Oral Storytelling and Its Techniques.
Dr. Jayanta Kar Sharma
Registrar
Odisha State Open University
Sambalpur
India
Orality is a tool used in service of achieving sound. Most of the people of the world
are oral thinkers and oral learners. God‟s proclamations were originally oral. The prophets
proclaimed, before they wrote. The events happened before they were recorded.The
techniquesof orality as a strategy focus on this spiritual power in the spoken words and the
active memory, lost to the modern literature (Jenkins-2004).The term „oral‟ simplyrefers to a
spoken piece that is a piece whose performance and distribution is by word of mouth. Orality
can be defined as thought and its verbal expression in societies where the technologies of
literacy are unfamiliar to most of the population. The Oxford English Dictionary goes with
the definition of the term orlity‟ „ delivered or transmitted via spoken words, transacted by
word of mouth, instruction etc. conducted by speech rather than in writing. Orality is
everything to do with the spoken words. The definition frames speech and spoken word as
having two parts; the first involves content and the second, action as suggested in terms like
„deliver, transmit, and transact‟. (Turner-2007) This implies that some intended thing is
transmitted. Just as literacy refers to reading and writing, so orality refers to speaking and
listening. In an oral culture, words are spoken and once they have been said, the only record
of them is in the memory of the speaker and any audience. An immediate difference between
orality and literacy is the presence of the speaker‟s physical body and the physical presence
of the responsive listener. Anthropologists call this physical co-presence. The body can
colour a sequence of words through the qualities of the voice-tempo, tone, pitch, inflection,
volume, accent, elongation etc. and through supportive gestural, postural and facial
expression. The body is organically rhythmic, powered by breath and pulse, thus true orality
revels in meaning that is supported by the rhythmic play of the physicality of words.
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After Saussure, Walter J. Ong recalls the primacy of oral forms of language, that
words are made of sounds and that orality is the root of all verbalization. He focuses on the
psychodynamics of orality. He also distinguishes between two forms of orality: primary and
residual or secondary. Primary orality refers to thought and its verbal expression within
culture totally untouched by any knowledge of writing or print.(Ong-2002) Secondary orality
refers to thought and its verbal expression in cultures that have been exposed to writing and
print, but have not fully interiorized the use of the technologies in their daily lives. As culture
interiorize the technologies of literacy, the oral residue diminishes. Oral residue rarely
disappears quickly and never vanishes completely. Speech is inherently an oral event, based
on human relationship.Ong draws on pioneering work by Milman Parry and Marshall
McLuhan, among the first to fully appreciate the significance of word as a technology.
McLuhan, in his work „The Gutenberg Galaxy shows how each stage in the development of
this technology throughout the history of communication from the invention of
speech(primary orality), to pictograms, to the phonetic alphabet, to typography, to the
electronic communication of today- restructures human consciousness, profoundly changing
not only the frontiers of human possibility, but even the frontiers it is possible for human
being to imagine.
The study of orality is closely allied to the study of oral tradition. The power of the
spoken language to ignite the listener‟s imagination and transport him to the world of ideas,
dreams, myths, and fables is truly amazing. Orality refers to the style of communication
between individuals. It is a deeper concept than the mere absence of writing. It produces its
own thought forms and processes that constitute ways of learning, conceptualizing, and
communicating that are quite distinct from those of literary thinkers and communicators. Oral
thought process is less linear and logic is associative. Orality and oral tradition rest on
communitarian,togetherness and the emphasis on the sacral. The Hebrew „dabar‟,which
means word, also mean event and thus directly refers to the spoken word. As Ong would say;
„the spoken word is always an event, a movement in time, completely lacking in the thing
like response of the written or printed word.(Ong-2002) The spoken word thus interweaves
and integrateshuman beings into close-knit unit, groups and brotherhood. Orality of language
or primary orality of speech based on sound cannot be picturized in immobility. The basic
characteristic of sound which frames orality is movement. Words in oral culture do not try to
point to any signs. They are either action materialization of objects or variously loaded
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gestures.(Mohapatra). Jacques Derrida has made the same point very clearly in his work „Of
Grammatology‟(1976). He holds that there is no linguistic sign before writing.
All cultures begin as oral cultures.The essence of all religions and spiritual paths
has come down to us mainly through oral tradition.Vansina, a foremost oral tradition scholar,
defines oral tradition as oral messages transmitted by word of mouthover one or more
generations. He also describes the collection of stories within a society‟s oral tradition as a
corpus of knowledge stored within the minds of its people.(Vansina-1985)Thus, orality and
oral tradition incorporate content and action.Histories and stories of a people that come to us
in a spoken and sung form are part of what we call oral tradition. The human life eventually
ends; therefore,humans cannot discover everything by themselves. People are taught many
lessons through stories passed down their ancestors. Culture is generally transmitted from
generation to generation through stories, myths and reenactments or rituals and ceremonies.
Oral tradition is the spoken relation and preservation from one generation to the next. The
main aim of oral form of communication was to pass on the facts or knowledge as soon as
possible before it is forgotten. The story can cease to exist if it is forgotten; because there
were no backup copies, the people‟s memories were the keepers of the scripts. It was not only
the African societies that used oral tradition, but quite a number of other communities. In the
Asian community, the Indian used oral tradition in passing on knowledge and ideas about
their religion. In Hinduism, there was a long history of oral tradition and the aim was to pass
on the beliefs of the people. This practice went on from one generation to another for quite a
long time. The grammar of Sanskrit indeed is based on this transfer from oral to written form
of communication. The language of Sanskrit was transformed to writing because the oral
tradition was not matching with the spoken form of language of the time. The language was
then written but the major aim was to make it possible for the people to speak it better by
sticking to the letter. In the Hebrew tradition it has been noted that the Bible initially was
maintained through oral tradition. The principal mode of literary transmission prior to the
nineteenth century was oral. Yet the oral tradition was never completely replaced by the
tradition of written literature.The poetics of composition as well as the convention of literary
reception were profoundly influenced throughout the history of India by the orality of
literature. Out of the major epics those two have shaped the Indian sensibility, the
Mahabharata is an oral one, so were the Puranas in their initial phase. The suta used to
narrate these orally. This convention of suta narration came to an end some times during the
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ninth century. Even today, every village has an elder person who has the function of epics
alive through the oral mode. The literature of any country or language is indebted to its folkliterature and its art of communication. It inherits its base materials from the oral tradition.
The importance of oral tradition was more in case of the children who were deprived of the
Gurukul ashram education.
American writer Muriel Ruykeyser (1913-1980) once wrote: The universe is made of stories,
not atoms (qtd. in Lester 53). Storytelling can be defined as someone who can enter into
another reality and who promises to negotiate between the audience and that other reality to
tell the audience into another place and time.(Livo,N.J and Rietz 1986)The process of
storytelling has three major components: sender(the storyteller), receiver(the audience) and
message(the story).(Hall-1980) In order to ensure that the message reaches its receivers, the
sender employs a number of techniques to attract the audience‟s attention towards the story
world and to convey the message vividly. The audiencetypically takes in the information
given by the storyteller and synthesizes it into a mental picture of the story world and events.
The skill of the storyteller lies in engaging the audience‟s attention, conveying sufficient
information for the audience to synthesize a coherent, vivid story world and incorporating
audience interacting into the storytelling. (Livo & Reitz-1986) In this sense the receiver is a
collaborator in the storytelling, since they contribute directly and it is their cognitive
processing, or imagination, that completes creation of the story world. The term
transportation has been used in narrative theory as: the extent to which recipients were
transported into the world of the narrative and become involved with its protagonists.
(Gerrig-1993) The storyteller should primarily act as a „transmitter‟ and his individual person
should be „invisible‟. While the storyteller cannot be physically invisible, a skilled storyteller
should place emphasis on narrative content rather than themselves. The audience sees the
story, not the person of the teller.(Livo&Reitz-1986) According to them there are numerous
ways in which an oral storyteller may interact with an audience during storytelling. There are
many techniques used by oral storyteller to create a sense of engagement and presence in an
imagined story world for their audience. Many of these deal with how the storyteller uses
language, voice, and the body. Allthese serve to convey the story and events more vividly.
They create and build tension with pacing, dialog, foreshadowing, diversions, and detours.
Enunciation,pacing, tone, repetition, emphasis, character voice variations, sound effects,
silence, pausing, racing, volume, gestures etc. are the tricks used in the process of
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storytelling. Writers and storytellers use mixture of vivid, precise description, sensory details
and imagery,often using figurative expressions such as smiles, metaphors, hyperbole,
understatements and the like. These can build tension and certainly bring the listeners into the
story. Oral storytellers have the advantages given by their voices: volume from soft to loud,
accents and dialects, enunciation and emphasis. They also tools of expression and gesture.
These all help to propel the audience into the action and make it authentic and convincing.
Storytelling often repeats words, phrases, refrains, sounds, whole lines and even stanzas. The
storyteller applies close attention to the beat and how words sound to emphasize the segments
of the story that are important. Repetition creates a rhythm and meter to the story which
becomesstronger with the use and also helps the audience in remembering the chorus and
allows joining with the storyteller. Good storytelling combines scene-setting descriptions
with action exposition and with dialog. Dialog makes the story and its characters real and
believable and helps the teller control the pacing and raise tension. Tension is the essence of
stories especially in general ghost stories. Storytelling is the mother of all communications.
Every art form relies on story to convey meaning. It teaches one to think on its own. A good
storyteller needs to adjust his energy and pace to match the reaction of the audience.
Coactive participation and banter refer to the spontaneous, unsolicited reaction of the
audience during storytelling. Storytelling teaches us to be spontaneous which is not possible
in its written counterpart. A good storyteller does not memories the story or words or uses
script. He learns to rely on his ability to see a story as it happens. He never tells a story the
same way twice. Cut and paste or editing facilities are not available in storytelling. Once the
words are out, those cannot be taken back.It is not the same as reading aloud or reciting a
piece out of memory or delivering dialogue in a drama-though it shares common
characteristics with these arts. The storyteller looks at the audience and re-creates through
voice and gesture, a series of mental images. The audience, from the first moment of
listening, squints, stares, smiles, leans forward or falls asleep, letting the teller know whether
to slow down speed up, elaborate or just finish. The storyteller as well as each listener
composes a unique set of story images out of the meanings associated with words, gestures
and sounds. Both teller and listenersfind a reflection of themselves in stories. Taping to listen
is necessary. Listen to yourself as you are telling the story. It will help to hear what wesound
like, but it will help us to slow down. Fast talking kills all the interest in listening to story.
See through the mind‟s eye while telling stories. It will be easier to explain to the listeners in
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terms they can hear, see, smell, and touch it. Story is the best vehicle for passing on factual
information. Storytelling encourages students to experiment with voice, tone, eye-contact,
gestures and facial expression. Eye contact is a powerful way in which a storyteller can
maintain a direct and intimate connection with his audience. Facial animation is essential.
Not just expressions, but the ability to change expressions rapidly and effortlessly as the story
requires. It also lets them practice techniques for holding audience attention. Listeners require
a physical setting that allows them comfort during the storytelling. Storytellers should also
find a comfortable position, look directly at the audience and tell the story. Listeners should
be seated comfortably in front of the storyteller preferably semi-circle and the teller must sit
or stand close to the group. Storytelling is an art. Stories can be hilarious or poignant but
must be entertaining. He may aid visual aids props to enhance the effectiveness of his
stories.Poor stories can be very effective, if they are told well.It is often effective to convey
stories in the first person. In spite of being imaginative its description is so documentarylike, aesthetic and lively that the listener flows along with it. The story-teller is in direct
dialogue with the listeners here. He tells the story without writing it and it reveals the
creativity of the storyteller. The inclusion of the physical co-presence of an audience clearly
distinguishes the work of a storyteller from that of a writer. It is a communal, rather than
solitary art. The act of storytelling can only occur when a story, storyteller and audience
come together. The relationship between the storyteller and the audience is certainly
reaffirmed and renewed as call and response.
The word ‘Kahani’(story)indicates that it is something which is told and heard. Storytelling
has been a very natural and important technique of oral language ever since primitive man
felt the need to communicate with his fellow man. Probably in the beginning of the
civilization man must have tried to describe in an exaggerated but entertaining and tasteful
manner about some wonderful thing or event and naturally he must have felt the need to
narrate them to others. As a result, there must have evolved a tradition of telling and listing
again and again about those experiences in an interesting manner and that must have
generated a collective urge to know more and more about those experiences.(Sharma.2011)
In addition to that the percentage of imagination also grew gradually. It probably first
consisted of simple chants that praised the dawn, expressed the joy of being alive, and were
used to ease the drudgery and boredom of laborious tasks. Later the storyteller became the
community. The folk literature and art of oral storytelling have evolved from such a situation.
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Since people began to communicate with each other „tell me a story‟ has been a request of
both children and adults. The story can be of a real or it can be made up. Storytelling is often
a part of our everyday conversations. It is one of the earliest forms of folk art. Traditionally,
professional storytellers are also praise singers, called to formally honor people and to mark
rituals and events with spontaneously composed oratory and verse. Storytellers are supposed
to know riddles, proverbs, axioms and epithets and all linguistic genres with a primary
emergence in morality. The storyteller must develop the ability to hear his own voice and to
be aware to pitch, tone, rhythm, accent and intonation. The quality of the storyteller‟s speech
is very important because children will imitate the speech and mannerisms.The child tries to
remain away from the textbooks because he has the pressure of getting by heart the
knowledge of text-books which creates a tension in him. Apart from that, the textbooks are
research oriented and content based and hence they are too complex for the children. The
syllabus is imposed on the child and he considers it as an encroachment into his freedom.
Compared to the boredom and monotony of the prescribed textbooks, the intimacy of
storyteller, the art of storytelling, the story and characters all taken together are more
encouraging and inspiring for the children. Here the desired knowledge is imparted indirectly
and the child learns it gradually without any pressure or tension. Knowledge is more
acceptable when it is mixed up with imagination. According to Burn et al. (1999) „As adults
we sometimes view conversation as a luxury, an extra in our busy lives. However, for young
children whose developing minds are striving to become literate, talk is essential-the more
meaningful and substantive, the better.
Oral storytelling is an improvisational art form. The child is generally art loving, so
s/he is thrilled by the highly imaginative and the eventful realities of the external world. He
tries to discover the nature of life in the imaginative subject matters. The oral stories are
descriptive and in some case informative. The oral stories use repetition. This makes the
rhythm and meter stronger. It emphasizes parts of the story that are important. Children can
remember the chorus and join it with the storyteller. Another device often used is
onomatopoeia, making sounds that imitate sounds in nature like zzzzz… for a bumble bee or
a snore which gives children more pleasure. As a result a type of sound beauty is created
naturally. This audio effect enhances the perceptibility of the story and comparatively the
listener gets more joy and satisfaction. The excitement and drama of storytelling provide a
context that holds students attention. (Cooter-1991)The simplicity of structure in the oral
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stories is enjoyable to the child. In such stories sometimes a lot of things about a condition or
surrounding are said in one single sentence. The day to day simple spoken language is used in
the oral stories, so this is easily understood by the children.Due to the highest use of the art of
storytelling in the oral story it is interesting. If the art of storytelling is attractive it generally
draws the attention of the listeners. The beauty of the story depends upon the beauty of the
style of narration of the story-teller. The beauty of the story lies in their beautiful expression.
They can even make the shortest story very interesting by virtue of their art of storytelling.
The world is round and the stories have made it more round by migrating from their
places of origin and reaching out to folks all over. In the process the tale underwent vast
changes but the messages it carried were universal. The tales became delightfully different at
different places and at different points of time because they molded themselves to the
emotional and intellectual responses of the people, their strength and weakness. In spite of all
variations, themes had a commonality and a wonderful example of unity in diversity.
Storytelling has been used to pass on value systems from one generation to the other for
several years. It is recognized in the society for building self-confidence and communication
skill of the students. (Sharma.2011) Though the content of the oral stories are imaginary, yet
they are based on the skeleton of some truth or the other. So, the excellence of the narration is
more important than the excellence of the story teller. The concept of the oral story is very
vast. Starting from the lowest strata of the society till the highest, the clown and king, the fool
and the intelligent, the heaven and the earth and the underworld -all three worlds are reflected
in the oral stories. It helps in the growth of the imagination of the imaginative child. The oral
story in spite of the differences of the variety is very helpful in the flowering of the child
psychology. Images endure in the mind when facts are often forgotten. Once the listeners
have experienced their imagination when told a story, they have a rich resource to draw on
when retelling the story themselves and it is the strength of this visual imagery that often
provides an imperative to pass the story on. Oral stories can and do change over time and
from place to place. As they are passed from person to person they are reinterpreted by each
storyteller. These are not deliberate but choices to suit the teller's interests and creative and
artistic sense. The story teller might make up additional scenes or descriptions that make the
story better. The storyteller might change the story to match the current situation.
The role of a teacher-storyteller of blind and visually impaired, it is his/her responsibility to
provide students with interesting and meaningful lessons and activities to overcome such
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difficulties. Examining oral traditions, storytelling is one approach to develop quality oral and
listening skills. It will help students who are blind or visually impaired in their efforts to
improve oral and listening skills and also help them understand the importance of words and
how words are used to convey information and to influence society. Students will learn to
appreciate stories, understand how they are constructed. Listening is the primary learning
mode for blind students and a story supportive medium for visually impaired students, since
visually handicapped individuals rely on auditory information they must become skillful
listeners. Listening skill explores the oral stories and storytelling play in expressing the
traditions and values of any culture.
Oral storytelling performancesdirectly support the development of literacy by enriching the
teaching of speaking and listening skills. One cannot write a language unless he can speak it,
similarly, he cannot speak a language unless he has listened to it. Listening, speaking and
literacy are mutually enhancing, interdependent activities. Listening models language use and
develops the muscles of the imagination. Speaking establishes synaptic pathways between the
imagination and the selection of language. In many schools there is a concern over poorly
developed language skills in students. So, there is a „crisis in talk‟ and therefore a „crisis in
listening‟. Regular listening to extended narratives by using and playing with language
activates and exercises the imagination as well as builds confidence of pupils. So, listening to
oral stories develops concentration, attention and sustained active listening skills, activates
visualization, imagination, develops an understanding of orality, extends vocabulary,
articulates use of oral language and develops memory. Unlike television, video, DVD or
other electronic media, storytellers are a direct interface between the story and the audience.
After ten thousand years of storytelling, and invention of printing press oral stories
were written down, children were taught to read and write and less emphasis was given to
storytelling, however, storytelling is considered as an effective tool for edutaining students.
Storytelling is not only a social experience; it also acts as an effective building block, easing
the journey from oral language to literacy. (Dyson & Freedman-1991) storytelling strongly
attracts children to books. It has a power that reading story does not because it frees the
storyteller to use creative teachings, it also has the advantage of keeping the storyteller close
to the audience. Telling a story produces an immediate response from the audience and is one
of the surest ways to establish rapport between listeners and storyteller. (Morrow-2001)
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Storytelling allows adapting a story to fit the audience. Stories can also be shortened if
children‟s attention is seems to be short. Storyteller may use of puppets, felt-boards, prop
stories, chalk &talks, or sound stories to assist children in telling the story. Storytelling is one
of the most important tools of any educatorbecause it engages children in learning. According
to Phillips(1996), Koki(1996) and Zabel(1991), storytelling can help develop a variety of life
learning and literacy skills and strategies. Through storytelling children can learn about and
celebrate cultural diversity. It provides for multiple learning styles through active
participation, cooperative and social learning. Children develop an understanding of human
nature, feelings, and language skills, enhance higher level thinking strategies and
understanding of concepts. It is an excellent way to engage children in listening, speaking,
thinking, reading and writing throughout the curriculum. Stories have always played a
significant role in children‟s growth. Stories not only help in stimulating children‟s
imagination and understanding of the world, but also in developing children‟s language
ability andappreciating literature.(Alex-1988,Cooper-1989,Koki-1998,Zobairi&Gulley-1989)
Wright rightly wrote, „stories which rely so much on words, offer a major and constant
source of language experience for children.‟(Wright-1995)
Storytelling is one of the most ancient of the arts.It is universal. It is an important part of
human history. It brings the personality to the experience. It is more than entertainment. It is
a bonding experience between the storyteller and the listener.One of the most effective uses
of storytelling is that of healing. A healing story is one that addresses a particular emotional
or spiritual need of the audience. People suffering emotional psychological scars from deep
personal loss or trauma can sometimes be reached through stories when normal counseling
techniques are ineffective. This very democratic art form has helped societies strengthen and
form cultural bonds and has helped people feel closer and more connected to each other for
generations. As long as societies have existed, storytelling has existed within them. Without
stories and storytelling societies cannot discover and reinforce the common bonds within its
members. There is astorytelling revival in Canada. Storytelling is featured as part of
entertainment in their folk festivals. In the church, storytelling is a new phenomenon there.
Now, in the age of computer, interactive TV, and 3D moves storytelling has to compete with
them. For this the storyteller just needs to be more „On‟ now. People still like to hear
stories.Noted anthropologist Clifford Geertz noted, „man is an animal suspended in webs of
significance he himself has spun. That web can be taken to be what we usually call culture.
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Storytelling helps us understand and expose these webs and the many and myriad
connections that ultimately make up our communities. Storytelling is a living art. It is a living
word which may explain why Jesus chose this medium through which to convey his message
and this may also explain the revival of storytelling in today‟s churches. Jesus did it and so
should we. (Fred Ash-2001)
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