INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATION
OF
RADIOISOTOPES
Edited by
G.Földiák
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rcnol.BI,DAPEsT
CONTENTS
I
Basic data and definitionsby T. Lengyel 13
l.l.
Symbols 13
1.2. Basic definitionsused in isotope techniques 14
l.3.
The major propertiesof the 100 most impoÍtantradioisotopes 24
1.4. Main propertiesof radioisotopesand isotopic preparations 32
1.4.1. Generalpropertiesofradioisotopes 32
1.4.2- Main propertiesof sealedsources 44
1.4.2.1.
a-radiationsources 44
1.4.2.2.p-radiationsources 45
l.4.2.3.1.-radiation
sources 4ó
1.4.2.4.Neutron sources 47
l-4.2.5.Special radiation sources 48
].
l.l.
11.1.
1l.l.l.
1l.l'2.
1l.l.3.
!1.2.
1l.3.
t 1.
Nuclear instrumentsand measurementsby S. Rózsa 5l
Nuclear radiationdetectors 5l
Gas ionizationdetectors 52
Ionizationchambers 54
The proportionalcounter 5ó
Geiger_Mü||er(GM|counters 58
Semiconductordetectors 62
Scintillationdetectors ó7
Basic types of radiation measuringand analysinginstruments 75
11.1. Counting rate meters 76
L2.2. Scalers 76
L2.3. Amplitude analysers 77
2.3. Basic principles for industrial usesof nuclear measurements E0
23.1. Radiation sourcesand containers 82
L1.2. Radiation detectionin industrial environmeÍlts 84
L3.3. Measuring systemsfor industrial problems E5
L3.4. StatisticalmeasuÍement
error 90
24.
Determinationof physical material characteristicsby nuctearmeasurements 9l
L4.1. Lrvel height determination 9l
24.1.1.l,evel height (extrernevalue)indication 92
24.1.2.Continuous level height measurement 101
24.2. Density measurement lO7
L4-3. Quantity m€a surement t 14
L4.4. Thicknessmeasurement ll'l
L4.5. Coating thicknessmeasurement 126
L4.6. Moisture contcnt measurcment 129
L5.
Portable nuclear instruments 133
References 136
3.
Radiotracer techniquesby G. Keömley l38
3.1. General considerations 13E
l.l.l. Preparation of thc investigation 139
3.1.1.1.Sclection of the traccr isotope 139
3-1.1.2.Preparation of the measurernen! calculation of the nccessary amount of
isotope 14
32
ldcntification ofmaterials and detcction offautts 153
321. Idcntificationof materials and tracking their movcrnent 153
CO\TE\TS
3.].2. DctectionoÍcracksand lcaks l55
Detcrminationof flow rates 159
l.l.
3.3.l. Pulse-likc traccr injcction lóo
l-3.1 Continuoustraccr introduction l&
].3.3. Examp|csof app|ication ló5
].4.
Stud1 oÍmatcrial flow in industrial proccsscsby B. Balla |67
3.4.1. Basrc pnnciy'cs of unit operations 167
1.4.1. Dacrmination of rcsidcncetime distribution functions l7l
3.4.3. |rrdustrialcramp|cs of material ílow studies |76
3.4.4. Stud;.of thc homogeneityof mixtures 179
3.5- Mcasurarrnt oÍmassesor volumesand manstransfer l8l
1.5.1. Dactminarion of massesor volumes l8l
3.5.1 Wcar srudics lE3
3.ó. Tracer srudicsin physical and chemica|researchby Z. Paál l89
].ó-l. Traccrsin physicaloperations l89
-].ó.|.l.Traccrs in scpa'rationprocesses l90
3.ó.l.' f)iíÍusion l9l
.1.ó.l.].Traccr studics in sorption and surfacechemistry |92
3.ó.] Study of reaction mechanismsand kinetics l95
3.ó.1l. lsotofic exchange l95
].ó.11 Tt'c investigationof intermediatesand reaction pathways |96
3.ó.13. Rcaction pathway studiesby the determinationoí the position of the label 198
3.ó.14. T}rekin€r ic isotop€ method 200
].ó.15. Double labelling 202
3.7. Radiotracersin studiesof bio|ogicallyactive chemicalsby I. Elekes,L. Hort:óth and
E.Fo&l zos
1.7-1. Pharmacokineticand metabolic studiesofdrugs 205
1.7.1.1.
Pharmacokineticstudies 205
3.7.1.1Mctabolic studies 212
1.7.1 Radiotraccr tcchniquein pesticideresearch 214
1.8. Radioisotopic age determination 217
Rcfercnccs 220
4.
R'adioanalytica|methods by ftrBánwil, T. Bátint' L. Gy. Nagy and E. Szabó 222
4.l.
Analytical methodsbasedon physical interactionswith radiation by T. Bólint 223
4.l.|. Gas analysis bas€ d on ionization 223
4.1.1 Analysis on the basis ofp-absorption and scattering 227
4.l.]. Analysis by abeorptionand scatteringofX- and y.Íays 232
4.1.4. lsotogic X-ray fluorescenceanalysis(IXRF) 239
4.l.4.l. T}'corelica|basis 2.í0
4.l.4.z |nstruÍncns 26
4.1.4.3.hactical applications 250
4.1.5. Analytical mcthods basedon neutron absorption,scatteringand moderation 259
4.|.ó. Ana.lyscsbasedon the Móssbauer effect 2óo
4.L
Activation analysis by L. Gy. Nagy and E' Szabó 263
4.).1. Thcorctical basis 263
4.21.1.Neutron activation 263
4.21.2.7-acrivation 2'13
4.21.3.Dctcmination by means of charged particles 274
4.L2. Radiation sourcesused for activation analysis 275
4.2.3. McasurcÍncnlof radioactivesamp|es 282
4.23.1.Daectors 282
4.2-3.2Rccording and cvaluation of y-spectra 283.
a.z3.3. Clpnical scpaÍations(destructivemethods) 29l
4.L4. Practical applications 293
4.3. Analytica| app|icationsoftracer methodsby É. BtÍnyai 296
4.3.1. Isotopic dilution 296
4.3.l.l. Simplc isotopic dilution 29ó
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
5.
5.
5.
5.
).
5.
5.
5.
).
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5.
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
ó
ó
(
(
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CONTENTS
4.3.1.2.
Reverseand double isotopicdilution 298
4.3.1.3.Practicalapplications 299
4.3.2. Substoichiometricisotopicdilution299
4.3.2.1.
Solventextractionof metalchelates 301
4.3.2.2.Other substoichiometricseparations 308
4.3.3. Radioreagents 309
4.3.4. Radiometrictitrations 312
4.3.4.1.
Radioactiveisotopessuitableas indicators 312
4.3.4.2.
Extractiontitrations 312
4.3.4.3.
EDTA titrrtions 315
4.3.4.4.
Precipitationtitration 315
4.3.4.5.
Redox and acid-basetitrations 318
4.3.5. Radiochromatographicmethods318
4.3.5.1.
Ion exchangeradiochromatography319
4.3.5.2.Extraction radiochromatography 321
4.3.5.3.Radio paperchromatography 321
4.3.5.4.Radio paper electrophoresis 323
4.3.5.5.Focussing pap€r electrophoresis 323
4'3.5.ó.Radio thinJayerchromatography 324
4.3.5.7.
Radio gas chromatography 325
4.3.6. Isotopicexchangereactions 327
References 329
5.
Nuclear borehole geophysicsby l. Czeglédi 332
5.1. Natural y-raylogging 333
5.1.1. Geochemicalcharacteristics
of rocks 335
5,1'2' Theory of the method 33ó
5.l.3. InterpÍetation
of natural7.ray logs 339
5.1.4. Applicationof the y-raymethod 343
5.1.5. Natural y-spectroscopy344
5.2. Methods usingy-radiationsources 345
5.2.1. 7-7densitylogging 345
5.2.1.1.
Procedureand interpretation 346
5.2.L2. Applicationof the method 348
5.2.2. Selectivey-7method 351
5.2.3. Other y-y methods 353
5.2.4. 7.neutronmethod 35ó
5.3. Methodsusingneutronsources 35ó
5.3'|. Methodsbasedon isotop€ neutronsources 35ó
5.3.l.l.Conventionalneutronmethods 35ó
5.3.l.2.Neutron.7sp€ c troscopy 367
5.3.1.3.
Neutron activationmethods 367
5.3.2. Methodsusing neutrongenerators 369
5.3.2.1.
Methods based on inelastic scattering of neutrons (fast neutron-neutron
logging) 3ó9
5.3.2.2.
Activationusingfast neutrons 371
5.3.2.3.
Pulsedneutron-neutron
method 372
5.3'2.4.PulsedneutÍon.ymethod 374
5.4. Tracer techniquesin well logging 375
References 3'11
ó.
Radiation technologiesby G. Fökliúk 3.|9
ó.l.
Radiationphysica|processes 383
ó.l.|. Changeof materialstructure 383
ó.l.l'|. Electricconductors 383
ó.|.|.2.Semiconductors 384
ó.l.l.3.lnsu|ators 385
6'1.2, Transformationof nuclearenergy 38ó
ó.l'2.l' Radioactivelight sources 386
l0
co\Tf\Ts
ó.|.].2. Radloacrivc c|cctrrcpor'GÍtmcretors ]E7
ó.l.3. Changing thc corrdrrorrrtyoÍthc mcdium ]t9
ó' l..1.l . Elimination oí cbcrÍoratic chargcs ]t9
ó.l.3.2. lgnition of c|cctnc dÉdtergÉs 392
procss€ s
39]
ó.].
Radtattonc{rcrnrca|
ó.].l. lnor3a'nlcsubotanc ]93
ó.].l.l. Gascs ]9]
ó.2.l.2.Watcr and aqrrcousso|utions 394
ó.2.l..1-lnoryanrc ron cxchangcn 39,ó
ó.2.]. organlc sub'stanccs .19ó
ó.2.2.l Hy.drocarbons 39ó
ó.].].]. heparatrtc proccsscs 399
ó.2.2.3.Polymers 40
ó.].
Radiobiologica|proccsscs 4oó
ó.-1.l. Prmscs in agricu|tureand the food industry 407
ó.3.:. Sterilization oÍpharmaceuticalsand mcdical instruments 4l0
ó.4.
Radiation Ícststanceof structural materia|s 4l3
ó.4.l. lnorganicmatcrials 4l3
ó . 4 . l . l 'A i r . l l ]
ó.4.l.:. watcr and aqueoussolutions 4l4
ó.4.2. Polymcs 4l4
ó.4.2.l- Major technologicalcons€ q uences of radiation damages 4l4
ó.4'].2. Facrors influencingdecomposition 4ló
ó.4.3. Various organicmaterials 4|8
ó.4.].t.Lubricantsand organicmoderators 4l8
ó.4.3.].Tcxtilcs 42l
ó.4.3.].Paints 42l
ó.4.3.4.Adhcsiva 422
ó.4.].5.lon exchangeresins 422
6.4.4. Compositc systems 424
6.4.4.1.
Cabbs 424
ó.4.4.2.Elccrronic parts 424
ó.5. The tcchnologyof irradiation 425
ó.5.l. Radiationsources 425
ó.5.2. Economicfactors 428
ó.ó.
Thc control of irradiation 429
ó'ó.l. Fcrrous sulphate( Fricke) dosimetry 430
ó.ó.]. Ccrium sulphatedosimetry 433
ó.ó.]. Chlorobenzenedosimetry435
6.6.4. Polymericdosimeters 438
ó.ó.5' Dose indicators(Monitors) 439
References 439
7.
lndustrial radiography by J. Hirling 441
7.1. Classificationof radiographicmethods 441
7.l.l. C|assiíication
accordingto typ€ of radiation u|
7.|.2. C|assification
accordingto the eneÍgyof radiationsources 442
7.1.3. Classificationaccordingto the detectionofdefects 443
7.2. TechniquesoÍgamma.radiography 445
7.2.1. Laboratoriesfor radiography 445
7.2.2. Gamma-radiographic
field-tests 450
7.2.3. Preparationfor radiography 453
7.2.3.1.
Selectionofradiation source 453
7.2.3.2.
Planningthe arrangementfor radiography 453
7.2.3.3'Determinalionof exposuretime 45ó
7.2.3.4.ComplemcntaÍyprocessesof radiography 459
7.2.3.5.
Processingand handlingof film 4ó0
7.3. Radiographicsensitivityof images 4ól
I.5. L.
7.3.2
7.3.2
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.3
7.3.3
7.4.
7. 4 . 1
't.4.2
7.5.
7.6.
7. 6 . 1
7.6.1
't.6.1
7. 6 . t
7.6.2
7.6.2
7.6.2
7.6.2
'7.6,2
7.6.3
'7.6.4
7-6.4
7.6.4
7.6.5
8.
tr.l.
8.1.
8.1.
8 .1 . 3
tt.l.4
8.1.
8.1.4
Ít.
l.5
8.2.
r.
It.2.
8.2.
8.2.
8.2.
n.2.
8.2.
8.3.
8.3.
8.3.
8.3.
u.3.
8.3.
Ít.3
8.1.
8.3.
u.3.
u.4.
8.4.
8.4.
8.4.
CONTENTS
7.3.|. Measureof the radiographicsensitivity 4ól
7.3.2. |nfluenceof imagequality on radiographicsensitivity 4ó7
7.3.2.l.Factorsdeterminingimagecontrast 4ó7
7'3'2.2.Factorsdeterminingcontoursharpness 4ó8
.I.3.3'
IníIuence
of íilmquality on radiographicsensitivity 470
7.3.3.l.FactorsdeterminingÍilmcontrast 470
7.3.3.2.
Factorsdeterminingcontoursharpnessof the film 470
7-4. Evaluationof radiograms 471
7.4.1. Determinationof weldingdefects 471
7.4.2. ClassiÍication
and evaluationof castingdefects 474
7-5. Neutronand proton radiography 475
7.6- Industrialautoradiography
by L. Bartha 476
7.6.|. EÍliciencyof the autoradiographic
method 477
7.ó.l'l. Resolutionpowerof autoradiography 471
7.ó'l.2.Sensitivityof autoradiography 479
7.ó.l.3.Error sourcesof autoradiography 479
7.6.2. Techniquesof autoradiography 4'19
7.ó.2.|'Samplepreparation 480
7.6.2.2.
Labellingthe samplewith radioactiveisotopes 480
7.ó.2'3.Choice of emulsionand its hand|ing 480
7.6.2.4.
Films for autoradiography 482
'7.6.3.
482
.|.6.4, Quantitativeautoradiography
Applicationof autoradiogÍaphy483
7.ó.4.l.Investigation
of diffusionprocesses 483
7.ó.4.2.Investigation
of segregation 485
7-6.5. Solid statetrack detectorsin autoradiography 485
References 48ó
8'
Radiation protectionby T' Biró 488
tt.l. Generalaspectsof radiationprotection 488
8.1.1. The role o[ radiationprotection 488
8.1.2. Dose concepts 489
8.1.3. The Dose LimitationSystem 491
8.1.4. Calculationof dose rate 498
8.1.4.1.
Doseratein air 498
8.1.4.2.
Shieldingcalculations 505
tt.|.5. Measurementof dose and dose rate 5 | I
8.2. Methodsof prevention 512
8.2.1. Technicalprotection 513
8.2.2. Administrativeand organizationalmeasures 513
8.2.3. Packagingand transportof radioactivematerials 514
8.2.3.1.
Packaging 514
t1.2.3.2.
Transport 515
8.2.4. Handlingof Wastesand Contaminatedproducts,decontamination 5 l ó
8.3. Supervisorymethods 5|ó
8.3.1. Personaldosimetry 517
8.3.1.1.
Personaldosimeters 517
8.3.I.2. Determinationof incorporatedradioactivity 5 l9
It.3.2. Work placemonitoring 520
8.3.2.1.
Dose rate measurement 520
8.3.2.2.
Surfaoecontamination
monitoring 520
8.3.2.3.
Air monitoring 521
U.3.2.4.
productsand wastes 522
In<Justrial
8.3.3. Records 523
Íl.4. Use of sealedsources 523
8.4.1. Definitionofsealedsourcf and leakagetest 523
8.4.2. Containers for sealedsources 524
8.4.3. Generalaspects 525
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15 l ! larrodrrrroo oía tracer 532
531
&!.1a,9rrolbre
tt-S.1.5,
ldcesry m.l6tals. products 533
t ! |.ó- lnodcrrts..ccidcnts 534
t-5,1 Spcoel dutrcs 534
t.5.ll. Trar cxpcrinrcnts 534
t 5.lt Redroanalyticalwork 534
515
R*rsnccs
BHrographY 535
APPcndix bY T- Lengvel 536
Subcct index 552
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