i c.11 i d e a s f i t
i l l
.
o ~ - < i 1 > 1a . ,
.?\dRT'CilOSS
I > ( \ f w c s ( r f l t 1 1 v i(l(3n.s
-
to
s y 5 totr~nt i c s e q l l c n c e
of
~
111
( 1 11
~
0t11er words,
wt1ic11
1
wo11t d
05
t,11)1i 511
1 oy,i c a 1 r o l a t i o n s h i p
:\
1r.tl :111d
\J
i f l10\1t W I I L C ~ I ~ I I Q
~ ~ c ~ ~ c c ~ i v Ar ~ Litcar.rltrlr,o
t l .
ill
OIIC
a ~ l o t l ~ e si l-l a l o g i c a l o r
is more l i k e l y t o f a c i l i t a t e u n d e r -
s t i ~ l ~in{;
c i t t ~ ; \ :O~I ~ O W I I ~ C I I 1 s nlerc 1 y n
a 1 ) p l i e d l i n g u is t i c s l i t o r a t u r e ,
rag-bag'
tllerefore,
.
A good
should
c o ~ , t a i ni d e a s o r ( ; a n i s e d i n t o a ~ ~ n i f i ewdh o l e by v l r t u o
o 1' t h e 1 o ~ ; i c n l r c 1 n t i o n s be tweorl t l ~ e l n .
U e p t h o f Coverae;eo
Any a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s l i t e r a t u r e
t l ~ a t ,is t r u e t o t y p o sllo~llcl bo c o m p r e h e n s i v e e n o u g h a s
l o c o l ~ t n i r t~h o m a j o r a p y r o a c h c s
1 t
js
R I I ~n ~ e t h o d s i
n the f i e l d .
a t r u i s r r ~t h a t t l l e s c o p e a r ~ do b j e c t i v e s o f ~ u t l ~ o r s
,
cii. f'f'er c o ~ l s i d e r a b l y llowcvcr,
t h e d e l i m i t e d a r e a sllo111d
hnvo some n a t u r a l j u s t i f ' i c a L i o n , s o t h a t a l l r e l e v a n t
as1wcts o f i t a r e emphasized.
is
The n e a r e r t h e l i t e r a t u r e
t o c o v e r i r ~ gaLL tlle s u b j e c t , , t h e h i g h e r t h e l e v e l o f
unclc r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s u b j e c t t11a t c o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d
w i t t ~i f ,
a n d v i c e verso.
Ex1'1a l ~ 1
n. o ~F
' ~o r c o t
Ur~cicrs1 n 1 ) d int:
fro111 t l i e way a n a u t h o r ar(:ues
A (:ootl 1 i t e r n t u r a ,
it
1.t
i c - l l l a 1.0~1 Icioas
nn t u r a l l y
,
inhercs
alld d o f e n d s his i d e a s .
tllnrol'os-c, s h o u l d c o n t a i n w e l l
f . l ~ : lt
;-\rev ~ r i f ' nl11.0
i
and c o ~ l v i ~ ~ c i r ~ r : .
-
- 13
:, 1 1 i
0
or
: ~ i , i li ty
'IIi(>
Ilr.11
1
.C:JIOII
(.;I
t
l ~ ( 1
I
at1
1 4 1 I)+?
t Iiori
1.8 t . i
v ( - solrr-ccs
1 1 1 i o L~ i o f
1
A i:ootl
:
I > n c k kip h i s c l a i m s wit11
. ~ ~ l l . j l o l L- O
t o CIJIII:\XICH
, : I
i
I
t i
tlie
W O I J ~~1
tlio l i t a r n t u r o .
: ~ 111.o
t
of' a p p l i n t l
1 il
( : o ~ i ~ i s t e nwti l , l ~ i 1.s s o t . o b j e c t
s l ~ o l l l dc u m u l a t i v e l y b u i l d
:I
(TO
lill(:lli4
.
~ V O S
t i
cq
1t
those objectives i n t o a
c o l ~ ssj t o n t w11ole d e ~ o i t lo f c o r ~ t r a d i c t i o n sand d i s c r e p a n -
tic.?, n o t , j u s t
in
tllo f a c t s presented, b u t a l s o i n Lhe
p x . c s e i ~ t ; ~ t , i o of'
n
tlie f a c t s .
1 ) ~n
otlier words,
111
c o ~ l c o p t r ~ nframewor.k
l
of
there sl~ould
ur~tior-l
y-Lng s t r i n g s o f
ir1cn.s ap,ni.n.st wIli.c11 n l . 1 o t h e r i d e a s t h a t a r e b r o u g h t
i r ) t o p i n y a r e ad j u d g e d coni'orrei s t s o r n o n - c o ~ n f o r m i s t s .
I
S I G N I F I C A N C E OF Tl1E STUDY
I
T h i s work,
i n l i n t 3 w i t h t h e g e n e r a l a i m of a
I r i I ) l i o g s : ~ p h1.c e s s a y ,
i (in' t o r l p p l i o d
OJI
wllicll i s t o p r o v i d e a b i b l i o g r a p l ~ i c
Li11(;11i.s
ts
111
1n11~;un~;e
t e a c h i r i g , foc:usos
tile U S O ~ ' I ; L I ~ ~ S S of a s e t l i t e r a t u r e i n t h o g e n e r a l
u r ) d e r s t a r ~ d i n g so f a p p l i e d 1 i n t ; u i s t i c s ,
j)o Lor) t
a n d on t h e
i a l . u s o f ' u l n e s s o r s u c l ~s o u r c e s f o r f u t u r o readors ;
sv110I a r L y o r r ~ o r ~ s c h o l a ~ - l 1
y .t w i l l h e l p f u t u r e s c h o l a r s
011
: I J ? J ) ~ ic c l
(1 i s t - o v r r -
L i n , v , r r i s t i c s , on Ll~e o n e h a n d ,
rim t e r i : ~ l s r c Lc~v:ir~
t to
t 1 1 ~n o r ) - s c h o l a r
linnd,
(10
ijy
tlleir subject,
nlltl
i n a p p l i e d 1i11i;u is t i c s , on t h e o t h e r
t o know more obou t
the s u b j e c t w l t l l o u t h a v i n g
i1li.o tilo c,ubjcc:t d e e p l y .
tlli.;
t o quickly
~ t o r k , t o kccj) r.snclr:rs
I n o t h e r words,
i ~ ~ l o l - on
r ~ ~
t h~e ~ l
we
~
l
~
~
,
~
,
J
l
i
I
,
therefore,
el- able
tile r e a d e r s t o s e e
a1)pLic.d l i n g u i s t i c s f r o m t h e r i g h t p e r s p e c t i v e .
This bibliographical exploration should provide a
111011
ta.1 'map'
o f a p p l i o d l i n g u i s t i c s and e n a b l e one t o
L o c a t e o n e ' s b e a r l n g on i t s m a s s i v e t h e o r e t i c a l f r o n t .
I t i s n.Lso h o p e d t h a t t h e e x e r c i s e would i n n o s m a l l
mensure h o l p appliocl l i n g u i s t s ''to a r r i v e a t a n
inl'ormod p r o f e s s i o n a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d b a l a n c e d
Llleory o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g which i s p e r s o n a l l y v a l i d
1 ' 0 1 3
our:ioLvos a s a tl;ui.de t o a c t i o n n , S t e r n ( 1 9 8 3 8 3 ) .
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t h i s work w i l l p r o v i d e
a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r f u t u r e work i n a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ,
a n d , more t l ~ a nt h a t , p r o v e t o be a r e a l t o n i c t o
si.rrri.Lar r e s e a r c h e s i n o t h e r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s , s i n c e
a l l w a h a v e d o n e i s t o open up t h e p r e c i n t s o f a
t r ( > a s u r e t h e m i n i n g o f which i s y e t t o be d o n e .
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tern1 i s j.r~forrned b y t h e f a c t tllo t
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( l n tlio b r o a d s e n s e ) ,
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o t l i o r . Ilanti, a p p l i e d l i r i g u i s t i c s ( i n t h e n a r r o w s e n s e )
n p p e a r s t o be a h o t l y d e b a t e d z o l ~ e ,a f i e l d r i f e w i t h
c o n t r o v e r s i e s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y an e l u s i v e s u b j e c t
tlln t rleocts t o bo c a p t u r e d , e x p . l i c a t e d a n d d e f i n e d .
N e v e r t t i e l s s s , men t i o n w i l l be made o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s L i c s
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teacliing materials.
C o n s i s tell t w i t h t h o s t r u c t u r a l i s t t r a d i t i o n , Lado's
( 1 9 5 ' ~ a) s s u n ~ l ) t i o rd~r a w s or1 t l ~ ob e h a v i o u r i s t t h e o r y o f
I c : r~- l l i r ~t ~h a t . L e a r ~ ~ i n t ; a
11;) I ) i L 1'0r ~ n at i o r ~ . 1
,
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tilerel'orc
,
is a matter of
a s s e r t s *ir~dividurrls
t c i ~ d t o t r a n s f e r t11e f o r m s a n d n ~ e a n i n g s , a n d t h e
d i s t r i b ~t li o n o f f o r m s and ~ n s a n i r ~ goa f t h e i r n a t i v e
1.;111(;ua~;sa n d cr1Lt;ure t o tlio f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e and c u l t u r e
-
b o l t l pc-otluc t i v o 1 . y wlion a t t ernpt i11g t o s p e a k t h e l a n g u a g e
allti
to act in
tlie c u l t u r e ,
and r e c e p t i v e l y when a t t e m p 1 ; i n g
d
l i ~ r ~ f ~ u aand
go the culture
t o p , ~ - ; l s pa n d u r ~ d e r s t a ~ lt11e
a s practiced b y n a t i v e s " ,
Lado
( 1957r2).
I n c o n s o n a n c e w i t h t h e a b o v e , Lado (1957) i s o r g a n i s e d
:i.n six c h a p t e r s .
The f i r s t c h n p t e r , t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n ,
a x p l o r c s t h e g e n e r a l u s e f u l n e ~ sof c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s
01 t h c n a t i v e and f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s a n d c u l t u r e i n t h e
n r e a s of e d u c a t i o n and r e s e a r c h .
The r e s t o f t h e c h a p t e r s
i s d e v o t e d t o some e l a b o r a t e , p r a c t i c a l a n d s y s t e m a t i c
techniques f o r carrying o u t c o n t r a s t i v e s t u d i e s of languages,
d o n g v a r i o u s dimensions, and c u l t u r a l behaviour.
Lado (1957) c o u l d b e r i g h t , , a t t h a t p e r i o d , t o r e g a r d
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s a s synonymous w i t h c o n t r a s t i v e s t u d i e s
because applied l i n g u i s t i c s o r t h e n e w / s c i e n t i f i c approach,
as i t w a s c a l l e d , l o g i c a l l y o r i g i n a t e d f r o m s t r u c t u r a l i s t
1inguisl;ic principles.
Again, a p p l y i n g
linguisticsfor
t h c s t r u c t u r a l i s t s , means b u i l d i n g t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s
b a s e d on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n n a t i v e a n d t a r g e t l a n g u a g e s
o.f l e a r n e r s .
However, w i t h c h a n g e s i n t h e t r e n d o f e v e n t s
i n t h e f i e l d , c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s c a n b e r e g a r d e d a8
j u s t one step/tool,
linguictics,
t e c h n i q u e o r development i n a p p l i e d
It i s , t h u s , wrong t o r e g a r d a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s as c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e as s o o n a s t h e
b e h n v i . o u r i s t p s y c h o l o g y a n d s t r u c t u r a l i s t l i n g u i s t i c s came
u n d e r a t t a c k , t h e i n f l u e n c e of c o n t r a s t i v e s t u d i e s b e g a n
t o wane,
but applied l i n g u i s t i c s p r a c t i c e s continued.
U s i n g o u r e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a , t h e r e f o r e , Lado (1957)
i s n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t whet h e i n t e n d s t o
b c n p p l . i c d l i n e u i s t i c s f o r t e a c h e r s f a i l s t o e x p l a i n what
:~ppl.ricd l.inp;uin t i c 8 i n ,
b u t inr; tcntl
, diocusoeo
con t r a o t l v c
ann1.ysi.s which i s j u s t o n e t e ~ h n i q u e / ~ r a c t i c aal r e a of
h c has b e n t t h e m e a n i n g o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o s u i t h i s
s t r u c t u r a l i s t persuasion.
T h i s i s a wrong i m p r e s s i o n on
t h e s u b j e c t which i s as m i s l e a d i n g as i t i s d e c e p t i v e s i n c e
it n o t o n l y f a i l s t o t e l l u s what a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s
b u t a l s o t o r e v e a l o t h e r s h a d e s o f m e a n i n g a s s o c i ~ t o dw i t h
Lhe t e r m .
H a l l i d a y , M c i n t o s h a n d S t r e v e n s (1964) i s a h i g h powered
e x p o s i t i o n which p r e s e n t s a c o h e r e n t a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e
s t a t e m e n t of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y a n d i t s a p p L i c a t i o n t o
language teaching.
The p u b l i c a t i o n , made u p o f two p a r t s ,
c o n k a i n s i n t h e f i r s t p a r t , a n e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n of
e e n e r a l l i n g u i s t i c s a n d p h o n e t i c s a n d how, u s i n g them, i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o d e o c r i b e how a l a n g u a g e works.
The a u t h o r s
t h r o w some l i g h t on t h e r e l e v a n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c s a n d
p h o n e t i c 6 t o t h e wide r a n g e o f p r o b l e m s o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g .
Thc s k e t c h bolow 18 a model of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y which
Lhc u u t , h o r s b e l i e v e i s t h e m o s t u s e f u l f o r l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
purpose.
concerned
-
-
Phonetics
--.
Level
Substance
I-
-
1 Relation
I
/
L,
inguistics
Form
\ Context
11
1 Situation
1 ( ~ e l a t i o n i(non,
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Semantics
I
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(Vocabulary
C u l l e d f r o m H a l l i d a y e t al ( 1 964: 1 8 )
I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t c a p t i o n e d 'The L i n g u i s t i c S c i e n c e s
i.n R e l a t i o n t o L a n g u a e e T e a c h i n g a n d L e a r n i n g ' ,
t h e purpose
of h a v i n g n l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y is e x p l i c i t l y uncovered.
Admitting t h a t i t is t o be used i n language d e s c r i p t i o n ,
t:he a u t h o r s , l i k e Lado (1957) m a i n t a i n s '
t h a t t h e r o l e of
l i n g u i s t i c and phonetics i n language teaching is t o provide
good description^ of l a n g u a g e b a s e d o n r e c e n t r e s e a r c h i n t o
t h e f o r m a n d t h e s u b s t a n c e o f l a n g u a g e , H a l l i d a y e t al
(1964:166-7).
U n l i k e Lado, h o w e v e r , t h e y c r i t i c i s e d
d e s c r i p t i o n s b a s e d on s t r u c t u r a l i s m as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y l a r g e l y
b c c a u s c o f t h e i r n e g l e c t o f c o n t e x t u a l m e a n i n g and t h e i r
i n a b i l i t y t o p r e s e n t an i n t e g r a t e d p i c t u r e o f a l a n g u a g e as
a whole.
I n t h e same v e i n , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l grammar (TG)
was r e j e c t e d as a t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g b e c a u s e
it
d o c s n o t p r e s e n t an i n t e g r a t e d t h e o r y t o c o v e r a l l l e v e l s o f
lanfluncc,
The authors, recolutely,
f a v o u r e d t h e neo-
f j . r t h : i . n n s c a l e and c a t e g o r y t h e o r y b e c a u s e ,
f i r s t , i t gave
:\n ntlequnte p l a c e t o meaning a t n l l 1 - c v e l s o f l a n g u a g e , and
:;c>r:orid, hcc:illnr, it;
p;nvc
e q u a l w r i p;ht t o t h e d i f f e r e n t 1nvel.n
o f l a n g u a g e : t h e m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e of l a n g u a g e ( s o u n d and
w r i t i n g ) , t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s o r form (grammar and l e x i s ) ,
find t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t e x t ( m e a n i n g ) , H d l i d a y e t a1
(13G~t:149-151).
Two d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s of t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n p r o v i d e a p t
d e c c r i p t i o n s , e x p l a n a t j - o n s and d e f i n i t i o n s o f a p p l i e d
1 . i n g u i s t i c c viewed from b r o a d and n a r r o w p e r s p e c t i v e s .
The
s e c t i o n one of c h a p t e r s i x b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , m a i n t a i n s
t h a t " t h e Use of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y t o d e s c r i b e l a n g u a g e i s
n o t i t s e l f c o u n t e d as a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c s
...
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s starts when a d e s c r i p t i o n i s s p e c i f i c a l l y
mad;,
o r an e x i s t i n g d e s c r i p t i o n used, f o r f u r t h e r purpose
which l i e s o u t s i d e t h e l i n g u i s t i c s c i e n c e s " ,
(1964:,138).
Hdliday e t a1
Again, t h e s e c t i o n s i x of t h e same c h a p t e r
s e p a r a t e s d e ~ c r i p t i o n sof l a n g u a g e from t e x t b o o k s o f
l a n g u a g e c , and a t t r i b u t e s t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n t o two d i f f e r e n t
c x p e r t s : l i n g u i s t s and a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Defining hpplied l i n g u i s t i c s narrowly, t h e authors a s s e r t
"appl.i.ed l i n g u i s t i c s i s a t e r m t h a t c o v e r s t h e whole f i e l d
of r e s e a r c h and t r a i n i n g i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f l a n g u a g e s ,
:i.nclud3 n g b u t n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o g e n e r a l l i n g u i s t i c 6 a n d
g c n c r a l phone t i c s " ,
N a l l i d a y e t a 1 (1964: 1 6 9 ) .
'l'hcy c o n n i d e r t h e t e r m m i f i l e a d i n g b e c a u s e a c c o r d i n g t o
t ; h ~ r n" i t
e x c l u d e s o t h e r a c t i v i t i c ~w h i c h a r e j u s t a s much
npp.l..i.c:~1:i.ons o f l i n g u i s t i c s ,
n ~ l dn o c j o l o g i c a l . l i n g u i s t i c s .
s u c h a s machine t r a n s l a t i o n
A t t h e same t i m e i t i n c l u d e s
p a r t s o f c e r t a i n s u b j e c t s which l i e o u t s i d e t h e l i n g u i s t i c
s c i e n c e s , s u c h as t h o s e a s p e c t s o f p s y c h o l o g y a n d e d u c a t i o n a l
thcory t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t t o language teaching".
Halliday
On t h e a i m o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e a u t h o r s p r e s e n t
a wide a r r a y o f f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t o p r o v i d e a . s o l i d
ground in^ i n t h o s e a s p e c t s o f p h o n e t i c s a n d l i n g u i s t i c s a n d
o t h e r s u b j e c t s which l i e b e h i n d t h e l a n g u a g e c l a s s , s o as
t o enable t h e applied l i n g u i s t t o evaluate both d e s c r i p t i o n s
a n d t e x t b o o k s o f l a n g u a g e s , p r o d u c e h i s own t e a c h i n g
m a t e r i a l s , p l a n and t e a c h l a n g u a g e c o u r s e , t e s t h i s p u p i l s
a t t a i n m e n t s and a s a background t o a l l t h e s e , t o u n d e r s t a n d
as much a s p o s s i b l e o f t h e w o r k i n g o f l a n g u a g e , H a l l i d a y
e t n l (1964:169-170).
I n c o n s o n a n c e w i t h t h e s i n g u l a r a i m o f t h i s book, t h e
a u t h o r s s y ~ t e m a t i c a l l ye v o l v e d a l i n k b e t w e e n l i n g u i s t i c
~ c i e n c e sa n d l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g b y m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t " t h e
p l a c e f o r b o t h l i n g u i s t i c s and p h o n e t i c s i s b e h i n d t h e
c l n ~ s r o o mt e a c h e r , i n t h e t r a i n i n g t h a t h e r e c e i v e d f o r
his j o b a6 a t e a c h e r , i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s y l l a b u s
L
a c c o r d i n g t o which h i s t e a c h i n g programme i s o r g a n i s e d ,
and I n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of
thC-tt h e rn,&es
kin?:;
18'))
t h e teaching m a t e r i a l s of a l l
u s e o f i n c l a s s 1 ' , H n l l i d a y e t a1 (1964:
t h e b r i d g e t h n t j o i n s l b f f u i s t i c s a n d language
Hcncc,
t e i ~ c h i n g , t h e y l a b e l - l e d ~ e t h o d b i ,t h n t i s
"A
framework of
o r . ~ n n i . n n L i o n sf o r p r a c t i c a l l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , i n which
pcda.zogicn1 t e c h n i q u e s and l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y c r o s s - f e r t i l i z e
c i l ~ hot;herl',
H a l l i d a y e t a 1 (1964:200).
Rooted i n o b j e c t i v i t y , c o h e r e n c e and c o n s i s t e n c y , t h i s
b o o k h a s some u s e f u l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o make i n t h e g e n e r a l
understanding o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ,
S t took a f i r m
p o s i t i o n i n t h e i ~ s u e sc o n c e r n i n g l i n g u i s t i c s a n d i t s
~ p p 1 . i ~ a t i . o n a . F i r 8t , i t demonstrut es t h a t l i n g u i s t i c s i s a
theory g e n e r a t i n g d i g c i p l i n e , s e c o n d , L i k e Lado ( 19.571, it
reveals t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a t d e r i v e from l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s
can have a b i l i t y o u t s i d e t h e l i n g u i s t i c s c i e n c e s , and t h i r d ,
d ~ s p : i t et h e l em antic s h o r t f a l l o f t h e t e r m , a p p l i e d
iinp;uixti.cc,
i t s t a n d s f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of r e s e a r c h e s
from 1 i . n t ; u i s t i c s a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s t o l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g , t h u s h i ~ h - l i g h t i n g t h e ec1ect.i.c n a t u r e o f t h e
Iicld.
(19.5'7).
The t h i r d p o i n t i s c o n s p i c o u s l y l a c k i n g i n Lado
T h u s , u n l i k e Lado ( 1 9 5 7 1 , t h e 3 u t h o r s r e v e a l , b y
2i1:i.r: ripproach,
the
b r o a d nnd narrow views o f a p p l i e d
~ ~ t l [ ~ l l ~ . ~ t : i . ~ ~ ~
What a p p e a r s t o u n i f y Lado ( 1 9 5 7 ) a n d H a l l i d a y e t a 1
(776't.j is t h a t b o t h a r e d e v o t e d t o t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f
I . i t i p ~ : i rt, i c s s c i e n c e s t o I n n ~ u a g c t e n c l i i n g w i t h o u I, con!;i.dcrat i o n o f o t h e r d i s c i p l i n c f i which t o g e t h e r w i t h l i n g u i s t i c s
y i e l d i n p u t s t o a p p l i e d L i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow sense.
ILnwcvcr, f o r t I n l l i d n y c t a1 ( 1 9 G l 1 ) , t
tic
appronch i n n o t
a c c i d e n t a l b e c a u s e i t i s i n c o m f o r m i t y w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e of
t h e l i t e r a t u r e : t o r e l a t e l i n g u i s t i c theory t o language
.
I
teaching, s o t h a t while Halliday e t a1 (1964) u s e ' m e t h o d ~
t o r e p r e s e n t t h e b r i d g e b e t w e e n 1 i n g u i c ; t i c s o n l y nnd l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g , and u s e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o r e p r e s e n t t h e l i n k
b e t w e e n 1inp;ui.nt i . c a , o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e c , a n d lnnffun(5.e t e a c h i n g ,
Lado ( 1 9 5 7 ) d e s i g n a t e s a p p l i e d
linguistic^ as t h e l i n k
b e t w e e n l i n g u i ~ t i cd e s c r i p t i o n (CA) a n d l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g .
Re t h e r e b y e q u a t s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s w i t h what H a l l i d a y e t
a1 c a l l m e t h o d i c s .
A s f a r as t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e of a p p l i e d l i n @ . ~ t i . c n
i s c o n c e r n e d , H a l l i d a y e t a l , though
more o b j e c t i v e a n d
c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h a n Lado ( 1 9 5 7 ) , l a c k s i n - d e p t h c o v e r a g e .
T h i s i s b e c a u s e i t h a s n o t r e v e a l e d t o u s how p ~ y c h o l o g i c a l
a n d e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s which h e m e n t i o n e d c a n b e r e l e v a n t
t o language teaching.
T h i c would h a v e e n a b l e d u s t o
u n d e r s t a n d what i n p u t s t h ~ s et h e o r i e s c a n
yield to
n p p l i c d l i n g u i s t i c s j u s t as h e d i d i n t h e c a s e of l i n g u i s t i c s .
The book c a n , t h e r e f o r e , b e s a i d t o b e r e s t r i c t i v e i n t h e
s e m e t h a t i t d i s c u s s e s o n l y one m a j o r i n p u t t o a p p l i e d
I . i n ~ u i tsi c c
-
l i n g u i st i c s .
R e l a b e d t o I l n l l i d a y e t a 1 (1964) ic C o r d e r (1973) which
i s m a d e up of a n i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d t h r c t . p a r t s .
The
i n t r o d u c t i o n s e e s a p p l i e d l l n g u i s t j c s from b o t h j t s n a r r o w
and broad p e r c p e c t i v e s .
T h i s p n r t i c u 1 : l r l y wide c o v e r a g e i s
r e f l c c t c d i n t h c s c words of C o r t l ~ r ' ~(1973:lO)
;
"theories
? b o u t t h c n a t u r e of' h i m a n l n r i ~ u na r~c ~, o f coiirsc', o f u s e
t o o t h e r people besides t h e language teacher.
I t would b e a
mistake t o a s s o c i a t e applied l i n g u i s t i c s exclusively with
language teaching.
T h e r e a r e o t h e r p e o p l e who a r e engaged i n
p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s which i n v o l v e l a n g u a g e i n a c e n t r a l
r o l e f o r whom a knowledge o f i t s n a t u r e c o u l d b e o f u s e i n
d e a l i n g w i t h p r o b l e m s which a r i s e i n t h e i r work: t h e s p e e c h
therapist,
t h e l i t e r a r y a r i t i c , t h e communication e n g i n e e r
f o r example".
He d e s c r i b e s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as a p r a c t i c a l
a c t i v i t y which u t i l i z e s i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l
studies.
S t e p p i n g a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s down t o a n a r r o w v i e w
p o i n t , Corder (1973:ll) h a s t h i s t o s a y "applied l i n g u i s t i c s
i n language t e a c h i n g i s concerned w i t h t h o s e p a r t s of t h e
t o t a l l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g o p e r a t i o n i n which d e c i s i o n s a r e
made i n t h e l i g h t o f a knowledge o f t h e n a t u r e of human
l a n g u a g e , how i t i s l e a r n e d a n d i t s r o l e i n s o c i e t y " .
This
d e f i n i t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , acknowledges t h e e s s e n c e o f a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s as d e r i v i n g f r o m i n s i g h t s i n t o d e s c r i p t i v e
l i n g u i s t i c s , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s and s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y .
1
I ' n r t o n e which i n m n d c u p o f f o t r r c h n p t e r n c o n t n i n s
g c n c . r n l J.ingui.r;t;ic i n f ormn l;Son on thc
< I.:
vnl--iO I I G mnnl f en t n t-l.onr;.
1111
t u r o of l n n ~ u n g oi n
1I; movt-r; f r o m t h e m u 1 t i f nrouf;
p o r s p c c t i v c s from which l.l.'nguae;e i s viewed t h r o u ( ~ ha s t u d y
of its f u n c t i o n s , v a r i e t i e s and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on language
teaching.
Also i n c l u s i v e a r e s t u d i e s i n c u l t u r a l v a r i a t i o n
a n d t h e i r i m p a c t on l a n g u a g e a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,
P a r t two f i t a r t s w i t h t h e f i r s t two c h a p t e r s c o n s i d e r i n g
Eome l i n g u i s t i c a n d p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c a s p e c t s o f l a n g u a g e s t u d y .
The t h i r d c h a p t e r i n t h i s p a r t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e m a j o r s t u d y
t h n t i n f o r m s t h e t i t l e of t h i s l i t e r a t u r e ,
Here,
the author
e ~ p 1 , ~ i nwhat
s
h i s i d e a of a p p l i c a t i o n i s l i k e , c o n t e n d i n g
t h n t " t h e r e i s o n e p h a s e i n t h e p l a n n i n g a n d e x e c u t i o n of a
t o t a l l n n ~ u n g et e a c h i n g o p e r a t i o n i n which t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
relevant:
o f l i n g u i s t i c s i~
have l i n g u i s t i c answers",
t h e s t a g e a t which t h e q u e s t i o n s
C o r d e r ( I 973 :1 3 8 ) .
He g o e s
f u r t h e r t o p o s i t t h r e e h i e r a r c h i c a l l e v e l s of l o g i c a l l y
r e l a t e d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y , o r u s i n g h i s words,
Te him t h e f i r s t o r d e r a p p l i c a t i o n
' o r d e r s of a p p l i c a t i o n s P : f i r s t , second and t h i r d . L (i.e.
l a n g u a g e d e s c r i p t i o n ) i s t h e most g e n e r a l , i n v o l v i n g all t h e
p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s t h a t r e q u i r e t h e knowledge o f l a n g u a g e
(i,e.
a p p l i e d l i n g u i ~ t i c si n a b r o a d s e n s e ) , w h i l e t h e t h i r d
o r d e r a p p l i c a t i o n i s t h e most s p e c i f i c t o t h e l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g o p e r a t i o n (i.e.
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n a narrow
. ~ . c n r ; o ) . P c r c c i v i n p ; c r i t ; j tally t h e r c l : ~t i o n b e t w e e n 1 i n g n i . n t i c s
;'nd l n n g u n g e t e a c h i n g , C o r d e r (1973:155)
asserts
-
28
is an
" t h e n p p l . i c a t ; i o n of l i n g u i s t i c e t o l m g i m g e t e a c h i n g
i n c l i . r ~ c tone.
It i s n o t a s i n g l e - s t a g e o p e r a t i o n .
This i n
why many t e a c h e r s , when f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d t o l i n g u i s t i c s ,
s e a n o r e l e v a n c e i n i t f o r t h e i r work a n d , c o n v e r s , , ~ l ywhy
many l i n g u i s t s u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g i n
p r a c t i c e d i s c l a i m any p r a c t i c a l u s e f u l n e s s f o r t h e i r work.
'I'llc f a c t
n o e m t o b o t h a t o n l y t h o u e who a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h
both l i n g u i s t i c s and l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o
d i s c e r n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two".
The r e s t of t h e book i s d e v o t e d t o e x p l a n a t i o n s on
t h e t h r e e o r d e r s of a p p l i c a t i o n s of linguistic t h e o r y t o
language teaching.
The l a s t c h a p t e r o f p a r t two t a k e s u p t h e
d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e p r o c e d u r e s a v a i l a b l e f o r l a n g u a g e d e a c r i p t i . o n s w i t h o u t l o o s i n g s i g h t o f some m o d e l s o f g r a m m a t i c a l
dcccr%pt;ion.
Operating outeide the t h e o r e t i c a l realm, p a r t
t h r e e comes t o g r i p s w i t h some p r a c t i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t s o f
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n the choice, p r e o e n t a t i o n , and
a s s e s s e m e n t of l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s a n d m e t h o d s ,
which i n t u r n , c o n s t i t u t e t h e i s s u e s a n d p r o c e a s e s u n d e r l y i n g
t h e s e c o n d and t h i r d o r d e r a p p l i c a t i o n s .
C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) l i k e H a l l i d a y e t al (1964) t o o k o f f q u i t e
cornprehensdvely by e l u c i d a t i n g on t h e b i d i r e c t i o n a l
approach t o t h e term, a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , and then,
d e l i m i t i n g h i s d i s c u s s i o n t o one
language teaching (cf
. Corder
-
applied l i n g u i s t i c s i n
1973 :I 1 1, b u t u n l i k e
J l d . l i ( l a y e t a1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) f a i l s t o p r o j e c t t h e e c l e c t i c n a t u r e
--
79-
n.f : ~ p p l . ej d I r i . n ~ u . i . . ~ t r i . c nThough
,
h~
i n c l u d e s b o t h psycho-
.1.3.i1~:11i~.~I:i.c~
a n d s o c i o l . j . t ~ p ; u i ~ , t i ic ns h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
1 i1 1 y ; i l i r; l,j.cr;, C o r d e r ' s
I:hr.
(1973) scope
l;hr~orrrl;icnlrelcvnncc? o f
i.r;
t o o narrow t o i n c l u d e
t h e ~ cdi...;ciplinc.-; a n d more to
corl~n~llni
c a I;ive l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , a n a p p r o a c h which r o s e o u t
o f t h i s m e a n i n g e x t e n s i o n , a n d a c o n d i t i o n which made a p p l i e d
I . i n ~ 1 1 i .tsi c s e c l e c t i c .
!tl~e m a j o r d i ~ t i n g u i s h i n gf a c t o r b e t w e e n C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 3 )
a n d N n l l i d a y e t a1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , a n d p r o b a b l y o t h e r a p p l i e d
"
l i n [ ~ u i ~ t i cl ist e r a t u r e lies i n C o r d e r ' s
(1973) g e n e r a t i o n of
n h i e r a r c h i c a l ~ y s t e mo f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i n g u i s t i c s a n d
l n n ~ u a g et e a c h i n g ( i . e .
t h e t h r e e o r d e r s of a p p l i c a t i o n of
I . : i . n ~ u i s t i ct h e o r y t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ) ,
Here t o o , C o r d e r ' s
( 1 3 7 3 ) e x t c n ~ i o nof t h e m e a n i n g o f l i . n a u i s t i c e a n d omifision
of o t h c r s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s apparent.
N n n c c , what C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) c a l l s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ,
just
1-ilce Lndo ( 1 9 5 7 ) , c o u l d b e compared t o w h a t H a l l i d a y e t a1
(1964) r e f e r t o a s M e t h o d i c s ,
Applied l i n g u i s t i c s ,
therefore,
is p e r c e i v e d by C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) , l i k e Lado ( 1 9 5 7 ) , i n i t s p u r e l y
semantic sense.
T h i s approach d o e s n o t conform w i t h c u r r e n t
I;ho~~(/;hf;r,
a b o u t t h e ~5ub
j e c t e~ i o n p p n r c n t i n b o t h Re11 ( 1 9 8 1 )
a n d Van a s e t a1 (1984).
(1984:6,10)
AS a m ~ t t e ro f f a c t Van JCLS e t
a1
s t a t e c a t e g o r i c a l l y t h a t "a p u r e l y s e m a n t i c
d e f i n i t i o n of t h e f i e l d w i l l f a i l
...
we w i l l ( t h e r e f o r e )
not: makc! t h e d e f i n i t i - o n o f t h e f i e l d s u b o r d i n a t e t o a
:;cm:lrr I; i . c n l . 1 ~p u r e i n t c r p r c t n Li.on o f
.
t h c t e r m a p p l i e d l i n p ; ~ ~ :t i3s. c ~ "
I f we a d m i t t h i f i , t h c n , C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) d o e s n o t ~ a t i s f yo u r
cr:i.tc?r:i.on of d c p t h o f c o v c r n g o n i n c o
i t f a i l a to spread
h i s d r a g n e t w i d e enough t o c o v e r dl r e l e v a n t b i t s o f i n p u t s
L h n t would e n h n n c c t h c f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h o term.
C o r d e r ( 1 3 7 3 ) i~ i n f l u e n c e d by h i s s t r u c t u r a l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n .
By t h i s i n f l u e n c e h e p r o j e c t s o n l y a p a r t i a l a c c o u n t s of
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and r e l a t e e t h e s u b j e c t w i t h i t s
p r a c t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s as s e e n i n p a r t t h r e e .
Corder's (1973) coherent p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e techniques
o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s a n a d v a n t a g e o v e r B a l l i d a y e t a1
1964 (though thifi is o u t s i d e i t s s c o p e ) , and h i s p o i n t o f
u n i t y w i t h Lado ( 1 9 5 7 ) ( t h o u g h i t d i s c u s s e s j u s t o n e , i . e .
C A I , B e l l ( 1 9 8 1 ) a n d Van Els e t a1 (1984).
H e l - 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) i s an i n t r o d u c t o r y work o n a p p l i e d
I:inguintics.
up o f two
As
A p a r t from t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e book i s made
part^ a n d an e p i l o g u e .
i t concernR t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i o s ,
b o t h i n t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i s e , ~ e l l ( ( 1 9 8 1 ) i s down t o e a r t h ,
simplified,.comprehensive a n d e x p l a n a t o r i l y f o r c e f u l .
It
o p e n e d w i t h a c h a p t e r whi-ch i s more o r l e s s a c o m p r e s s e d
ntntcrncnt of
t h e e n t i r e c o n t e n t of t h e book a n d i n w h i c h
t h e following research questions a r e confronted:
(a)
What i s l a n g u a g e ?
(b)
Now do p e o p l e l e a r n P a n g u ~ g e s ?
(.c)
How c a n we h e l p p e o p l e l e a r n l a n g u a g e s ?
1.n a n a t t e m p t s t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n ( a ) t h e a u t h o r t a k e s
l l ~ cr c n d c r t o t h e two m n j o r Appronchcn t o t h e ~ t u d yo f t h o
n n tiirc o f 1 n n p p n p ; c t : l'ormnl. n n d Fiinc t i . o n n 1 appronchee.
p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s o f l e a r n i n g : Behaviourism and
Rational-ism.
F i n a l l y , t o answer t h e l a s t q u e s t i o n , h e
cxplorcr communicative l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g methodology.
He,
t h u s , c o n c l u d e s by e v o l v i n g a model o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
i n t o which l i n g u i s t i c s , p s y c h o l o g y , a n d o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s
y i e l d i n p u t s and from which s y l l a b u s , method a n d m a t e r i a l s
d e r i v e , a s r e p r o d u c e d below:
1
A Linguistic Inputs
1. L i n g u i s t i c
Theories
B Psychological Inpute
( i. F s y c h o l o g i c a l
Theories
.
I
2. P e d a g o g i c a l
p r e s e n t a t i o n of
l i n g u i s t i c theor
p r e s e n t a t i o n of
psychological
theories
3. S e l e c t e d .
3. S e l e c t e d
e l e m e n t s from A 2
e l e m e n t s from B 2
4. A p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s approach
I
c. O t h e r i m p u t ~
Administrative
Pedagogical,
5. S y l l a b u s
Political,
Sociological,
etc.
6. Method
1 -..-
-..- ---...- ..--
I
I
-- .
C h a p t e r two s k e t c h e s and d e s c r i b e s t h e model o f d e s i g n
and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t r a i n i n g programme as a n i n p u t - o u t p u t
s y s t e m which c o m p r i s e s an i n p u t of ' r a w m a t e r i a l s ' ,
some
p r o c e s s which a c t s upon and c h a n g e s t h e ' r a w m a t e r i a l s ' i n
some p l a n n e d way, and from which t h e y emerge a s t h e f i n i s h e d
- 33 product,
' t h e o u t p u t , B e l l (1981:32).
T h i s model e s s e n t i a l l y
i n h e r e s i n communicative a p p r o a c h t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g i n
which a c a r e f u l l y and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c o n d u c t e d a n a l y s i s of
t h e l e a r n e r s n e e d s s p e c i f i e s what t h e l e a r n e r s ' n e e d s f o r
t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e a r e , a n d b a s e d on which l a n g u a g e ( ~ n g l i s h )
f o r s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e s emerge t o s a t i s f y
objectives.
Appendix A contain^ a n
learner^' i n d i v i d u a l
i l l u s t r a t i v e example
o f t h i s k i n d of s t u d y f o l l o w i n g a s e r i e s o f s t e p s ,
Appendices
B t h r o u g h D c 0 n t a . h aome d i s c u s s i o n s on e r r o r a n a l y s i s ,
t e s t i n g a n d o y l l a b u s , which i n d i v i d u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e some st a g e c
i n t h e languzge
t r a i n i n g programme.
F o c u s i n g s p e c i f i c a l . l , y on l a n g u a g e programmes, t h e t h i r d
c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s t h e t h r e e t y p e s of s y l l a b u s : g r a m m a t i c a l ,
s i t u a t i o n a l , a n d n o t i o n a l , a n d t h e i r a t t e n d a n t weakeness.
R e v e a l e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e two o p p o s i n g
t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s on t h e n a t u r e o f l a n g u a g e : f o r m a l i s t
and f u n c t i o n a l i s t , i n f o r m t h e d e c i . s i o n s
on t h e l a n g u a g e
c o n t e n t a n d o r d e r i n g of t h e m a t e r i a l s f o r t e a c h i n g p u r p o s e s .
Thus, w h i l e g r a m m a t i c a l a n d s i t u a t i o n a l ~ y l l a b u s e sa r e of
f o r m a l i s t backing, n o t i o n a l
or functional syllabus is
of f u n c t i o n a l i s t backing.
The n e x t c h a p t e r , i n t r a c i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l development
i n l i n g u i s t i c s from t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e e a r l y
p a r t of t h i s c e n t u r y
,highlights
t h e major t h e o r e t i c a l
assumptions t h a t u n d e r l i e t h e d i f f e r e n t l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s
.-.. 34
a t t h a t p e r i o d : T r a d i t i o n a l grammar a n d t h e e a r l y modern
l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e i r v i e w s on t h e n a t u r e o f l a n g u a g e , l a n g u a g e
d e s c r i p t i o n s and l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g .
of t h e ' a r t '
Summarising t h e s t a t e
a t t h a t t i m e , B e l l (1981 : 9 0 ) w r i t e s "by t h e
mid 193Ows, l i n g u i s t s had g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e need t o
d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e p r e s e n t form of a l a n g u a g e and t h e
p r o c e s s e s of l i n g u i s t i c change by which i t r e a c h e d t h a t form.
They had a l s o a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n of l a n g u a g e
shou1.d b e as o b j e c t i v e as p o s s i b l e a n d t h a t v a l u e judgement
s h o u l d b e t o t a l l y o u t l a w e d from a d e s c r i p t i o n , t h e i r d a t a
b e i n g s p e e c h and t h e i r method b a s e d on t h a t of t h e p h y s i c a l
scientist
".
C h a p t e r f i v e a n d s i x r e s p e c t i v e l y , are a l l o t e d t o
f o r m a l i s m a n d f u n c t i o n a l i s m , t h e two m a j o r a p p r o a c h e s t o
t h e s t u d y of l a n g u a g e .
These c h a p t e r s g a v e an i n d e p t h
- t r e a t m e n t of t h e b a s i c t e n e t s of t h e two a p p r o a c h e s and
t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s on l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g , and
t h e d e s i g n of t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s .
Out o f t h e s e two a p p r o a c h e s
came t h e two o p p o s i n g v i e w s on t h e c h o i c e of t h e c o n t e n t
o f a l a n g u a g e programme: w h i l e f o r m a l i s m s t r e s s e s form,
f u n c t i o n a l i s m s t r e s s e s funct5.on.
P a r t of t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e s e c h a p t e r is d e v o t e d t o
t h e m l t i d i s c i p l i n n r y a s p e c t of f u n c t i o n a l i s m .
Linguistics,
phil.osophy, s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s and o t h e r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s
w e r e deemed i n f l u e n t i a l i n t h e c r e a t i o n of t h i s a p p r o a c h ,
yielding insights i n t o i t i n their various capacities.
It became a p p a r e n t t h a t t o d e t e r m i n e what l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n
t h a t s h o u l d c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o n t e n t of a l a n g u a g e programme,
a s t u d y of t h e d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e n e e d s of l e a r n e r s i s
indispensible,
The r e s u l t o f t h i s a c t i v i t y p r o v o k e s t h e
i d e a of l a n g u a g e f o r s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e s (LSP).
The a u t h o r ' s
a t t i t u d e t o f u n c t i o n a l a p p r o a c h i s summarised i n t h i s p a s s a g e ;
The r e s u l t o f g r o w i n g t o g e t h e r of s e v e r a l
d i s c i p l i n e s h a s keen t h a t t h e language % y l l a b u s
d e s i g n e r h a s a t h i s d i s p o s a l f a r more
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a n h e had 20 y e a r s ago. New
i n s i g h t s from s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s i n t o t h e c o n t e x t s
. o f l a n g u a g e u s e , i n s i g h t s from l i n g u i s t i c s a n d
p h i l o s o p h y i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f meaning and from
p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e and e d u c a t i o n
on t h e
i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n l a n g u a g e and e d u c a t i o n a l
planning a r e a l l a v a i l a b l e t o t h e applied
l i n g u i s t and must b e r e f l e c t e d i n h i s c o u r s e
d e s i g n i f i t i s t o s a t i s f y t h e wide r a n g e of
i n t e r e s t s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e a c t i v i t y of
l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , B e l l ( 1981:-1321,
Code, t e x t and d i s c o u r s e c o n s t i t u t e t h e b a s i c c o n c e r n
of t h e l a s t chapter.
The argument i s t h a t s i n c e f u n c t i o n a l
a p p r o a c h t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g b r o k e t h e n g e 1.ong r e g a r d f o r
t h e s e n t e n c e as t h e h i g h e s t l i m i t of l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n
a n d , as a r e s u l t , d i s c o u r s e now r e c e i v e s e m p h a s i s , t h e r e
i s bound t o b e sane i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s s h i f t of a t t e n t i o n
on b o t h l i n g u i s t i c s a n d l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ,
These
i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e expressly discussed i n t h i s last chapter.
B e l l ( 1 9 8 1 ) i s a n a p t e l u c i d . a t i o n of t h e t h e o r y p r a c t i c e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow
sense.
It i s o b j e c t i v e , c o h e r e n t and c o n s i s t e n t i n t h e
- 36 s e n s e t h a t n o t o n l y a r e thought^ p r e s e n t e d f a c t u a l b u t a l s o
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o o n e ano th.er.
A p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s p r e s e n t e d as a m e d i a t o r d i s c i p l i n e
b e t w e e n t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e a s suf!gested i n t h e s e words o f
Bell's
(1981 :13! : "The a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s t a n d s i n r e l a t i o n
t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t (and o t h e r t h e o r i s t c ) a n d t o
t h e p r a c t i c a l t e a c h e r of l a n g u a g e s much a s t h e e n g i n e e r d o e s
His
t o t h e a c a d e m i c p h y s i c i s t a n d t h e w o r k e r s on t h e s i t e .
r o l e i s t h a t o f a middleman, d e r i v i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t what
c a n b e done a n d how from t h e t h e o r e t i c i a n and p a s s i n g t h a t
o n , i n a more r e a d i l y u s e a b l e f o r m , t o t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s
from whom h e d e r i v e s f e e d b a c k , f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c i a n , a b o u t
t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s theory.#'
He d i d n o t
j u s t s t o p a t t h i s s t a t e m e n t , h e weaved i n t h e e c l e c t i c
n a t u r e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s without any appeal t o t h e
s t r i c t l y , s e m a n t i c s e n s e ( i m p l i c a t i o n ) o f t h e t e r m by
r e v e a l i n g t h e s o u r c e a r e a s o f t h e t h e o r i e s , and a l s o o u t l i n i n g
t h e u s e a b l e o u t p u t s o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s which a r e made
a v a i l a b l e t o t h e l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r s ( c f . B e l l : 1981:29).
I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , n o t an o v e r s t a t e m e n t t o a a y t h a t t h e
book c o v e r s a l l t h e r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e t h e o r i e s and
p r a c t i c e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow sense.
It
however, a s s u m e s a u n i d i r n e n s i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e t e r m ,
t h u s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s r e f e r s
o n l y and w h o l l y t o l a n g u a g e pedagogy.
By t h i s a p p r o a c h ,
- 37 t h e b r o a d meaning of t h e t e r m i s s i l e n c e d a n d , h e n c e , cannot
b e c a p t u r e d by any r e a d e r .
The g e n e r a l i m p r e ~ s i o nt h e n ,
i s t h a t any b e g i n n e r i n , a p p l i e d 1 : i n g u i s t i c s w i l l n o t be
exposed t o t h e m u l t i f a c e t e d i d e a of t h e t e r m a n d h e n c e , c a n n o t
come t o g r i p s w i t h t h e whole and e n t i r e meaning o f a p p l i e d
linguistics.
I n t h e l i g h t of o u r e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a ,
t h e r e f o r e , though B e l l ( 1 9 8 1 ) i e o b j e c t i v e , c o h e r e n t and
c o n s i s t e n t , t h e s e q u a l i t i e s do n o t move beyound h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i ~ t i o si n n a r r o w s e n s e .
Van M s e t a 1 (1984) seems t o u s a n improvement on
B e l l (1981).
i.5
Made up o f t h r e e p a r t s , Van Els e t a1 (1984)
divided i n t o f i f t e e n chapters.
P a r t one i s some d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e t e r m a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s i n which t h e c o n t e n t s , methods a n d p r a c t i c a l
r e l e v a n c e of t h i s s u b j e c t f o r t h e f i e l d of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e
teaching is expressly c l a r i f i e d .
Here, t h e a u t h o r s make
i t c l e a r t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s
i s j u s t one o f t h e s u b - a r e a s o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s which
i n t u r n , l a c k s t e r m i n o l o g i c a l p r e c i s i o n , though i t h a s no
b e t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e yet.
The h i s t o r y o f t h e t e r m a l s o
r e c e i v e s e l a b o r a t e d i s c u s s i o n and Van Els e t a 1 (1984:8)
s u c c i n c t l y remark "Applied l i n g u i s t i c s h a s , i n t h e p a s t , i n
d e e d , sometimes b a s e d i t s e l f s o l e l y on t h e f i n d i n g s from
theoretical linguistics.
The p o s i t i o n t h e n was e s s e n t i a l l y
t h a t i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o t e a c h a l a n g u a g e a l l one needed
t o know w a s how t h e l a n g u a g e i n q u e s t i o n is s t r u c t u r e d " .
T h i s , n o d o u b t , c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e s t r u c t u r a l i ~ t sand t h e i r
a t t i t u d e t o a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ( c f . Lado 1951 and C o r d e r 1973).
P a r t two c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h t h e i n s i g h t s o f l i n g u i s t i c
r e s e a r c h , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c a n d s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c r e s e a r c h on
language behaviour, language l e a r n i n g , f i r s t language
l e a r n i n g , second language l e a r n i n g and l e a r n e r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
I n t h e l i g h t of t h e above, t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r i n t h i s p a r t
d i s c u s s e s t h e major t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s t o t h e ~ t u d y
o f l a n g u a g e : f o r m a l i s m and f u n c t i o n a l i s m , and t h e two
p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s of l e a r n i n g .
Behnviourisrn and
mentalism t o g e t h e r with a procedural approach t o language
learning.
The s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c h a p t e r s a r e d e v o t e d t o t h e
d i s c u s s i o n of t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e r e s e a r c h i n t o
Gecond l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g , s u r v e y i n g t h e v a r i o u s 6 h i f t s i n
emphasis, o v e r t h e y e a r s , from t h e t e a c h e r ( t e a c h e r c e n t r e d
approach) t o t h e l e a r n e r ( l e a r n e r cznfred approach) of t h e
second language.
Applied l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n t h i s
h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o i ' . a r e i d e n t i f i e d and d i s c u s s e d g e n e r o u s l y .
T h e s e i n c l u d e C o n.t r a .s t i v e A n a l y s i s ( C A I , (the
c e n t e r e d approach\; E r r o r A n a l y s i s
(-1,
teacher
Performance A n a l y s i s
(PA) and D i s c o u r s e A n a l y s i s (DA), (the l e a r n e r c e n t e r e d
approache$
The l a s t c h a p t e r o f t h i e p a r t p i c k s on t h o s e
f a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r individua.1 v a r i a t i o n s i n second
language l e a r n i n g under l e a r n e r s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e Age, A p t i t u d e , C o g n i t i v e s t y l e s ,
Some o f
- 39 a t t i t u d e , m o t i v a t i o n and p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The l a s t p a r t t a k e s o f f w i t h what t h e a u t h o r s c a l l n
p i v o t a l c h a p t e r i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t i s intended t o connect
t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s t o t h e subsequent ones.
Here t h e
r e l e v a n c e of t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s : l i n g u i s t i c s ,
p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y , pedagogy,
education, etc. i n the
f i e l d o f f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g (FLT), a r e h i g h l i g h t e d .
The r e l a t i o n between t h i s f i e l d and t h e s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s
i s d e s c r i b e d as t h a t of i m p l i c a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
w h i l e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e s t u d y of t h e t e a c h i n g and
l e a r n i n g o f f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s is d e s c r i b e d as a n autonomous
discipline.
D e s p i t e t h e s e m a n t i c i m p r e c i s i o n of t h e t e r m ,
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s d e f i n e d as "an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y
s u b j e c t which t a k e s i t s r e s e a r c h
question^ from f o r e i g n
l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g CFLT)
i t s e l f and which in t r y i n g t o answer
..
them, t u r n s t o t h e s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s i n which i t l o o k s f o r
h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s , which are t h e n t e s t e d
emperically",
V a p ELs e t a1 (1984:139).
Followine t h e p i v o t a l chapter is another surveying
t h e h i s t o r i c a l . d e v e l o p m e n t s of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
(FLT) and t e a c h i n g methods.
S u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r s d w e l l on
t h e various a s p e c t s t h a t can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e d i d a c t i c
c y c l e , s u c h a s , t h e d e f i n i t i o n of aims and o b j e c t i v e s , t h e
s e l e c t i o n of c o u r s e c o n t e n t , t h e g r a d a t i o n of c o u r s e c o n t e n t ,
t h e d i d a c t i c p r o c e d u r e s , t h e u s e o f media, t e x t b o o k s e l e c t i o n ,
and t e s t i n g .
Particularly, i n these chapters, the
r e s t r i c t i o n of t h e f i e l d o f s t u d y t o f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e
teaching i n the s t r i c k
s e n s e i s made a p p a r e n t .
Van Els e t a 1 (1984) i s h i g h l y r e l a t e d t o B e l l (1981)
i n b o t h c o n t e n t and achievements.
L i k e B e l l (19811, i t
c o v e r s a l l t h e r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s of t h e t h e o r y - p r a c t i c e
r e l a t i o n s h i p of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .
However, u n l i k e B e l l
(1981). Van Els e t a1 (1984) comprehensively p r o j e c t t h e
m u l t i p l e meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s w i t h o u t underemphasis i n g t h e i r l o c u s of a t t e n t i o n .
Van Els e t a1 (19851,
t h e r e f o r e , makes e x p l i c i t a n a l l i m p o r t n n t m a t t e r , w h i c h
B e l l (1981) throws t o t h e winds, and can be s a i d t o c o n t a i n
more f a c t s t h a n B e l l (1981).
T h i s i n t u r n makes i t more
h e l p f u l , u s e f u l and a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s t u d y and u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of t h i s c o r p o r a t e b u t complex e n t e r p r i s e known as a p p l i e d
linguistics.
2.3
Articles
Mackey (1966) i s a n i n e page a r t i c l e which i s a v e r i t a b l e
s o u r c e of a t t r a c t i o n t o any s t u d e n t o r r e s e a r c h e r s e e k i n g t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e meaning and use of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .
However, i t t u r n s o u t t o be a mirage, an embodiment of
c o n t r o v e r s i e s i n which t h e a u t h o r e n c a s e d
himself i n
h e a t e d arguments which found e x p r e s s i o n s i n q u e s t i o n and
answer s e s s i o n s , , r a t h e r t h a n a d d r e s s t h e s u b j e c t a s i t s
t i t l e suggests.
The aim of t h e a r t i d e i s t o p r o v i d e answers t o some
q u e s t i o n s a b o u t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , s u c h as: What i s
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ? , How d o e s i t c o n c e r n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ?
o f what u s e i s t t t o t h e t e a c h e r ? , How d o e s i t r e l a t e t o
l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g ? , and what i s new a b o u t i t ? .
In his
a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e a n s w e r s t o h i s s e l f imposed q u e s t i o n s ,
t h e a u t h o r , t h r e w o b j e c t i v i t y t o t h e winJs.
He abandoned
what c o u l d c o n s t i t u t e c r i t i c a l i s s u e s and v a r i a b l e s a n d
p u r s u e d i r r e l e v a n t o p p o s i t i o n s , which I s u p p o s e i n h e r e s from
professional 'blind-spott.
This is because he c a r e f u l l y
evaded a l l d i s c u s s i o n s c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g a n s w e r s t o h i s
q u e s t i o n s , b u t embraced t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e r e l e v a n c e o f
l i n g u i s t i c s t o language teaching.
Even h i s a s s e s s m e n t of
t h e r o l e o f l i n g u i s t i c s i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i - n g i s coached i n
s e n t i m e n t s , m i s c o n c e p t i o n s and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s of t h o u g h t
and r e a s o n .
For i n s t a n c e , he admits t h a t language d e s c r i p t i o n
i s u s e i u l i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g b u t d e n i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of
any t h a t can be s a i d t o be u s e f u l because of t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y
o f d e s c r i p t i o n s and a n a l y s e s .
H e , t h u s , f o r g e t s t h a t no
d i s c i p l i n e can be s a i d t o be p r o g r e s s i v e i f i t h a s g e n e r a t e d
o n l y one model of a n a l y s i s and t h a t m u l t i p l i c i t y of d e s c r i p t i v e
models i s a s i n e qua non f o r any l i f e d i s c i p l i n e .
Robins
(1989:~) t h e r e f o r e , r e m a r k s "it must h e r e a l i s e d t h a t a
s u b j e c t l i k e g e n e s a l l i n g u i s t i c s , i u common w i t h most o t h e r
s u b j e c t s of s y s t e n a t i u s t u d y i s n o t s t a t i c .
Viewphints
i n c l u d i n g some of q u i t e f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e may change
o r r e c e i v e d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s of emphasie i n t h e c o u r s e of y e a r s " .
MackeyJ
i n c o n s i s t e n c y i s made more a p p a r e n t when
he l a t e r s u g g e s t 6 t h a t l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r s have some t r a i n i n g
i n l i n g u i s t i c s t o be a b l e t o e v a l u a t e l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s
and u s e them i n t e a c h i n g .
Meanwhile, h i s g e n e r a l i n c l i n a t i o n towards t h e d e f i n i t i o n
and r e a l i t y . of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s seems t o be c o n t r a d i c t e d
by h i s r e s p o n s e t o t h e q u e s t i o n , what i s new a b o u t i t ?
He
c o n f e s s e s t h a t from t h e beg inn in^ o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g t h e r e
i s some k i n d of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
.,
s o r t of a p p l i c a t . t o n ,
- t r a d i t i o n a l grammar
T h i s n o t o n l y a s s e r t s t h e r e a l i t y of
\,,
':..%pplied l i n g u i e t i c a b u t i t e age i n l a n g u a g e pedagogy.
A l l i n all, t h e c o n t e n t of t h i s a r t i c l e i s n o t r e p r e s e n -
t a t i v e of i t s t i t l e s i n c e i t t e l l s u s n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e
meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s e i t h e r i n i t s b r o a d o r narrow
sense*
It i s , i n s t e a d , more o r l e s s of an a n a l y t i c e x e r c i s e
on t h e term, a s e m a n t i c a p p r o a c h i n which l i n g u i s t i c s i s
t h e o n l y i n p u t t o a p p l i e d l i n ~ i s t i c s . Using o u r e v a l u a t i v e
parameters, t h e r e f o r e , t h e a u t h o r l a c k s o b j e c t i v i t y because
he allows h i s s e n t i m e n t s f o r the s u b j e c t m a t t e r t o c o n t r o l
h i s reasoning.
He, hence, r e f u s e s t o s e e a n y t h i n g good
about applied l i n g u i s t i c s .
Again, he l a c k s comprehensiveness
b e c a u s e he even f a i l s t o c o v e r t h e s c o p e he s e t up by t h e
q u e s t i o n s be r a i s e d .
F o r i n s t a n c e , what h e gave a s t h e
d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d , i n r e s p o n s e t o W h a t i s
applied linguistics",
is a d i s t o r t e d h i s t o r i c a l sketch.
Yet we know t h a t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s can b e d e f i n e d .
Apart
from t h e s e , Mackey (1966) l a c k s c o n s i s t e n c y and e x p l a n a t o r y
force,
It n o t o n l y c o n t a i n s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b u t a l s o f a i l s
t o s t r a i g h t e n t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s by way of c o n v i n c i n g
evidence*
The l i t e r a t u r e , b a s e d on t h e above s h o r t c o m i n g s ,
c a n n o t h e l p anybody u n d e r s t a n d a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s a s i t s
t i t l e implies.
I n agreement w i t h t h e above a r t i c l e , Johnson (1970) i s
a s u g g e s t i o n ko r e l o c a t e l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g because l i n g u i s t i c
i n f l u e n c e on l a n g u a g e c o n t e n t and methodology of second
language t e a c h i n g has r e s u l t e d i n a " f a i l u r e t o develop a n
a d e q u a t e d i s c i p l i n e of l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g a s
r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i n a d e q u a t e c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n of
l a n g u a g e c o n t e n t and a m i s p l a c e d emphasis on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n
of l a n g u a g e c o n t e n t r a t h e r t h a u l a n g u a g e s k i l l s " , Johnson
(1970:235).
Johnson (1970) i s meant t o b e an eye o p e n e r t o t h e way
l i n g u i s t i c 6 h a s d e c e i v e d l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r s and how l i n g u i s t i c
d e s c r i p t i o n s dominate l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t
p e d a g o g i c a l and l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s a r e o u t moded.
The a u t h o r
a r g u e s t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n !'began when some 1 i n e ; u i s t S
,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e USA made a s t r o n g t a k e o v e r b i d f o r
c o n t r o l of s e c o n d l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g f i e l d ,
These men
b r o u g h t w i t h them what Robert Lado c a l l e d t h e s c i e n t i f i c
approach",
Johnson (1570:236).
He, t h e r e f o r e a d v o c a t e s a l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g d i s c i p l i n e
d e t a c h e d from b u t r e l a t e d t o d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s o n l y
t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t draws raw m a t e r i a l s from 1 8 n g u i s t i c s .
The raw m a t e r i a l s , i n t u r n , s h o u l d b e c r i t i c a l l y a s s e s s e d
by t h e l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r s t h e m s e l v e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r
u s e f u l n e s s t o f u n c t i o n a l communication b e h a v i o u r .
He s t r e s s e s
t h a t what s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d and o r d e r e d a r e l a n g u a g e i t e m s ,
p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l i n communication s i t u a t i o n .
According
t o him " t h e l i n g u i s t ' s v i e w of t h e s y s t e m of l a n g u a g e , h i s
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e 1anp;uage
can s e r v e only as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e determination
o f what o u g h t t o b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
courses.
The l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s
o f a c q u i s i t i o n must s e l e c t from t h e d a t a s u p p l i e d by t h e
l i n g u i s t a n d o r d e r t h a t d a t a on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r economic
f a c i l i t a t i o n of communication and n o t on t h e b a s i s of t h e
s t r u c t u r a l c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e l a n ~ p a g et o b e l e a r n e d " ,
Johnson ( 1970 :240-1 1.
Though t h i s a r t i c l e s h a r e s w i t h Mackey ( 1 9 6 6 ) t h e same
e v a l u a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n towards l i n g u i s t i c s i n language
t e a c h i n g , t h e a u t h o r more o b j e c t i v e l y a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y
made h i s p o i n t .
He a d m i t t e d t h a t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of
l i n g u i s t i c s are v a l u a b l e i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and r i g h t l y
d e n i e s l a n g u a g e as t h e o n l y p r i m e v a r i a b l e i n l a n g u a g e
teaching.
He, t h u s , i n c l u d e s s u c h o t h e r v a r i a b l e s as
t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .
By h i g h l i g h t i n g emphasis on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of
l a n g u a g e s k i l l s o v e r and above t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of l a n g u a g e
c o n t e n t , Johnson (1970) e x p r e s s e s h i s f l a r e f o r communicative
competence which i s t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l of communicative
l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , which i n t u r n , i c t h e c u r r e n t approach
i n applied l i n g u i s t i c s enterprise.
A c l o s e a l l y of Johnson's
(1970) i s S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) ,
a n a r t i c l e t h a t s e e k s t o d i s c o v e r , l i k e Johnson ( 1 9 7 0 ) ~ t h e
r e l e v a n c e of p u r e l i n g u i s t i a s t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and t h e
r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d t h e u s e of t h e t e r m ' a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ' .
S p o l s k y (1970) d e s c r i b e s t h e r e l a t i o n s between l i n g u i s t i c s
and l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g as d u a l :
' a p p l i c a Lions and i m p l i c a t i o n s ' .
To h i m , l a n g u a g e d e s c r j p t i o n s , a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g , c a n p r o v i d e t h e d a t a needed f o r w r i t i n g t e a c h i n g
grammars, c o u r s e books, and d i c t i o n a r i e s , on t h e one hand,
and i n d i r e c t l y , new i n s i g h t s from s t u d i e s i n t h e n a t u r e of
l a n g u a g e may have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , on
t h e o t h e r hand.
On t h e i s s u e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , Spolsky (1970:272)
has t h i s t o say "the term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s n o t a
p a r t i c u l a r l y happy one: i n one way i t i s t o o b r o a d , f a i l i n g
t o s u g g e s t what l i n g u i s t i c s i s a p p l i e d t o , i n a n o t h e r , i t
s u g g e s t s a l e v e l of p r a c t i c a l i t y t h a t l a c k s t h e d i g n i t y
of ttpure l i n g u i s t i c s " .
vain search f o r
81
To j u s t i f y h i s c l a i m s , he made a
model i n which l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s a l o n e
a r e d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d t o some f i e l d s o u t s i d e l i n g u i s t i c s .
I n language t e a c h i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , i t :is p r a c t i c a l l y
i m p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e l a n g u a g e d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n o t synonymous
w i t h a s t a t e m e n t of how t o t e a c h o r l e a r n l a n g u a g e s .
O t h e r w i s e , t h e r e would n o t h e any need f o r t h e l a n g u a g e
teacher and h i a t r a i n i n g i n education.
But, convinced
t h a t e d u c a t i o n h a s t h e monopoly t o s u g g e s t how i t e m s i n a
grammar book c a n b e t a u g h t , he q u e r i e s t h e p l a c e of a p p l i e d
linguistics.
A s i f t o d i s c o v e r t h e answer h i m s e l f , t h e
a u t h o r t r i e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h between a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and
descriptive linguistics.
S e e i n g no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
them, h e went f u r t h e r t o r e g a r d a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as
c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s and t o c o n t r n s t CA w i t h d e s c r i p t i v e
linguistics.
Yet
h e c o u l d n o t p e r c e i v e any d i f f e r e n c e
b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g t o him, b o t h CA and d e s c r i p t i v e
l i n g u i s t i c s involve language description.
Having now t r i e d
t o no a v a i l t o p l a c e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and t h e r a t i o n d e
f o r i t s u s e , t h e a u t h o r s u b s t i t n t e d l a n e u a g e pedagogy as
a b e t t e r t e r m , s t r e s s i n g t h a t l a n g u a g e pedagogy i s e c l e c t i c
d r a w i n g i t s a s s u m p t i o n s n o t j u s t from t h e o r i e s of l a n g u a g e ,
b u t a l s o from t h e o r i e s o f l e a r n i n g , p s y c h o l o g i c a l and
p e d a g o g i c a l t h e o r i e s and t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e
i m p l i c a t i o n o of t h e t h r e e f i e l d s of l i n g u i s t i c a c t i v i t y :
- Theoretical linguistics
- Psycholinguistics
S p o l s k y (19701, though more e l a b o r a t e t h a n Johnson
(19701, acknowledges, l i k e J o h n s o n ( 1 9 7 0 ) , some measure o f
r e l e v a n c e of l i n g u i s t i c s i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ,
Moreover,
a d m i t t i n g t h a t t h e term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s t o o broad
t o b e s p e c i f i c t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a l o n e and t o o n a r r o w
t o i n c l u d e o t h e r s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e s i n l a n g u a g e pedagogy,
S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) , l i k e J o h n s o n (19701, i n c l u d e s l e a r n i n g
t h e o r i e s , p e d a g o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s as o t h e r
i n p u t s t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g which a r e n o t c o v e r e d by t h e
u s e of t h e t e r m a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ,
He, t h u s , h i g h l i g h t s
t h e s e m a n t i c i m p r e c i s i o n of t h e t e r m and s u g g e s t s a n
a l t e r n a t i v e t e r m l a n g u a g e pedagogy o r e d u c a t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c s
polsk sky 1 9 7 0 , 1978b). T h i s meanshe i n t e n d s t o d i s a m b i g u a t e
t h e term,
However, e d u c a t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c s i s
on one d i s c i p l i n e
- l.inguistics,
till b a s e d
and d o e s n o t have any
inherent semantic r e l a t i o n s h i p with those o t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l
i n p u t s ( v a r i a b l e s ) which t h e t e r m a p p l i e d 1 i n . g u i s t i c s i s
s a i d t o exclude,
In the a c t u a l sense, therefore, the p i c t u r e painted
o f l a n g u a g e pedagogy i n S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) and E d u c a t i o n a l
l i n g u i s t i c s i n Spolsky (1978b), i s t h a t of a a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s viewed from a s t r i c t l y s e m a n t i c a l l y d e t a c h e d
perspective,
Spolsky
c a s t i g a t e s t h e term because l i t e r a i l y ,
i t i s ambiguous b u t he f a i l s t o p r o v i d e a l e s s ambiguous
alternative.
Hence u n t i l a b e t t e r t e r m i s e v o l v e d we s h a l l
make do w i t h t h e a v a i l a b l e t e r m (cf. Van Els e t a1 1984).
F i n a l l y , S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) i n a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e any
d i f f e r e n c e between a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and d e s c r i p t i v e
l i n g u i s t i c e , on t h e o n e hand, and c o n t r a s t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s
a n d d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s , on t h e o t h e r i s i n l i n e w i t h
h i s a t t e m p t t o n u l l i f y t h e t e r m a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s o u t of
b i a s t h a t t h e r e a r e no o b v i o u ~d i f f e r e n c e s between them.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h i s c h o i c e of a term f a i l s h i m b e c a u s e he
could n o t convince u s t h a t Educational l i n g u i s t i c s is a
b e t t e r term c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s o u r c e d i ~ c i p l i n e si n l a n g u a g e
teaching.
R e l a t i n g i t t o t h e g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
meaning o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e a r t i c l e
l a c k s b o t h o b j e c t i v i t y and e x p l a n a t o r y f o r c e .
Gomes d e Matos ( 1 9 7 1 ) i s a n o t h e r a r t i c l e t h a t
evaluatefi t h e relevance of l i n g u i s t i c s i n language teaching.
To t h i ~a u t h o r , a l o t h a s b e e n s a i d a b o u t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
of l i n g u i s t i c s p r i n c i p l e s t o language t e a c h i n g without a
corresponding demonstration, through s p e c i f i c i l l u s t r a t i v e
exampleg, how t h i s t a k e s p l a c e i n p r a c t i c e .
He, t h e r e f o r e ,
a t t e m p t s t o e v a l u a t e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n langua#e
t e a c h i n g through t h e examination of f o u r t e e n t e a c h e r s '
g u i d e s t o show t h e e x t e n t t o which some p r i n c i p l e s o f
l i n g u i s t i c s c i e n c e e x e r t i n f l u e n c e on t e a c h e r ' s manuals
i n t h e f i e l d of T e a c h i n g E n g l i s h as a Sccond Language (TEFL).
A t t h e end of t h e s u r v e y , h e was d i s a p p b i n t e d by h i s
r e s u l t f o r he discovered t h a t t h e sample of t h e p o p u l a t i o n
o f s t u d y ( f o u r t e e n t e a c h e r s ' manuals) w a s t o o narrow t o
b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , and hence c o u l d n o t y i e l d enough d a t a
from which r e l i a b l e and v a l i d c o n c l u s i o n c o u l d b e drawn.
However, he o b s e r v e d t h e c o n s p i c o u s a b s e n c e of t h e term
applied l i n g u i s t i c s i n the fourteen texts.
L i k e Mackey ( 1966). Johnson ( 1970), and S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) ~
Gomes d e Matos (1971) e v a l u a t e s l i n g u i s t i c s and i t s
a p p l i c a t i o n t o language teaching.
The! orrly d i f f e r e n c e i s
t h a t Gornes de Matzs (1971) i s a c a s e s t u d y of some s o r t .
Again t h e c o n t e n t i o n of Gomes de Matos (1971) t h a t a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s r o s e o u t of an o v e r a n x i e t y o f t h e l i n g u i s t s t o
confer s c i e n t i f i c s t a t u s t o approaches underlying language
t e a c h i n g i s i n l i n e w i t h Mackey (1956) and Johnson (1970).
The s c o p e of t h e a r t i c l e , l i k e S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p o r t r a y s a
s t r i c t l y semantic approach t o t h e term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .
,
.
Hence, t h e a u t h o r b e l i e v e s t h a t by t h e u s e of t h e term,
l i n g u i s t i c s i s r e g a r d e d as t h e o n l y s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e i n
language teaching.
T h i s i s why he d e c i d e s t o l o o k i n t o
l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g manuals. f o r examples of s u c h a p p l i c a t i o n s
a s a means t o debunk t h e claim.
L i k e S p o l s k y (1970) a l s o Gomes de h t o s (1971) meets
w i t h some d i f f i c u l t i e s .
H i s c h o i c e of t h e sample of h i s
p o p u l a t i o n f a i l s him i n t h e same way a s S p o l s k y ' s (1970)
s u g g e s t i o n o f a n a l t e r n a t i v e term f a i l s him t o o .
That
Gornes de Matos (1971) c a n n o t a r r i v e a t any d e f i n i t i v e
*
c o n c l u s i o n i s n o t any f a u l t of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s o r
linguistice',
b u t t h e f a u l t o f h i s l a c k of t h o r o u g h n e s s .
H i s work, t h e r e f o r e , l a c k s c o m p r e h e n s i v e n c s s n o t o n l y
because i t t o e s a semantic p a t h t o t h e term a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s , b u t r l s o because i t does not use a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
s c m p l e o f t h e s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n which would have e n g e n d e r e d
a c o n v i n c i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f how p r a c t i c a l l y o r o t h e r w i s e
l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s c a n r e f l e c t i n l a n g u a g e pedagogy,
a n d , a t l e a s t , r e v e a l t h e p l a c e of l i n g u i s t i c i n t h e wide
a r e n a o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s e n t e r p r i s e o f which i t i s a
part
.
of
Moreover, i t i s p e d a n t i c l t h e a u t h o r t o s c a n f o r t h e
t e r m a p p l i e d l i n ~ i s t i c si n a t e x t i n which t h e p r i n c i p l e s
of l i n g u i s t i c s a r e expected t o r e f l e c t .
This is because
t h e methods and a p p r o a c h e s of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s a r e n o t
b e t t e r r e f l e c t e d i n a mere m e n t i o n o f t h e t e r m t h a n i n
t h e i r actual use i n the text.
A l s o r e l a t e d t o t h e a b o v e a r t i c l e s i s Van
*
(1971)
which s e t s o u t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
l i n g u i s t i c s and f o r e i g n , l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , a n d t o d e t e r m i n e
i n what m e a n i n g f u l way r e s u l t s of l i n g u i s t i c r e s e a r c h c a n
be applied t o f o r e i g n language teaching.
Van W , l i k e
Mackey (1966) a n d i n d e e d a l l o t h e r p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d
a r t i c l e s , e v a l u a t e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c s t;o
language teaching.
However, u n l i k e Mackey ( i 9 6 6 ) ,
- 51 Van Ek (1971) a g r e e s w i t h Johnson (1970) and S p o l s k y (1970)
t h a t l i n g u i s t i c s makes some con t r i b u ti.ons t o l a n g u a g e
teaching, believing t h a t l i n g u i s t i c descriptions a r e
r e l e v a n t t o language t e a c h i n g because they r e v e a l t o t h e
l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r what t o t e a c h , b u t n o t how t o s e l e c t o r
order the materials.
On t h e t e r m a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , Van Ek (1971) s h a r e s
t h e same a t t i t u d e w i t h Mackoj (19661, Johnson (1970) and
Gomes de Matos ( 1 9 7 1 ) , when he n o t e s " t h e c u r r e n t ~ o p u l a r i t y
of t h e term a s a l a b e l f o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h t o
l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g problems
...
makes t h e approach l o o k
r e s p e c t a b l e by r a n g i n g i t w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d d i s c i p l i n e s
Van Ek (1971 $332).
... ,
11
Van Ek (1971) went f u r t h e r , l i k e
S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) , t o s t a t e t h e l i m i t a t i o n on t h e t e r m " a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s " when t a k e n on i t s f a c e ( s e m a n t i c ) v a l u e , b u t
u n l i k e S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) , he d o e s n o t s u g g e s t an a l t e r n a t i v e
term.
I n s t e a d he d e t a c h e s t h e t e r m from i t s s t r i c t l y
s e m a n t i c s e n s e and r e v e a l s t h e e c l e c t i c n a t u r e of t h e
d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e following statement:
"Applied l i n g u i s t i c s
s t a n d s f o r a m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h i n which s p e c i d i s t s
i n many f i e l d s work t o g e t h e r " ,
Van Ek (1971:333).
However, t h e d e f i n i t i o n i s n o t comprehensive as i t
does not i l l u m i n a t e t h e f a c t t h a t applied l i n g u i s t i c s i s
a d i s c i p l i n e i n d e p e n d e n t o f and d i s t i n c t from t h a t of t h e
s a i d s p e c i a l i s t s , b u t u s e s i d e a s produced by t h e s e c p e c i a l i s t s .
Hence, s p e c i a l i s t s i n a p p l i e d l i n g u i c t i c s ( a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s )
a r e d i f f e r e n t from s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e
d i s c i p l i n e s , whose o b j e c t i v e i s t o d i s c o v e r f a c t s and make
t h e o r i e s f o r t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l consumptions.
But, t h e s e
d i s c o v e r i e s , through t h e m a n i p u l a t i v e i n g e n u i t y of a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t s , f i n d t h e i r way i n t o m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g language
t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .
(1981:36)
A s a m a t t e r of f a c t , Mackenzie
does n o t mince words when he remarks "the g o a l s
and m o t i v a t i o n of t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c work a r e e s t a b l i s h e d
i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e who s e e k t o b e n e f i t
from t h e o u t p u t o f t h a t work".
Moreover, i t is e x p e c t e d t h a t s i n c e Van Ek (1971)
shows u s t h a t t h e main burden of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s d o e s
n o t r e s t on l i n g u i . s t i c s , t h e a u t h o r s h o u l d have been
e l a b o r a t e enough t o i n d i c a t e where e l s e t h e burden r e s t s
.
.
and how, s o a s t o e n a b l e one t o come t o g r i p s w i t h what
c o n s t i t u t e s t h e f i e l d of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and why.
Hence,
t h e argument l a c k s e x p l a n a t o r y f o r c e , and t o some e x t e n t ,
n o t comprehensive.
In the f i n a l analysis, the a r t i c l e exhibites a
r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e of o b j e c t i v i t y and coherence.
It h a s ,
t h e r e f o r e , succeeded t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t makes u s
u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e s e m a n t i c v a l u e of t h e term, a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s , i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e , and t h a t t h e r e i s more t o
t h e f i e l d t h a n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n t p i s t i c s a l o n e t o
- 53 language teaching (cf.
However, we
Van Els e t a1 1984).
a r e e a g e r l y a w a i t i n g t o b e t o l d what t h e s e o t h e r i n p u t s
are.
Again, t h e r e is no m e n t i o n of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n
a b r o a d s e n s e t o d e n o t e i t s u s e t o r e f e r t. o. a w i d e r a r e a
o f a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s t o f i e l d s i n c l u d i n g b u t n o t
r e s t r i c t e d t o language teaching and learning.
W i l k i n s (1972) seems t o p r o v i d e a d e f i n i t i o n of a n d
a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e s c i e n t i f i c approach t o language
teaching (applied l i n g u i s t i c s ) ,
Made u p o f f i v e s e c t i o n s ,
s e c t i o n one d i s c u s s e s t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t b e d e v i l e d l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g methodology.
A s he a p t l y o b s e r v e s " t e a c h i n g
methods have changed l i k e t h e s w i n g of t h e pendulum due
t o l a c k of t e c h n i q u e s and r e s o u r c e s f o r s t u d y i n g t h e
l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g of l a n g u a g e s , and t h e i m p e r f e c t
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t u r e of l a n g u a g e i t s e l f n , W i l k i n s
(1932: 23).
The s e c o n d s e c t i o n a d d r e s s e s t h e p r o b l e m s of
c a r r y i n g o u t empirical research i n t o language teaching,
e x p l a i n i n g how t h e numerous v a r i a b l e s f a c t o r s i n l a n g u a g e
l e a r n i n g have hindered a c o n c l u s i v e r e s e a r c h i n language
teaching,
I t is v i r t u a l l y i m p o s e i b l e i n any r e a l t e a c h i n g
s i t u a t i o n t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l t h e v a r i a b l e s have b e e n
controlled",
t h e a u t h o r l a m e n t s W i l k i n s (1972:24).
Convinced t h a t t e a c h i n g
theories) alone
c a n n o t s u p p l y a l l t h a t i s needed i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ,
t h e a u t h o r i n t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n , weaves i n some o t h e r
s o u r c e s of information t h a t could b e u s e f u l i n language
t e a c h i n g as f o l l o w s : f i r s t , a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t l a n g u a g e
teaching does not t a k e p l a c e i n n
vacuum, h e l i k e n s
l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g t o o t h e r f o r m s of l e a r n i n g and p r o p o s e s
t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n from g e n e r a l , e d u c a t i o n a l and s o c i a l
p s y c h o l o g y would h e l p i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g .
Second, c e r t a i n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l e a r n e r s i n f l u e n c e l e a r n i n g , concerned
w i t h t h e s t u d y o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s o c i o l o g y and
s o c i a l anthropology a r e p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s of information
f o r language teaching.
Again, e d u c a t i o n a l a i d s s h o u l d b e
resourceful i n language teaching s i n c e they provide
i n f o r m a t i o n on how t h e c o n t e x t o f t e a c h i n g i n f l u e n c e s
learning.
Also c o n s i d e r e d i n f l u e n t i a l i n language l e a r n i n g
i s t h e g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e s c h o o l system.
F i n a l l y , h e c o n t e n d s % e c a u s e l a n g u a g e 5 s t h e human
phenomenon w i t h which l i n g u i s t i c s i s c o n c e r n e d j u s t a s i t
i s t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , l i n g u i s t i c s i s
.
a n a r e a o f s t u d y which m i g h t h e l p t o i n f o r m d e c i s i o n s i n
language teaching".
W i l k i n s (1972~25).
Summing up, h e
r e m a r k s , "Language t e a c h i n g i s a p r a g m a t i c b u s i n e s s , hence
i t i s wrong t o r e f e r o n l y t o e v i d e n c e drawn from l i n g u i s t i c s
i n making l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g d e c i s i o n s " ,
( W i l k i n ~1972:26).
The r e s t of t h e s e c t i o n s i c d e v o t e d t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n
of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between l i n g u i s t i c s and l a n g u a g e
teaching.
The a u t h o r s t a t e d , w i t h some examples, t h e
p r i n c i p a l g o a l s of l i n g u i s t i c s a s a s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y of
- 55 l a n g u a g e as d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ,
showing t h a t l i n g u i s t i c
d e s c r i p t i o n s do n o t p o i n t t o t h e
b e s t way t o t e a c h a l a n g u a g e a s t o make d e v e l o p m e n t s i n
l i n g u i s t i c o cause changes i n language teaching.
This thought
conforms w i t h S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 1 , b u t t h a t n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ,
u n l i k e Spolsky (1970), t h e author p o s i t s a t r i u m v i r a t e
s y s t e m o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i n g u i s t i c s and Janguage
t e a c h i n g i n t e r m s o f i n c i g h t s , i m p l i c a t i o n s , and a p p l i c a t i o n s :
With i l l u s t r a t i v e e x a m p l e s from s t r u c t u r a l i s t p r i n c i p l e s ,
h e e x p l a i n s t h a t i n s i g h t s from l i n g u i s t i c s c a n i n c r e a s e o u r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a t u r e of l a n g u a g e and c o n s e q u e n t l y
language l e a r n i n g , without n e c e s s a r i l y g i v i n g s p e c i f i c
information t h a t can be b u i l t i n t o language teaching.
In
t h e same v e i n , d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t e a c h i n g a r e r o o t e d i n a
v i e w o f l e a r n i n g s u c h t h a t t h e i r z p l i c a t i o n s o f many l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s c a n b e e x p l a i n . e d by t h e h e l p o f s t u d i e s
i n l i n g u i s t i c s e ~ : p e c i a l l yt h e o r i e s of l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n ;
a n d f i n a l l y , l i n g u i s t i c s c a n a c t d i r e c t l y upon t h e p r o c e s s
of language t e a c h i n g through language d e s c r i p t i o n s .
This
i s because language d e s c r i p t i o n s provide t h e bases f o r t h e
s e l e c t i o n and o r d e r i n g o f l a n g u a g e i t e m s a n d t h u s i n f l u e n c e s
t h e c r e a t i o n of t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l a .
Thi.s l a f i t r e l a t i o n o f
a p p l i c a t i o n is what t h e a u t h o r r e f e r s t o as a p p l i e d
linguistics.
As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h i s i s t h e a n g l e from
which J o h n s o n ( 1 9 7 0 ) , S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) , a n d Gomes d e Matos
(1977) views t h e t e r m a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ( t h a t i s from its
s t r i c t l y s e m a n t i c s e n s e ) , as opposed t o Van Ek (1971)
who v i e w s t h e t e r m from a s t r i c t l y s e m a n t i c a l l y d e t a c h e d
p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i l e acknowledging i t s s e m a n t i c i m p r e c i s i o n .
On t h e whole, F l i l k i n s (1972) i s o b j e c t i v e b e c a u s e he
p r e s e n t s h i s d i s c u o s i o n s , l o a d e d w i t h examples, w i t h o u t
a n y d i s p l a y of b i a s o r s e n t i m e n t s , and c o h e r e n t b e c a u s e
h e m a i n t a i n s h i s s t r e a m of argument from t h e b e g i n n i n g t i l l
t h e end.
force.
However, i t l a c k s comprehensiveness a n d e x p l a n a t o r y
H i s u s e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o d e s i g n a t e t h e
d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n t o l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g d o e s n o t c r e a t e a complete t h o u g h t a b o u t a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow senGe b e c a u s e i t d o e s n o t
encompass t h e d i v e r s e f i e l d of e n t e r p r i s e represented by
t h e d i s c i p l i n e ( c f . Van Ek 1971).
what W i l k i n s (1972:23)
A s a m a t t e r of f a c t
d i s c u s s e s as s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n
i n language teaching a r e t h e source d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t y i e l d
i n p u t s t o a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c c , and what h e d e s c r i b e s a s
"a p r a g m a t i c b u s i n e s s " W i l k i n s (1972: 26) i s a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s enterprise.
Hence, by t h i s a p p r o a c h , W i l k i n s
(1972) c o v e r t l y r e l i v e 8 S p o l s k y ' s (1970) i d e a of l a n g u a g e
pedagogy o r e d u c a t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c s ( c f .
S p o l s k y 1386).
Again, W i l k i n s (1972) mention of t h e term a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c o d o e s n o t r e v e a l t h e b r o a d s e n s e of t h e t e r m ,
s o t h a t even i f one i s t o u n d e r s t a n d a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
as t h e d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c e d e s c r i p t i o n s t o
l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , s o t o s p e a k , one would assume t h a t t h a t
-57
-
i s all t h a t t h e r e i s a b o u t t h e term.
What a p p e a r s t o b e a n e x p l i c i t c h a r a c t e r i n a t i o n of
the
discipline
of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s S r i d h a r (1990).
The a u t h o r r e g a r d s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as a p l u r a l noun
r e f l e c t i n g t h e c o - e x i s t e n c e o f a m u l t i p l e and d i v e r s e
conceptual f i e l d s .
H e i d e n t i f i e d two d i f f e r e n t v i e w s of
applied l i n g u i s t i c s .
The n a r r o w and b r o a d views.
To
him, a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i a t h e n a r r o w s e n s e i s e q u a t e d
t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g f o r two r e a s o n s :
Mackey (1966).
f i r s t , unlike
Johnson ( 1 9 7 0 ) . Gomcx; d e Matos ( 1 9 7 1 ) who
p r o d u c e a d i s t o r t e d and b i a s e d view of t h e o r i g i n of
<
.
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , h e s a y s "In t h e 1940's d u r i n g t h e
heyday of l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , some l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s w i s h e d t o u p g r a d e t h e i r s t a t u s by
a s s o c i a t i n g w i t h t h e more s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d o f l i n g u i s t i c s " ,
S r i d h a r (1990:167);
a n d s e c o n d , t h e most e x t e n s i v e a p p l i c a -
t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s h a s b e e n i n t h e f i e l d of l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g , a s a r e s u l t , l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g came t o b e
" r e g a r d e d a s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s show p i e c e f o r demonstrat i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s of l i n g u i s t i c c " ,
S r i d h a r ( 1990 $167 )
.
Taking s i d e s with Wilkins ( l 9 7 2 ) , t h e author b e l i e v e s
t h a t t h e g o a l s of d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s a r e
d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s , c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e f a c t t h a t what t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t s c h u r n o u t
as " t h e most r e n e r a l , r i g o r o u s , f o r m a l l y e l e g a n t models
a r e o f t e n n o t t h e most u s e f u l o n e s i n f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s " ,
S r i d h u r (1990:168).
He c o n t e n d s , q u i t e u n l i k e S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 )
and W i l k i n s ( 1 9 7 2 ) ~ t h a t t h e b a s i c c o n c e r n o f a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s is t o e s t a b l i s h the appropriate concepts o r
models of l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g w i t h o u t t i l t i n g t o w a r d s
J i n g u i c t i c s as t h e s o l e s o u r c e o f i n p u t s s i n c e a d e s i r a b l e
model f o r l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g must n o t u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e from
l i n g u i s t i c s t h e o r i e s i n a technical sense.
To b u t t r e s s
h i s c l a i m , t h e a u t h o r s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e o r i e s o f communicative
competence and p r a g m a t i c s which h a v e s o f a r y i e l d e d t h e
most u s e f u l a n d i n f l u e n t i a l i n s i g h t ; t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
(i.e.
comrnuni~at:~vea p p r o a c h ) do n o t d e r i v e f r o m l i n g u i s t i c
d e s c r i p t i o n s p e r s e b.ut f r o m a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s a n d
p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n g u a g e , which e x i s t as f u l l - f l e d g e d
independent d i s c i p l i n e s .
Applied l i n g u i s t i c s , t h e r e f o r e ,
i s s e e n as i n v o l v i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f " n o t i o n s disowned
o r a t l e a s t i g n o r e d by l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y " ,
S r i d h a r (1990:169),
C h a r a c t e r i z i n g a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e b r o a d view
S r i d h a r (1990-) i d e n t i f i e s two c l a s s e s o f
subject^ which,
t h o u g h i n v o l v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f linguistics, s o t o s p e a k ,
h a v e v e r y l i t t l e t o do w i t h l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s i n a s t r i c t
sense.
A c c o r d i n g t o S r i d h a r (1990:70)
" t h e y move beyound
grammar t o a c h i e v e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l a n g u a g e i n a
broad sense, i.e.
as i t i s s i t u a t e d i n t i m e , p l a c e , s o c i e t y ,
c u l t u r e , and i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o t h e r c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s
and used f o r c o m m ~ n i c a t i o n ~ ~ .
These s u b j e c t a r e a s , t h e a u t h o r m n i n t a i q a r e n o t a p p l i e d
a r e a s of l i n g u i s t i c s , b u t complement t h e p a r t i a l a c c o u n t o f
l a n g u a g e p r o v i d e d by t h e f o r m a l a s p e c t of l a n g u a g e s t u d y
(theoretical linguistics).
Be t h e r e f o r e , c a l l s them
"complementary o r e x t e n d e d l i n g u i s t i c s t ' , S r i d h a r (1990:170).
By s u g g e s t i n g t h i s w e l l a r t i c u l a t e d , a l t e r n a t i v e name
f o r t h e b r o a d view o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s S r i d h a r ( 1 9 9 0 )
s a v e s u s from t e r m i n o l o g i c a l c o n t r o v e r s i e s and t h e i r
a t t e n d a n t confusions.
T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e t h e b r o a d view o f
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s g o e s b y t h e t e r m complementary o r e x t e n d e d
linguistics",
t h e n a r r o w v i e w s r e m a i n s unchanged u n t i l w e
f i n d a b e t t e r term; u n l i k e what o b t a i n s i n S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 )
where a n ambiguouc term p u r p o r t s t o r e s o l v e t h e a m b i g u i t y
i n t h e term ' a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s 1 .
F u r t h e r m o r e , S r i d h a r (1990:173)
captures t h e general
i d e a of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e narrow s e n s e a s f o l l o w s :
Applied l i n g u i s t i c s i p n o t a s i n g l e , u n i f i e d
c o n c e p t , b u t t h e r e i s a common t h r e e d t h a t r u n s
t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s : a commitment
t o e m p i r i c a l d a t a , a c o n t e x t u a l i z e d view o f
l a n ~ u a g e , a f u n c t i o n a l i s t e m p h a s i s , and a n
i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y openness.
Applied l i n g u i s t i c s
i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h l l a n g u a g e i n i t s t o t a l human
and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t e x t ' .
This contexts e n s i t i v e , problem-oriented, performancef r i e n d l y a p p r o a c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s o - c a l l e d
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s h a s a l r e a d y proved i t s worth
and c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e l i m i t i n g assumptions
of formal l i n g u i s t i c s .
.
,
C o n c l u d i n g , he m a i n t a i n s t h a t l i n g u i s t i c s c a n n o t be
c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e d from o t h e r a.ll?.cd d i s c i p l i n e s l i k e
s o c i o l o g y , anth-opology,
etc.
He, t h e r e f o r e , a d v o c a t e s a
"unified,
60
-
i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y approach t o t h e s t u d y of
l a n g u a g e i n w h i c h l a n g u a g e would b e s t u d i e d i n a l l t h e i r
c o m p l e x i t y and u n i q u e n e s s i n s t e a d o f d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d
sentences",
S r i d h a r (1990:174).
T h i s a r t i c l e seems i n my view, t o b e a p e r f e c t
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f t h e meaning o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n
a l l its ramifications.
It n o t o n l y r e v e a l s t h e v a r i o u s
s h a d e s of meaning o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s b u t a l s o l i n k s
t h e s e s h a d e s o f meaning t o t h e i r r o o t s .
For i n s t a n c e , he
makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e u s e o f a p p l i e d 1 i n g u . i s t i c s i n i t s
purely semantic sense (i.e.
t o r e f e r t o the application
of l i n g u i s t i c d z s c r i p t i o n s alone t o l a n m a g e teaching) is
not, a n a c c i d e n t , ,
6 e gave two r e a s o n s f o r t h i s v i e w ( c f .
S r i d h a r 1990:167).
He a l s o t e l l s u s why a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
i n t h e n a r r o w s e n s e i s n o t l i m i t e d t o t h e domain of f o r m a l
l i n g u i s t i c s as t h e s o l e s o u r c e d i s c i p l i n e ( c f . S r i d h a r 1990:
169).
F i n a l l y ; h e g i v e s a n e l a ' b o r a t e e x p l a n a t i o n o f what
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e b r o a d v i e w s t a n d s f o r and
u l t i m a t e l y d e s c r i b e s t h e d i s c i p l i n e s c o v e r e d by t h i s view
o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i o t i c s as e x i s t i n c i n a r e l a t i o n o f
complementarity with d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s .
He t h u s
s u g g e s t s t h e t e r m "complementary o r e x t e n d e d l i n g u i s t i c s "
f o r t h e b r o a d view of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as a way o f
minimizing c o n f u s i o n s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e term
applied linguistics.
,
S r i d h a r (1990) can be s a i d t o be o b j e c t i v e , c o h e r e n t ,
c o n c i s t e n t , comprehensive and e x p l a n a t o r i l y f o r c e f u l .
It
i s o b j e c t i v e because i t is f a c t u a l , p r e s e n t i n g both t h e
o r i g i n and meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s w i t h o u t any b i a s
c o h e r e n t and c o n s i ~ t e n tb e c a u s e h . i s p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e
u n i f i e d and s y s t e m a t i c , c o m p r e h e n s i v e b e c a u s e i t a c c o u n t s
f o r t h e meaning of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n a l l i t s c o m p l e x i t i e s ,
and e x p l a n a t o r i l y f o r c e f u l b e c a u s e h i s d i s c u s s i o n s a r e
b o t h l o g i c a l and c o n v i n c i n g .
The l a t e s t we c a n f i n d a b o u t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s
Ranpton ( 1 9 9 5 ) . a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t c h a n g e s i n
a p p l i e d l i n g - u i s t i c s i n B r i t a i n compared w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n
a decade ago,
The a u t h o r n o t e s t h a t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
i n B r i t a i n h a s s h i f t e d i t s f o c u s o n l a n ~ u a g epedagogy,
l i n g u i s t i c s and p s y c h o l o g y t o w a r d s l a n g u a g e and more g e n e r a l
s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s and phenomena, d e r i v i n g i n s i g h t s from
s o c i o l o g y , a n t h r o p o l o g y , and media s t u d i e s .
To e x p l a i n t h e s e
c h a n g c s Hampton ( 1 9 9 5 ) b o r r o w s S t r e e t ' s (1984) d i e t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n autonomous a n d i d e o l o g i c a l model6 o f l i t e r a c y ,
and t h e n , r e l a t e s t h e c h a n g e s t o t h e s e models.
He t h e r e f o r e ,
r e f e r s t o t h e previous s t a t e of applied l i n g u i s t i c s i n
B r i t a i n as t h e autonomous model of a p p l i e d l i n c u i s t i c s ,
and t h e c u r r e n t s t a b e as t h e i d e o l o g i c a l model o f a p p l i e d
linguistics.
To g i v e c r e d e n c e t o h i s c l a i m , Rampton (1995:235)
o u t l i n e s t h e t e n e t s o f autonornoun and i d e o l o g i c a l models of
l i t e r a c y as g i v e n i n S t r e e t ( 1 9 8 4 ) and compares t h e t e n e t s
o f autonomous model 1 i t e r a c . y t o s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n
a n d E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s i n t h e autonomous
model o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .
T h i s i s b e c a u s e , t o him,
t h e c l a i m i n t h e autonomous model of l i t e r a c y t h a t l i t e r a c y
i s a w a r r a n t f o r c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i c m ( c : ~ . S t r e e t 1984)
t a l l i e s w i t h t h e i d e a i n t h e autonomous model
of a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s t h a t E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g (ELT) i s "an
e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t f o r m o d e r n i z a t i o n and a l a c k o f
emphasis on t h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l p n r t i c u l z r i t y of language
l e a r n i n g increased t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t a b i l i t y o f
E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g (ELT)",
Ramptmn (1995:236).
The i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e c l a i m s I s t h a t b o t h E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g and l i t e r a c y i n t h e autonomous model l e n t s u p p o r t
t o t h e p o l i t i c a l domination of t h e n o n - i n d u s t r i a l i z e d
t h i r d w o r l d by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d West.
However, w i t h t h e c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s i n a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s (i.e.
i d e o l o g i c a l model o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ) ,
a t t e n t i o n b e g i n s t o s h i f t from E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
o v e r s e a s t o l a n g u a g e e d u c a t i o n b a c k at home (UK) f o l l o w i n g
government i n i t i a t i v e s t o a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t s t o d e s i g n
l a n g u a g e p o l i c i e s f o r t h e i r own c o u n t r y .
o f f o c u s , Rampton (1995:236)
With t h i s s h i f t
remarks "applied l i n g u i s t i c s
i s brought f a c e t o f a c e w i t h a n i n d i g e n i o u s t r a d i t i o n of
l a n g u a g e e d u c a t i o n t h a t h a s b e e n much more committed t o
t h e l o c a l community r o o t s , and much more e x p l i c i . t l y
. .
- 63 c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e p o l i t i c s of l a n g u a g e use".
Also
i n s t r u m e n t a l t o t h i s s h i f t o f a t t e n t i o n from autonomous
t o i d e o l o g i c a l model o f a p p l i e d 1 i n g u i s t . j - c s i s t h e g e n e r a l
c r i t i q u e and r e d e f i n i t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s m ( t h e t e n e t s a r e
o u t l i n e d i n Rampton (1995:237-8)
which t h e a u t h o r b e l i e v e s
h e l p e d t o b u i l d up t h e autonomous model,
A s he a p t l y
o b s e r v e s "autonon~ous models of l a n g u a g e u s e a r e d e e p l y
p e r m e a t e d by l i b e r a l a s s u m p t i o n s , and i t i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t
when l i b e r a l i s m comes u n d e r a t t a c k , autonomous a p p l i e d
linp;uiot:i.cst foundations w i l l a l s o tremble",
Rampton (1995:
239
-.
F i n a l l y , t h e author, having e s t a b l i s h e d t h e bases
'
f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l model o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s s u g g e s t s
f o u r a l t e r n a t i v e r e s e a r c h domains f o r a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s :
I.
.Service t o t h e s t a t e ;
2,
C o m p e t i t i o n on t h e m a r k e t ;
3.
I n d e p e n d e n t a n a l y f i i s and c r i t i q u e ;
4,
New s o c i a l movement.
Rampton ( 1 9 9 5 ) i s a n a c c o u n t o f 'ihe a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
p r a c t i c e s i n B r i t a i n p a s t and p r e s e n t .
The i d e a i s t h a t
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s t o
l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and t h a t t h i n e n t e r p r i s e i n v o l v e s two
models.
The f i r s t model
-
Autonomous model, i n v o l v e s t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e t e a c h i n g of s e c o n d and
f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s which w a s i n vogue i n B r i t a i n i n t h e p a s t .
- 64 The s e c o n d and c u r r e n t model
-
I d e o l o g i c a l model
involve^
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e t e a c h i n g of mother
tongue.
I n t h i s l a t e r msdel r a m i f i c a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f :
service t o the state
c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e market e t c .
a r e t o be c o n s i d e r e d .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
3.1
Summary
The d e f i n i t i o n o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is i n a s t a t e
of f l u x ,
Again and a g a i n , s c h o l n r s h i p a t t e m p t s a
d e f i n i t i o n of t h e t e r m w i t h o u t r e a l l y c a p t u r i n g i t .
E3ch
a t t e m p t r a t h e r e l i c i t s v a r i o u s , p z r t i a l , more o r l e s s
p a r t i s a n account of t h i s s u b j e c t matter,
A s a m a t t e r of
f a c t , t h e s i t u a t i o n h e r e is c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e p r o v e r b i a l
b l i n d men who d e s c r i b e d and d e f i n e d t h e e l e p h a n t , e a c h ,
f r o m t h e p o i n t of view o f t h e p a r t h e c o u l d t o u c h .
This,
by i m p l i c a t i o n , means t h a t t h e t e r m a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
denotes d i f f e r e n t things i n d i f f e r e n t periods t o d i f f e r e n t
a u t h o r s , s u g g e s t i n g d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s and f o c u s e s .
Hence,
e v e r y c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e meaning o f t h i s d i s c i p l i n e i s
r e s t r i c t e d e i t h e r i n t i m e , s p a c e , o r i n some r e s p e c t , a s
t o subject matter.
These v a r i o u s v i e w p o i n t s o f a p p l j - e d
l i n g u i s t i c s have a c c u m u l a t e d o v e r t h e y e a r s i n t o a v e r i t a b l e
m a s s of r a w m a t e r i a l s f o r r e s e a r c h .
We, t h e r e f o r e ,
d i s c o v e r i n o u r s t u d y of t h e s e t
l i t e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t s t r a p s of t h e view of a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s d e r i v i n g from p r e v i o u s t h e o r i e s , p r a c t i c e s
a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s , which
l i e i n w a i t t o b e s y n t h e s i z e d and
integrated i n t o a unified pattern.
Lado
(1957) f o r
instance, is situated within the s t r u c t u r a l i s t l i n g u i s t i c
period.
S t r u c t u r a l i s m i s a ~ u b - f i e l d of f o r m a l i s m which
v i e w s l a n g u a g e a s a s y s t e m o f d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d code and
e q u a t e s t h o knowledge o f n l a n g u s g e w i t h g r a m m a t i c a l
competence.
S t r u c t u r a l i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t language is h a b i t
a n d t h a t l e a r n i n g a new l a n g u a g e c o n s i c t s i n l e a r n i n g a
new s e t o f h a b i t .
Hence, t o them d i f f i c : u l t i e s f o u n d i n
second language s i t u a t i o n a r i s e because t h e l e a r n e r already
had a l a n g u a g e (i.e.
h i s m o t h e r t o n g u e ) which i n t e r f e r s
w i t h t h e second language.
To t e a c h t h e c o r r e c t form a n d
avoid e r r o r s completely, s t r u c t u r a l i s t s advocate a prognostic
technique
-
contrastive analysis
- f o r predicting these
e r r o r s s o t h a t s t u d e n t s would b e d r i l l e d t o a v o i d them.
Ludo (1957).
a s t r u c t u r a l i s t , r e e a r d s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of
l i n g u i s t i c s a s n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e p r a c t i c e of c o n t r a s t i v e
analysis.
He, t h e r e f o r e , s t r e s s e s a c a r e f u l comparison o f
t h e n a t i v e and t a r g e t l a n g u a g e s of l e a r n e r s a c s o u r c e s of
r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s f o r succesnfu:L laneu33.gs t e a c h i n g and
learning.
A d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n on e r r o r s i s , however,
h e l d by t r a n s f o r s a t i o n a l g e n e r a t i v e grammar (TG), a n o t h e r
sub-f i e l d o f f or~nali.sm. T h i s g r o u p b e l i e v e s t h a t a l l e r r o r s
i n s e c o n d l a n g u a g e ~ i t u a t i o na r e n o t c a u s e d b y m o t h e r t o n g u e
interference.
They m a i n t a i n t h a t some e r r o r s a r e i n h e r e n t
i n t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e s which c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s c a n n o t
predict.
They, t h u s , a d v o c a t e a d i a g n o s t i c t e c h n i q u e
Error analysis.
-
I n t h i s technique errorG a r e gathered,
c l a s s i f i e d , d e s c r i b e d and e x p l a i n e d t o d i s c o v e r t h e i r
cauces.
CA and EA h e n c e f o r m t h e w o r k i n g t o o l s o f f o r m a l i s m .
- 67 B e l l ( 1 9 8 1 ) ~ Van E l s e t a 1 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , and S r i d h a r (1990)
d i s c u s s a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s from t h e p o i n t of v i e w o f
functionalism.
What c h a r a c t e r i s e s f u n c t i o n a l i s m i s t h e
b e l i e f t h a t l i n g u i s t i c e l e m e n t s o.f a l a n g u a g e i s d e t e r m i n e d
by t h e f u n c t i o n s , t h a t t h e y p e r f o r m i n t h e s o c i e t i e s i n
which t h e y o p e r a t e .
I n o t h e r words, f u n c t i o n a l i s m i s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l u s e s o f l a n g u a g e and t h e way
l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n s i n t h e e v e r y d a y b u s i n c s o o f communication.
T h e r e f o r e , t o f u n c t i o n a l i s t s , knowledge of l a n g u a g e i s n o t
j u s t a m a t t e r of g r a m m a t i c a l competence b u t a l s o o f communic a t i v . e competence.
B e c a u s e f u n c t i o n a l i s m drew i n s i g h t s
from l i n g u i s t i c s , s o c i o l o g y o f l a n g u a g e , p s y c h o l o g y of
l a n g u a g e , a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s , p h i l o s o p h y of
language, etc.
B e l l ( 1 9 8 1 ) , Van Els e t n l (19841, and
S r i d h a r ( 1 9 9 0 ) p r e s e n t a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s as e c l e c t i c and
interdisciplinary.
Again from a t e r m i n o l o g i c a l a n g l e o f f o c u s , Mackey
( 1 9 6 6 ) ~ S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) , and Gomes d e Matos ( 1 9 7 1 ) p r e s e n t
a n a n a l y t i c a l s t u d y of t h e t e r m s "Applied" a n d " L i n g u i s t i c s "
w i t h a t ~ i n g eo f m a l i c e .
They r i g h t l y s u . g g e s t t h a t what
happens i n t h e f i e l d of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c 6 i s g r e a t e r
t h a n t h e sum o f t h e two component t e r m s , b u t wrongly deny
t h e e x i s t e n c e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .
This denial i s
e v i d e n t i n t h e i r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t no e x i s t i n g l i n g u i s t i c
t h e o r y c a n be s a i d t o be r e l e v a n t i n l a n g u a k e t e a c h i n g .
S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) t h u s g o e s as f a r as s u g g e s t i n g a n a l t e r n a t i v e
t e r m w h i c h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , c o u l d n o t do a n y j u s t i c e t o t h e
course he pursues.
It seems t o u s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t Mackey
(1966) and S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) , a s l a n g u a g e feathers, f e a r p o s s i b l e
l o s s o f i m p o r t a n c e and h e n c e t h o u g h t t h a k t h e y c o u l d ward
o f f what t h e y f e e l i s l i n g u i s t i c e n c r o a c h m e n t on t h e i r
p r o f e s s i o n by d e n y i n g any u s e f u l n e s s of l i n g u b s t i c s i n
1.anguage t e a c h i n g .
A d i f f e r e n t approach t o t h i s terminological controversy
i s a p p a r e n t i n H a l l i d a y e t a1 ( 1964)
, Van
Ek ( 1 971 ) , Van Els
e t a1 (19841, and S r i d h a r (19901, who c o n s t r u c t i v e l y
acknowledges t h e t e r m i n o l o g i c a l i m p r e c i s i o n of a p p l i e d
1inp;uistics.
They p o i n t o u t u n e q u i v o c a l l y t h a t a p u r e l y
semantic approach t o t h e term c r e a t e s t h e impression t h a t
only t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s a r e applied i n t h e
exercise,
These a u t h o r s , however, d e f i n e a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
from a s e m a n t i c a ? . l y d e t a c h e d p e r s p e c t i v e t o i n c l u d e S o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s , p r a g m a t i c s , l a n g u a g e pedagogy,
etc.
H a l l i d a y e t a1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , i n a d d i t i o n t o a s e m a n t i c a l l y
d e t a c h e d d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d 1 i n g u i s t i . c s g i v e t h e l a b e l
Methodice t o a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n i t s p u r e l y s e m a n t i c s e n s e .
3.2
Conclusion
It i s b o t h d e f i n i t e a n d i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e t h a t any
p r a c t i c a l f i e l d of e n t e r p r i s e t h a t h a s l a n g u a g e , w h o l l y o r
p a r t l y , as t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , must of n e c e s s i t y r e q u i r e
t h e knowledge o f t h e n a t u r e o f l a n g u n g e , and a s s u c h ,
t h e a p p J i c u t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c s o f some s o r t .
T h i s i s why
i n t h e c a s e o f l a n g u a g e t e . n c h i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , Gannon a n d
C g e r n i e w o k a (1980:131
a s s e r t V-t i s e n t i r e l y r e a s o n a b l e f o r
t h e t e a c h e r t o r a n s a c k , w i t h o u t compunction, t h e a v a i l a b l e
s & o r e s o f l i n g u i s t i c knowledge".
Moreover, t h e e x t e n t t o
which l a n g u a g e p e r m e e t e s a p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d o f e n d e a v o u r
d e t e r m i n e s t h e d e g r e e of a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c knowledge,
T h i s e x p l a i n s why C o r d e r (1973) p o s i t s t h r e e l e v e l s o r o r d e r s
of a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c s , w i t h t h e s c o p e o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y
w i d e s t i n t h e f i r s t o r d e r a n d n m ~ o w e s ti n t h e t h i r d o r d e r
of a p p l i c a t i o n ,
It is a l s o a p p a r e n t t h a t knowledge a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f
l a n g u a g e d e r i v e s f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s on t h e n a t u r e o f
language, and s i n c e t h e s e t h e o r i e s a r e v a r i e d and m u l t i p l e ,
t h e r e i s l i t t l e wonder why t h e r e s h o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s
i n t h e perception of t h e term a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .
It i s
only n a t u r a l t h a t t h e perception of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
would d i f f e r a c r o s s g r o u p s w i t h d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l
persuasions.
However, A l l e r t o n (1979:3)
after a critical
a p p r a i s a l o f d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s o f l i n ~ u i s t i c sr e m a r k s t h a t
" t h e a r e a s o f a g r e e m e n t among l i n g u i s t s o f d i f f e r e n t p e r s u a s i o n s a r e much more g r e a t e r t h a n o n e c a n I m a g i n e f r o m t h e
r a t h e r ponderous l a b e l s d e s i g n a t i n g d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s .
I n t h e same v e i n , t h e r e i s a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e of u n i t y
i n the diverse perceptions of applied l i n g u i s t i c s studied
i n the selected literature.
T h i s more o r l e s s s u g g e s t s
t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s a n d , t o some
e x t e n t , i t s p r a c t i o n e r s a r e much more hornogenious t h a n m i g h t
a p p e a r from t h e j u n g l e of t e r m i n o l o g y .
I t , t h e r e f o r e , means
t h a t homoeenuity o f p u r p o s e p r e s u p p o s e s h e t e r o g e n u i t y Qf
materials.
We, t h u s , g e n e r a l l y i d e n t i f y two m a j o r a p p r o a c h e s
t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of applied l i n g u i s t i c s :
(a) The Broad Approach
(b)
3.2.1
The Narrow Approach.
The Broad Approach
T h i s i s a n a p p r o a c h which c o v e r s t h e whole gamut of
s t u d i e s i n which l a n g u a g e f o r m s p a r t o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r
and r e q u i r e s t h e knowledge o f t h e n a t u r e o f l a n g u a g e t o s o l v e
t h e p r a c t i c a l problems t h a t a r i s e therein.
Basically, the
a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s c o n c e r n e d w i t h h e r e i s t h e
p r i m a r y a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i n g c i s t i c s o r f i r ~ ot r d e r a p p l i c a t i o n
as e x p l i c a t e d i n C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 3 ) .
The Broad a p p r o a c h i s
l a b e l l e d complementary o r e x t e n d e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n S r i d h a r
( l g g O ) , a n d c o v e r s s u c h f i e l d s o f s t u d i e s as s o c i o l i n @ s t i c s ,
p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s , ,speech p a t h o l o g y , communication
engineering, computational l i n g u i s t i c s , mathematical
l i n g u i s t i c s , n e u r o l i n g u i s t i c s t o m e n t i o n b u t a few.
In
t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s , knowledge of t h e n a t u r e of l a n g u a g e
would i n v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s a i d r e s e a r c h .
I n o t h e r words,
i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e i r r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e c a u s e s and e f f e c t s
of t h e problems thak a r i s e i n t h e i r v a r i o u s f i e l d s ,
s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e s e f i e l d s c o n s u l t works on t h e n a t u r e of
language.
Consequently, t h e s e s p e c i a l i s t s a r e a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t s i n t h e b r o a d s e n s e o f t h e term.
However, each
s p e c i a l i s t p r e c i s e l y i s r e f e r r e d t o i n t e r m s of t h e s p e c i f i c
u r e a of s t u d y h e a p p l i e s t h e knowledge of l a n g u a g e .
Hence,
we h a v e s o c i o l i n g u i s t s , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t s , s p e e c h p a t h o l o g i s t s ,
communication e n g i n e e r , e t c . a s t h e c a s e may be.
To a v o i d
c o n f u s i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e , f o l l o w i n g from
Sridhar (lg90), t o regard these diociplines not a s involving
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h e ma.i.n, b u t a s complements
o r e x t e n s i o n s of l i n g u i s t i c s ,
I f we buy t h i s i d e a t h e n ,
t h e b r o a d meaning o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i ~ t i c swould b e synonymous
w i t h complementary o r e x t e n d e d 1 i . n g u i s t i c s .
3.2.2
The Narrow a p p r o a c h
T h i s i s a n a p p r o a c h t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d
linguistics
t h a t d e l i m i t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e knowledge
of l a n g u a g e t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g a l o n e .
Our
s t u d y of t h e s e t l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s two i m p r e s s i o n s on t h i s
narrow approach:
The f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n d e n o t e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o r m a l
l i n g u i s t i c study t o language teaching,
T h i s i s t h e i d e a of
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s p o p u l a r i s e d i n t h e heyday of s t r u c t u r a l i s m ,
a n d i n f l u e n c e d by t h e f i v e p r i n c i p a l t e n e t s o f s t r u c t u r a l i s m ,
namely:
(a) Language i s s p e e c h n o t w r i t i n g
a s e t of h a b i t s
language.
(b) A language is
( c ) Teach t h e l a n g u a g e n o t a b o u t t h e
( d ) A l a n g u a g e i s what n a t i v e s p e a k e r s s a y , n o t
what o n e t h i n k s t h e y o u g h t t o say.
(e)
Language a r e d i f f e r e n t .
Given t h e s e t e n e t s t h e r e f o r e , a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s was
r e g a r d e d as synonymous w i t h c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s .
It i s
t h i s f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e n a r r o w a p p r o a c h t h a t we r e f e r
t o i n o u r e v a l u a t i o n of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s t h e s e m a n t i c
a p p r o a c h t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s .
This is
because a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s is used i n a s t r i c t l - y semantic
s e n s e of t h e t e r m s 'Applied'
and ' L i n g u i s t i c s ' .
Halliday
e t a1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) r e f e r t o t h i s s h a d e o f meaning o f a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s a s Methodics.
Again., Mackey (19661, Johnson
( 1 9 7 0 ) and S p o l s k y ( 1 9 7 0 ) r e f e r t o t h i s s h a d e o f meaning
of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s and b a s e t h e i r c r i t i c i s m of t h e
s u b j e c t on t h e s e m a n t i c l i m i t a t i o n of tli(-> tcriil.
Finally,
Lado ( 1 9 5 7 ) and W i l k i n s ( 1 9 7 2 ) h a v e t h i s Game i m p r e s s i o n
o f a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s when t h e y u s e t h e term.
l i n g - u i s t i c s viewed f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ,
Applied
thus, r e f e r s
w h o l l y and e n t i r e l y t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r m a l l i n g u i s t i c
p r i n c i p l e s t o afid l.anguage t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .
The s e c o n d i m p r e s s i o n of t h e n a r r o w a p p r o a c h t o t h e
d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of
s t u d i e s from l i n g u i s t i c s , psychology, philosophy, pragmatics,
a n d o t h e r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and
learning.
T h i s a s p e c t of t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s d e r i v e s f r o m f u n c t i o n a l i s m , a v i e w on l a n g u a g e
"as a dynamic, o p e n s y s t e m by means o f which members of a
community exchange i n f o r m a t i o n 1 ' , B e l l (1981:112).
T h i s s h i f t o f f o c u s from s t r u c t u r a l i s m t o f u n c t i o n a l i s m
c o n s e q u e n t l y , h i g h l i g h t s t h e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g o f
l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n s o v e r and above l a n g u a g e ~ t r u c t u r e s .
A p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h i s c u r r e n t s t a t e , t h e r e f o r e , came
t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a n e c l e c t i c f i e l d o f e n t e r p r i s e which
draws i t s r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s from v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s i n
o n a t t e m p t t o enhance l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .
This
i m p r e s s i o n of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c o c o r r e s p o n d s t o what S p o l s k y
(1970) c a l l s l a n g u a g e pedagogy a n d l a t e r c a l l e d E d u c a t i o n a l
L i n g u i s t i c s ( c f . S p o l s k y 1978b).
Moreover, i t i c i n t h i s
s e n s e t h a t H a l l i d a y e t a 1 (19641, Van Ek (19711, B e l l (19811,
Van E1.s e t nl ( 1 9 8 4 ) , a n d S r i d h a r ( l g g 0 ) u s e t h e term
applied l i n g u i s t i c s i n language teaching.
The p r i n c i p a l
approach t o language teaching i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s t h e
communicative f u n c t i o n n l / n o t i o n a l
approach t o language
l
t e a c h i n g i n which t h e m a j o r o b j e c t i v e i s t o i n ~ t i communicat i v e competence i n t h e l e a r n e r s .
A t t h i s j u n c t u r e , we a r e c o m p e l l e d by o u r s t u d y t o s t a t e ,
c a t e g o r i c a l l y , t h a t t h e t e r m app:Lied l i n p p i s t i c s c a n n o t
evoke o n e , s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d d e f i n i t i o n .
It i s an age-long
p r a c t i c e which i n t h e p r o c e s s of e v o l u t i o n , e x p e r i e n c e - s l i g h t
a d a p t a t i o n a l semantic mutation,
A t its inception i n the
1940s, a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s t o o k o f f w i t h t h e f i r s t i m p r e s ~ i o n
o f t h e n a r r o w view,
The s t r u c t u r a l i s t s who i n i t i a t e d t h e
p r a c t i c e of a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s s t a r t e d by a p p l y i n g f o r m a l
l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s u s i n g t h e t e c h n i a u e of c o n t r a s t i v e
- 74 a n a l y s i s t o d i s c o v e r what t o t e a c h a n d l e a r n t h r o u g h t h e
a u d i o l i n g u a l method of l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g .
g e n e r a t i v e grammar
When t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l
(TG) a r o s e i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , E r r o r a n a l y s i s
came t o s u p l e m e n t c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s and t h e c o g n i t i v e
method o f l a n g u s g e t e a c h i n g came i n vogue.
A t t h i s point,
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s r e f e r s s t r i c t l y t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of
f o r m a l l h n g - u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .
I n c i d e n t a l l y , when a n o t h e r t h e o r y
-
functionalism arose i n
t h e 1970s, applied l i n g u i s t i c s i n language teaching took on
i t s p r e s e n t and c u r r e n t meaning t o r e f l e c t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of
b o t h f o r m a l and f u n c t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s f o r t h e
b e t t e r m e n t o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .
Apparently,
t h e o r i e s t h a t a r e a p p l i e d i n t h i s c u r r e n t s e n s e of a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a r e m u l t i p l e and v a r i e d .
They i n c l u d e t h o s e o f f o r m a l l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y which d r a w s
i m p e t u s from t h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s , and p u n c t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c
t h e o r y which draws i m p e t u s from s o c i o l o g i . c a 1 t h e o r i e s ,
p h f l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s , psychologi.ca1 t h e o r i e s ,
t h e o r i e s of
l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , l a n g u a g e u s e and v a r i a t i o n s and p r a g m a t i c s ,
t o m e n t i o n b u t a few.
I n t h e l i g h t of a l l t h e s e source
t h e o r i e s from d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s , a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
i n l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g assumed t h e second i m p r e s s i o n of t h e
n a r r o w v i e w ac a n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f i e l d o f s t u d y .
Out of
t h e n e e d t o t e a c h l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n s which f u n c t i o n a l i s m
s t r e s s e s , t h e r e a r o s e t h e communicative approach t o l a n g u a g e
teaching.
I n t h e p r e G e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t comrnunic?tive f u n c t i o n s ,
- 75 T h e r e a r o s e t h e n e c e s s i t y t o know t h e e x a c t communicative
f u n c t i o n t h a t l e a r n e r s n e e d t o m a s t e r i n t h e target l a n g u a g e s .
T h e r e f o r e , t o meet t h i s . n e c e s s i t y , t h e v a r i o u s n e e d s of
l e a r n e r s a r e c a r e f u l l y . s t u d i e d and a n a l y s e d i n t h e p r a c t i c e
of t h e t e c h n i q u e o f Needs A n a l y s i s (NA).
The r e s u l t of t h i s
a n a l y s i s i s a l i t a n y of books on t h e same l a n g u a g e b u t
d e s i g n e d t o meet d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e n e e d s o f l e a r n e r s .
Ultimate1.y we now h a v e l a n g u a g e f o r s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e s (LSP),
s u c h t h a t books e n t i t l e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , E n g l i c h f o r Academic
P u r p o s e (EAP), E h g l i s h f o r S c i e n c e a n d Technology (EST),
E n g l i s h f o r E n g i n e e r i n g (EC), e t c . a r e common-puce i n t h e
rnarke t
.
From t h e f o r e g o i n g , we l o g i c a l l y c o n c l u d e t h a t a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s i n l ~ n g u a g et e a c h i n g ( i . e .
always b e e n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y .
t h e n a r r o w view) h a s
It h a s a l w a y s i n v o l v e d
l i n g u i s t i c s f o r i t s i n p u t and o t h e r d i e c i p l i n e s f o r d e l i v e r y .
F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e e r a o f structuralism/transformational
grammar (TG) ( ~ o r m a l i s m ) , ~ o n t r a s t i v e / ~ r r oarn a l y s i s p r o v i d e d
t h e t o o l f o r l i n g u i s t i c i n p u t while psychology provided
t h e i n p u t f o r d e l i v e r y i n t h e f o r m o f method o f t e a c h i n g
(i.e.
a u d i o l i n g u a l and c o g n i t i v e m e t h o d s ) .
I n t h e e r a of
f u n c t i o n a l i s m , Needs A n a l y s i s p r o v i d e d t h e l i n g u i s t i c and
o t h e r sociological i n p u t s f o r the course content while
psychology provided t h e i n p u t f o r delivery.
Based on t h i s ,
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s which o r i g i n a l l y meant l i n g u i s t i c
a p p l i c a t i o n t o language teaching still r e t a i n s t h a t concept
- 76 i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t i c notion.
What h a s d i f f e r e d i s t h e
e x t e n t of i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p l i c a t i o n .
F u r t h e r m o r e , from t h e b r o a d p o i n t of v i e w , a p p l i e d
l i n g u i s t i c s i s p e r c e i v e d as some k i n d of p r a c t i c a l e x e r c i s e s
i n which l i n g u i s t i c s i s i n v o l v e d .
This kind of e x e r c i s e i s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e a p p l i e d s c i e n c e s , such as a p p l i e d
medicine o r applied physics.
I n these applied cciences,
t h e t h e o r i e s which f i n d l a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e f o r m u l a t e d
j u s t f o r t h e i r own s a k e , i n d e p e n d e n t of p a r t i c u l a r e x i s t i n g
problems.
In thin sense, therefore, applied linguistics
would mean p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , , w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s
o f human a c t i v i t y , of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s o r r e s u l t s
f o r m u l a t e d a n d a r r i v e d a t t h r o u g h s c i e n t i f i c e f f o r t s and
t h e o r e t i c a l thinking.
J u s t l i k e o t h e r a p p l i e d science^,
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s ( i n t h e broad s e n s e ) i s a conscious
p r a b < i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s t o d i s c i p l i n e s
o u t s i d e of l i n g u i s t i c s .
These l i n g u i s t i c s t h e o r i e s a r e
f o r m u l a t e d w i t h o u t t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e s e o u t s i d e d i s c i p l i n e s
a t h e a r t b u t a r e d i s c o v e r e d t o b e r e l e v a n t t o them.
A s a m a t t e r of f a c t , a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n t h i s
p e r s p e c t i v e c o r r e s p o n d s t o what Lyons (1981:36)
refers to
as " ~ 4 a c r o l . i n g u i ~ t i c s ' ~ .T h i s means a n e x e r c i s e i n which
t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of l a n g u a g e a r e u s e d i n v a r i o u s
r e s p e c t s bo p r o v i d e e x p l a n a t i o n s on: t h e way i n which
languages a r e acquired, s t o r e d i n t h e b r a i n o r used i n
v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s , , t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e between l a n g u a g e a n d
c u l t u r e , t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l mechanisms
t h a t a r e i n v o l v e d i n l a n g u a g e b e h a v i o u r ; and i n s h o r t ,
every o t h e r t h i n g o u t s i d e m i c r o l i n g u i s t i c s (i.e.
the study
o f l a n g u a g e i n i t s e l f and f o r i t s e l f ) .
From t h e f o r e g o i n g , i t i s l o g i c a l t o c o n c l u d e t h a t
t h e t e r m a p p J i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i s a s u p e r o r d i n a t e t e r m which
h a s two co-hyyonyrns
t e a c h i n g (i.e.
- Applied l i n g u i s t i c s i n language
t h e n a r r o w v i e w ) , and a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s
i n the broad sense (i.e.
o r extended l i n g u i s t i c s ) .
macrolinguisticc;,
complementary
Thus i n o u r view,. t h e t e r m
a p p l i e d l i n g u i s t i c s i n i t s p r e s e n t 13ense i n c l u d e s b u t i s
n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .
Applicd
l i n g u i s t i c s i n language teaching i s t h e r e f o r e a 'delimited
applied l i n g u i s t i c s ' .
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