Clothing Style, Music, and Media
Influences on Adolescents’ Brand
Consumption Behavior
Khafid Badaoui, Anne-Marie Lebrun, and Patrick Bouchet
University of Burgundy
ABSTRACT
This research focuses on the influence of clothing style identification on adolescents’ brand
consumption behavior. The sample consisted of 1063 adolescents. The results indicated that the
clothing brands adolescents prefer depend upon the clothing style with which they are identified.
The role of media and music on Generation Y adolescents and on their clothing consumption was
confirmed. Adolescents’ group identification and adolescents’ sensitivity to media and music vary
according to their clothing styles. These data can be employed by firms to develop brands strategies.
C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Generation Y adolescents grew up in a consumer society
and possess the greatest purchasing power of all generations of their age group in French history. They have
transformed the market by their numbers and activity
(Morton, 2002). It thus seems particularly essential to
study the adolescent age group from a marketing perspective. Because the adolescent period is characterized
by psychological and behavioral turnovers, an analysis
of adolescents’ consumption behavior as it pertains to
adolescent psychology would give a more complete picture. This research will focus on the influence of clothing style identification on adolescents’ brand consumption behavior.
According to Moschis’s research (Churchill &
Moschis, 1979; Moore & Moschis, 1981; Moschis, 1985;
Moschis & Churchill, 1978, 1979; Moschis & Mitchell,
1986; Moschis & Moore, 1969, 1978; Moschis, Moore,
& Stanley, 1984; Moschis, Prahasto, & Mitchell, 1986;
Moschis, Saliagas Cox, & Kellaris, 1987; Smith &
Moschis, 1984), it is legitimate to define adolescence
entirely by age. An analysis of various samples on all
the studies performed by Moschis shows that adolescents could be defined as individuals from 11 to 18 years
of age who attend a school. This research will lean on
these criteria to comprehend Generation Y adolescent
consumers.
The process of peers’ group identification is crucial
for adolescents, who are in a full search for identity
(Erikson, 1968). Informal groups form on the basis of
appearance during adolescence, primarily focusing on
clothes (MacGillivray & Wilson, 1997). Adolescents use
brands to establish and express their identity (Isaksen & Roper, 2008); so clothing style identification al-
lows adolescents to build their identities. Consequently,
brand relationships have become “tools through which
children grow up, gain competence, pursue the pleasure
of life, fulfill their dreams, and become connected with
others” (Ji, 2002, p. 383).
Changes in French society, particularly the development of Internet usage, have led to a multiplication of
groups, tribes, or communities with which adolescents
can identify. Moreover, Generation Y is considered by
some to be the most culturally heterogeneous generation in history (Wolburg & Pokrywczynski, 2001).
The notion of clothing style identification has only
been studied sparely by academics, and the majority of
research on this notion focuses on subcultures. In Subculture: The Meaning of Style, Hebdige (1979) refers to
clothing styles as intentional communication, a significant practice, or the result of a marketing operation.
Clothing style is defined by this research as a combination of products and clothing brands that interact to
form a “meaning style” recognizable by others and reflective of the individual’s identity (Badaoui, 2010). Because clothing styles are based on specific products and
brands, attempting to understand the clothing styles
adopted by adolescents as identity behaviors of consumption represents both a challenge and a stake for
the brands in present-day markets.
This study aims to analyze the role of clothing
styles as part of adolescent consumers’ behavior, because clothes are a socially consumed product that
carries strong social norms and affects individual behavior (Piacentini & Mailer, 2004). The problems inherent in studying the role of clothing styles in consumption behavior are many. First, it is necessary
Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 29(8): 568–582 (August 2012)
View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/mar
C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/mar.20544
568
to understand the influence of media and music on
the adolescents’ sense of group identification. Then,
the influence of clothing styles on their group identification level, on their media and music sensitivity,
and on their attitude to the brands must be understood. This analysis will examine the hypothesis that
clothing style can help to explain adolescents’ brand
choices.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND
DEVELOPING HYPOTHESES
Identity mechanisms particularly determine the marketing approach of an enterprise that aims to provide
an offer of maximum adequacy to match the expectations of a targeted segment or multiple segments
(Solomon, 2005). This understanding is even more important among enterprises that market to adolescents,
who are in a phase of identity construction.
Adolescence is a period of transition between
childhood and adulthood, but beyond that a personality development stage characterized by the active
construction of identity and otherness. Psychological
modifications occur during this period brought on by
a real crisis of psychological and social identity. Adolescents find identity by abandoning the dependence
on family associated with childhood and throwing off
authority and parental control in exchange for independence, autonomy, and control over their own lives. The
adolescent in identity crisis must choose between paths
in which all the resources for growth, recuperation, and
further differentiation are mobilized (Erikson, 1968).
The adolescent search for proper identity and independence from parents is an essential development
stage. Adolescents develop a sense of solidarity with
other adolescents during this period in order to avoid
the solitude that follows having lost interest in parental
identification (Brown, Lohr, & McClenahan, 1986). The
process of identifying with peers rather than with parents is an essential part of affirming adolescents’ proper
identity.
The social identity theory (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner,
1979) can further illuminate what motivates adolescents who identify with a group based on that group’s
clothing style. Social identity is a psychological entity
that makes it possible for humans to link individuals
with a group according to their processes and categorization behaviors. The basic premise of the theory of
social identity is that the individual aspires to a positive
social identity and self-esteem, which translates into a
need to acquire and display certain clothing products
and brands. Adolescents identify with the groups they
esteem in order to obtain positive social identities.
Group identification follows a process of selfcategorization in adolescents. The reference group is
considered to be a psychologically significant category
for its members. Members subjectively adhere to their
group when they make social comparisons. They ac-
ADOLESCENTS’ CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
quire the group’s norms and values and adopt its
rules, references, and beliefs concerning acceptable conduct; this directly influences adolescents’ attitudes and
behaviors (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, Wetherell,
1987).
The notion of depersonalization is central to the selfcategorization theory (SCT); it qualifies the passage
from personal identity to social identity. Depersonalization is a psychological process that leads a subject to
represent himself on a social rather than an individual
basis to emphasize social identity to the detriment of
personal identity. Adolescents’ values are modified under group pressure with the goal of increasing the similarity between them and the other members of their
groups (Newman & Newman, 1976).
Depersonalization can be reinforced by the adolescents’ clothing styles, as long as the products and the
brands acquired are shown to others. Clothing signals
that the wearer is like other individuals who wear similar clothes (Piacentini & Mailer, 2004). This signal results in greater uniformity and homogeneity in the behaviors and identification of a group with a particular
clothing style.
Group identification can be very exclusive among
adolescents. According to Erikson (1968), adolescents
can be exceptionally partisan, intolerant, and cruel in
excluding those who have different skin colors, cultural
backgrounds, tastes or talents, and manners of dressing and acting. These elements are distinctive signs of
group memberships. According to Erikson (1968), this
intolerance for outsiders represents, for a certain length
of time, a necessary defense against a sentiment of the
members’ loss of identity during the process of depersonalization.
According to Quart (2003), it is impossible to ignore
that clothes and labels show an adolescent’s singularity, and that the clothes and labels of others betray
their affiliations as well. In other words, entrance into
the adolescent world is characterized by the denial of
one’s self. This remark shows the importance of clothing
during adolescence for the identity of the wearer. According to a study carried out by Belk, Mayer, and Bahn
(1982) on a sample ranging in age from 5 to 20 years,
adolescence marks the moment when the individual is
most sensitive to the symbolic aspects of consumption.
Marketers and researchers of consumer behavior generally acknowledge that individuals consume products
and brands for their symbolic properties as much as for
their functional advantages (Elliott, 1999).
The possession of certain products reflects a consumer’s sense of identity (Belk, 1988; McCracken,
1986). Individuals use the symbolic content of consumer
objects chosen to reflect their affiliation to a particular
social group (Elliott & Wattanasuwan, 1998). Because
dress is one of the first things about an individual that is
observed (Stone, 1962), and because clothes signify different aspects of the individuals who wear them, clothing is a particularly strong indication of identity.
An adolescent’s identification with a clothing style
is shown by objects that have an exact symbolism for
569
the wearer and for the observer. For teenagers, clothes
are used to express individuality and to form a sense
of perspective (Piacentini & Mailer, 2004). Social phenomena underlying the identity influence the different styles of dress among adolescents. According to
Solomon (2005), dress is one of the favorite modes of expression among adolescent groups. Dress plays a dominant role in expressing consumer identity because of its
visibility. Dress can be easily assimilated to a productbrand affiliation among consumers. A piece of clothing’s
style depends on both the product and the brand—the
product by its characteristics (cut, color, material, size,
etc.) and the brand by its social indication.
The congruence between personal identity and
brand consumption seems to affect consumers’ preferences and choices (Sirgy, 1982). This congruence,
termed “brand-identity,” is conceptualized to be what
links consumer and brand (Fournier, 1998). Sometimes,
the brand constitutes a means of identity expression
(Belk, 1988; Belk, Wallendorf, & Sherry, 1989; McCracken, 1986; Richins, 1994). The value of a brand is
then based on what identity and cultural signs it lends
the consumer (McCracken, ).
Recently, Escalas and Bettman (2003, 2005) showed
that consumers build and indicate their identities with
their brand choices and that brands allow consumers to
connect with similar others. Moreover, some consumer
research observes congruence between membership in
a group and the group/individual’s brand use (Bearden & Etzel, 1982; Bearden, Netemeyer, & Teel, 1989;
Moschis, 1985). Consumers can use brands to integrate
themselves into a group (Aaker & Schmitt, 2001), but
the group to which they adhere can also influence their
brand choices (Bearden & Etzel, 1982). The clothing
style to which an adolescent adheres influences his attitude toward the brand, and the adolescent would prefer
to use specific brands to create his clothing style. Furthermore, the group identification level can vary from
one style to another, as some clothing styles are more
normative than others.
H1:
A relationship of dependence exists between
clothing style and preferred brands among
adolescents.
H2:
An adolescent’s group identification varies according to the clothing style to which the adolescent adheres.
Consumers cannot behave or decide as individuals outside of a social context; their actions are embedded in a system of continuous and concrete social
relations (Granovetter, 1985). They undergo a socialization period, which allows them to develop in modern society. Ward (1974) was the first to define socialization in a consumer context as “the processes
by which the young acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to act as a consumer in the market” (p. 2). The adolescent as a consumer perfectly
570
fits this process; as Moschis (1985) and Moore and
Moschis (1981) pointed out, adolescence is a key period for consumer socialization. Adolescent entrance
into the world of independent consumption is embedded in the social dependence of the individual in French
society.
Moschis and Churchill (1978) explained that learning results from interaction with the so-called socializing agents that transmit norms, attitudes, motivations,
and behaviors. This learning process involves mechanisms of reinforcement, imitation, and interaction with
others. In learning to be a consumer, adolescents are
subjected to various social influences. The principal socializing agents identified for adolescent consumers are
their families and peers (Xu, Shim, Lotz, & Almeida,
2004) as well as the media (Moschis, 1985). Studying
these agents’ influence on clothing consumption can
help clarify adolescents’ motives for choosing certain
clothing styles.
The influence of family and peers was widely pointed
out in the academic literature. Studies showed that adolescents actively engage with their parents in the purchase of clothing (Koester & May, 1985; Mascarenhas &
Higby, 1993) even if adolescents’ interaction with their
parents was negatively related to brand consciousness
(Shim, 1996).
Other studies revealed that peers influence adolescents’ underlying motivations for consumption
(Moschis & Churchill, 1978), their perception of a
brand’s notoriety, their decision-making styles (Shim,
1996), and their preference for a product (Moschis,
Moore, & Stanley, 1984).
Because of the importance of music, television,
the Internet, and video games for adolescents in
present-day society, the mass media are one of their
primary cultural resources (Mastronardi, 2003). Generation Y, particularly, is heavily influenced by media
(Noble, Haytko, & Phillips, 2009; Russel & Tyler, 2002;
Shearer, 2002). Media therefore also play a role in the
socialization of adolescents (Shim & Koh, 1997). According to Erikson (1968), media organizations are no
longer content to mediate communication, but brazenly
and effectively set themselves up as mediators between
generations. This mediation sometimes compels youths
to accept a caricatured reflection of the images. Clothing styles in the media also affect adolescents’ body
image (Altabe & Thompson, 1996; Heinburg & Thompson, 1999; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & TantleffDunn, 1999). In a general way, media accompany
adolescents’ itinerary in their search for identity (Livingstone & Bovill, 1999) and influence their clothing
consumption.
H3:
The larger the media influence is, the stronger
adolescent group identification becomes.
H4:
An adolescent’s sensitivity to media influence
varies according to the clothing style to which
the adolescent adheres.
BADAOUI, LEBRUN, AND BOUCHET
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
The influence of music on adolescent clothing styles
is considered separately from the overall influence
of media. Music seems to be an important part of
adolescent identity formation (North, Hargreaves, &
O’Neill, 2000; Zillman & Gan, 1997). Some social
groups prefer certain musical styles (Hargreaves &
North, 1999). These musical preferences can intervene in the clothing styles identification processes
when certain styles are supported by a musical
trend.
H5:
The larger the music influence is, the stronger
the adolescents’ group identification becomes.
H6:
An adolescent’s sensitivity to music influence
varies according to the clothing style to which
the adolescent adheres.
This study will center specifically on music and
media influence on group identification. The influence of these two agents of socialization has not
been studied as much as the influence of peers and
family. Furthermore, it seems that the influence of
these two agents is particularly strong for Generation Y adolescents. Figure 1 presents the adopted research model and the associated hypotheses to be
tested.
METHOD
(2005), and an exploratory study (Badaoui, Lebrun, &
Bouchet, 2007). Adolescents then ranked themselves
on a scale concerning their identification with a group
(see Appendix 2), and finally estimated the influence of
music and media on their personal clothing style (see
Appendix 3). The measures are represented by a Likert
scale with seven levels (1 = totally disagree, 7 = totally
agree). Finally, the adolescents gave their age, sex, and
grade level.
Sample
The sample consisted of 1063 adolescents. The mean
age of participants was 15.35 years old, with a standard deviation of two years. The distribution by grade
level and by sex was well balanced: 530 junior highschool students to 533 senior high-school students and
525 boys to 538 girls. All of the characteristics are synthesized in Appendix 4. Table 1 shows the difference in
the distribution of the adolescents in relation to their
choice of clothing style.
Analysis of the Sample
The style most represented among the sample was
the Fashion style. The popularity of this clothing style
seems to show that a dominant norm points adolescents to Fashion. The second most represented style is
Survey Design
Table 1. Clothing Styles of Sample.
Questionnaires were administered after school in junior and senior high schools in France during two
months in 2007. First, adolescents indicated their
preferred brand for each kind of clothing: shoes,
pants/skirts, tops, and accessories. They then chose
the clothing style that characterizes them the most
from the following options: Hip-Hop, Riffraff, Fashion,
Skateboarder, Lolita, Classic, Rasta, and Gothic, based
on a brief description of each style (see Appendix 1).
The list of styles was developed from various sources:
specialized press, internet research, Solomon’s work
Clothing Styles
Size
Percentage
Fashion
Riffraff
Skateboarder
Lolita
Hip-Hop
Classic
Rasta
Gothic
Other
Total
262
230
171
120
86
77
71
38
8
1063
24.6
21.6
16.1
11.3
8.1
7.2
6.7
3.6
0.8
100
Figure 1. Research model based on hypothesis developed.
ADOLESCENTS’ CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
571
Riffraff, perhaps due to the strong presence of this urban culture in all western societies. Riffraff finds its inspiration both in the streets and in the suburbs, which
gives it appeal to adolescents from the corresponding
urban and suburban groups.
Two other clothing styles are highly represented
among adolescents: Skateboarder and Lolita. The large
number of Skateboarder adolescents is perhaps due to
the fact that this clothing style is based on sports almost
exclusively performed by adolescents. Skateboarding is
a means to move for a large number of adolescents.
Therefore, it is natural to find this style phenomenon
to be represented by an adolescent population.
The Lolita style is exclusively worn by women. This
rather sexy style fulfills the needs of young girls who
want to appear older, who want to seduce and go
against the rules. These desires are characteristic of
adolescence; so it is not surprising that the style is well
represented in this population.
The other clothing styles were not very popular. The
Hip-Hop, Classic, Rasta, and Gothic styles are more
marginal. It must be pointed out that a very few adolescents chose styles other than those proposed. This
small amount shows, on the one hand, that adolescents
have a tendency to identify spontaneously with a given
clothing style and, on the other hand, that the range of
styles proposed is relatively exhaustive.
MEASURES
Scale and Tests
An identification scale targeting fans of sports teams
by Wann and Branscombe (1993) was transposed and
translated for this study. This scale was chosen because in social psychology studies it has shown a high
degree of validity and accuracy in measuring an individual’s identification with a group. The scale was
used to measure the adolescents’ level of identification
with the group representing their clothing style. This
scale includes five items, since two items were not suitable to the context and were deleted (see Appendix 2).
The scale’s validity and reliability were tested by Cronbach’s alpha and principal components analysis (PCA).
Cross tabulations, chi-square tests, and contingency
coefficients (C) were used in an attempt to show the
dependence between the two qualitative variables—
preferred brands and clothing styles (H1). The simple
linear regression allowed modeling of the relations between media and group identification (H3) and between
music and group identification (H5). An ANOVA was
used to test the impact of clothing style on the other
variables of the model—group identification (H2), media (H4), and music (H6). Furthermore, post-hoc tests
were used to compare the groups. If the ANOVA application conditions (namely the variances homogeneity
and the residues distribution normality) are not respected, a nonparametric test of Kruskal–Wallis and
a medians test will be performed.
572
Validity and Reliability of the Scales
Cronbach’s alpha. The Cronbach’s alpha is correct
for the scale on adolescents’ identification with clothing styles, since to the results were above 0.7 (see
Appendix 5). A more in-depth analysis shows that item
4 prejudices the coherence of the group identification
scale. Its suppression increases the Cronbach’s alpha
to 0.8 (see Appendix 6). For this scale, Bartlett’s test
of sphericity (χ2 = 1687.791; p < 0.000) and KaiserMeyer-Olkin measure (KMO = 0.747) are satisfactory
analyses and make possible a factorial analysis (see
Appendix 7).
Principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA
shows that item 5 is not quite correlated with the other
factors of the scale (see Appendix 8). Hence, it is necessary to delete item 5 in order to maintain coherence.
The results (after item 5 was removed) are shown in
Tables 2 and 3. The first three items of the group identification scale remain after the different tests, making
it possible to test the reliability, the validity, and the
one-dimensionality of the scales (Cronbach’s alpha and
PCA).
RESULTS
Dependence Between Preferred Brands
and Clothing Style
Shoes. A dependent relationship exists between the
clothing style and the shoes preferred brands with very
high levels of significance (p < 0.001) and intensity (C
= 0.79) (see Table 4).
Table 2. Factor Analysis on Three Items Remaining.
Factor Loadings (Unrotated)
Extraction: Principal Components
Items
Factor
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Expl. var
Prp. totl
−0.91
−0.89
−0.82
2.29
0.76
Table 3. Reliability/Item Analysis on Three Items
Remaining.
Summary for Scale: Mean = 13.0461, S D = 4.80003,
Valid N: 1063
Cronbach α: .839322, Standardized α: .844683
Average Inter-Item corr.: .653815
Mean if Var. if
SD if
ItmAlpha if
Items Deleted Deleted Deleted Totl Correl. Deleted
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
8.60
8.48
9.01
11.06
11.29
10.81
3.33
3.36
3.29
0.77
0.73
0.62
0.72
0.75
0.87
BADAOUI, LEBRUN, AND BOUCHET
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Table 4. Chi-Square Tests and Contingency
Coefficient for Crosstabs Between the Clothing Style
and the Preferred Brands for Shoes.
Pearson χ2
Likelihood ratio
Value
df
p
1677.811
1244.581
656
656
0.000
0.000
N
C
Table 8. Preferred Brands According to Clothing
Style.
Clothing
Styles
Shoes Preferred Brands
Pants/Skirts
Preferred
Brands
Tops Preferred Brands
Hip-Hop
Nike
And One
Adidas
Levi’s
Nike
Carhartt
Nike
Ecko
Adidas
Riffraff
Nike
Adidas
Puma
Levi’s
Adidas
Nike
Lacoste
Nike
Adidas
Puma
Com 8
Fashion
Nike
Converse
Puma
Levi’s
Diesel
Japan Rags
Puma
Adidas
Diesel
Skateboarder
Van’s
Adidas
Nike
Carhartt
Levi’s
Quiksilver
Quiksilver
Adidas
Rip Curl
Gothic
Van’s
Doc Marten’s
Carhartt
Levi’s
Ddp
Marylin
Manson
1063
0.79
Table 5. Chi-Square Tests and Contingency
Coefficient for Crosstabs Between the Clothing Style
and the Preferred Brands for Pants/Skirts.
χ2
Pearson
Likelihood ratio
Value
df
p
2285.574
1442.681
1008
1008
0.000
0.000
N
C
1063
0.82
Table 6. Chi-Square Tests and Contingency
Coefficient for Crosstabs Between the Clothing Style
and the Preferred Brands for Tops.
Pearson χ2
Likelihood ratio
Value
df
p
2512.043
1685.761
1360
1360
0.000
0.000
N
C
1063
0.85
Table 7. Chi-Square Tests and Contingency
Coefficient for Crosstabs Between the Clothing Style
and the Preferred Brands for Accessories.
χ2
Pearson
Likelihood ratio
Value
df
p
1915.161
1109.685
888
888
0.000
0.000
N
C
1063
0.81
Pants/skirts. A relationship of dependence exists between the clothing style and the pants/skirts preferred
brands with very high levels of significance (p < 0.001)
and intensity (C = 0.82) (see Table 5).
Tops. A relationship of dependence exists between the
clothing style and the tops preferred brands with very
high levels of significance (p < 0.001) and intensity (C
= 0.85) (see Table 6).
Clothing accessories. A dependent relationship between the clothing style and the accessories preferred
brands with very high levels of significance (p < 0.001)
and intensity (C = 0.81) (see Table 7).
ADOLESCENTS’ CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Buffalo
Ddp
Classic
Adidas
Puma
Kicker’s
Levi’s
Jennyfer
Pimkie
Jennyfer
Adidas
Jules
Lolita
Nike
Puma
Adidas
Levi’s
Jennyfer
Pimkie
Jennyfer
Pimkie
Adidas
Rasta
Van’s
Converse
Levi’s
Carhartt
H&M
H&M
Carhartt
Adidas
Preferred Brands According
to Clothing Style
Having established the dependence between adolescents’ clothing styles and preferred brands, the specificity of each clothing style is examined (see Table 8).
Each clothing style is characterized by a set of specific preferred brands.
Fashion. This style, best characterized by jeans and
sneakers, is the most popularly represented in the sample. Regarding shoes, three important sports brands
were identified: Nike, Adidas, and Puma. Converse
shoes were also very popular. As for pants/skirts
brands, the monopoly is held by popular jeans manufacturers (Levi’s, Diesel, Japan Rags, Lee Cooper, Kaporal, etc.). On the other hand, a mixture of sports and
ready-to-wear brands was popular for tops.
Riffraff. The most frequently cited preferred brand for
Riffraff style is Nike for shoes, differentiated on the
level of the product (most often “Air Max”). The brands
Lacoste, Com 8, Airness, and Dia for pants/skirts and
tops are representative of this style.
Skateboarder. This style is characterized by a variety of brands that promote sliding sport for both
573
pants/skirts and tops (Quiksilver, Oxbow, Rip Curl,
etc.). In addition, Levi’s and Carhartt brands were also
popular, perhaps because they offer a range of wide-cut
pants, which are characteristic of skateboarder style.
The brands that specialize in the manufacture of shoes
for skateboarding were particularly well represented
(Van’s, Etnies, Es, Rip Curl, Globe, Emerica, etc.).
Lolita. The feminine style “par excellence” is differentiated between the pants/skirts and tops, and the
ready-to-wear brands are the most cited (Jennyfer,
Pimkie, H&M, Zara, Cache Cache, etc.). Concerning
shoes, Nike, Adidas, Asics, and Puma, all of which have
lines of products for women, were popular.
Hip-Hop. The brands Nike, Adidas, and Levi’s appear
frequently in research on the Hip-Hop style and often
worn by the adolescents who identified with the style
in the sample. This style is also characterized by the
brands And One, Ecko, and Dia for both pants/skirts
and tops.
Classic. This style did not have particular characteristics; it is a mixture of sports and ready-to-wear brands
for men and women.
Rasta. This style is distinguished by shoes of the Van’s
and Converse brands. Moreover, the Carhartt brand
stands out for pants/skirts and tops of this dress style.
Gothic. In spite of the small size of the sample, Van’s
and Doc Marten’s brands had tremendous success regarding shoes in this style, while the Ddp brand ranked
high for pants/skirts. The top was often decorated with
an image of Marilyn Manson.
Conclusion
In view of the results for four categories of clothing products and the descriptive analysis by clothing
style, hypothesis H1 is validated. A relationship of dependence exists between clothing style and preferred
brands among adolescents.
Group Identification According
to Clothing Style
The ANOVA application conditions are verified (see
Appendix 9). A one-way ANOVA shows that clothing
style significantly affects adolescents’ group identification (see Table 9).
Hypothesis H2 is validated, an adolescent’s group
identification varies according to the clothing style to
which the adolescent adheres.
A more detailed analysis (post-hoc test), which operates a comparison intergroup, shows that adolescents of the Gothic style generally identified with their
group significantly more than other adolescents identified with theirs. The adolescents of the Rasta and
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Table 9. ANOVA for Group Identification According to
Clothing Style.
SS
df
MS
F
p
Intercept 6700.768
1.000 6700.768 2799.335 0.000
Style
195.789
8.000
24.474
10.224 0.000
Error
2522.960 1054.000
2.394
Classic styles identified with their group significantly
less than other adolescents identified with theirs (see
Table 10).
Relation Between Media, Music, and Group
Identification
Media. The linear regression indicates a positive significant relation between media influence and the adolescents’ group identification (see Table 11).
Hypothesis H3 is validated, the larger the media influence is, the stronger adolescent group identification
becomes.
Music. The linear regression indicates a positive significant relation between the influence of music and
adolescents’ group identification (see Table 12).
Hypothesis H5 is validated, the larger the music influence is, the stronger the adolescents’ group identification becomes.
Sensitivity to Media and Music According
to Clothing Style
Media. The ANOVA application conditions are not
verified (see Appendix 10). The Kruksal–Wallis
ANOVA and the medians test show that adolescents
who are sensitive to media influence also demonstrate
strong identification with their group (cf. Table 13).
Hypothesis H4 is validated, an adolescent’s sensitivity to media influence varies according to the clothing
style to which the adolescent adheres.
A more detailed analysis (post-hoc test), which operates a comparison intergroup, shows overall that the
adolescents of the Lolita style are significantly more receptive to media than other adolescents. On the other
hand, adolescents of the Rasta and Classic styles are
significantly less receptive to media influence than
other adolescents (see Table 14).
Music. The ANOVA application conditions are not verified (see Appendix 11). The Kruksal–Wallis ANOVA
and the medians test show that adolescents’ sensitivity to the influence of music significantly impacts their
clothing style identification (see Table 15).
Hypothesis H6 is validated, an adolescent’s sensitivity to music influence varies according to the clothing
style to which the adolescent adheres.
BADAOUI, LEBRUN, AND BOUCHET
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Table 10. Post-Hoc Test for Group Identification According to Clothing Style.
Hip-Hop
Fashion
0.944
0.550
0.246
Skateboarder
Clothing Style
Riffraff
Riffraff
Hip-Hop
Fashion
Skateboarder
Rasta
Gothic
Lolita
Classic
Other
0.944
0.550
0.999
0.079
0.638
0.670
0.001
0.342
0.246
0.777
0.001
0.983
0.999
0.000
0.154
0.965
0.658
0.157
0.031
0.051
0.594
0.194
0.454
0.352
0.003
0.420
0.002
0.001
0.969
0.928
0.996
0.000
0.043
0.000
0.125
0.991
Mean
SD
4.49
1.62
4.78
1.44
4.2
1.48
4.39
1.44
3.72
1.62
5.15
1.54
4.85
1.57
3.43
1.71
0.999
0.777
0.965
Rasta
Gothic
Lolita
Classic
Other
0.079
0.001
0.658
0.194
0.638
0.983
0.157
0.454
0.002
0.670
0.999
0.031
0.352
0.001
0.996
0.001
0.000
0.051
0.003
0.969
0.000
0.000
0.342
0.154
0.594
0.420
0.928
0.043
0.125
0.991
2.71
2.11
Table 11. Linear Regression Between Group Identification and Media Influence.
R2
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
0.138
B
SE
β
t
p
Constant
Media
3.402
0.299
0.086
0.023
0.372
39.659
13.035
0.000
0.000
A more detailed analysis (post-hoc test), which operates a comparison intergroup, shows that the adolescents of the Hip-Hop and Gothic styles are significantly
more receptive to the influence of music than other adolescents. The adolescents of the Fashion and Classic
styles are significantly less receptive to the influence of
music than other adolescents (see Table 16).
DISCUSSION
Dependence Between Preferred Brands
and Clothing Style
According to the cross tabulations analyses, a strong dependence governs the relationship between the clothing
style with which adolescents identify and the brands of
products they prefer. Adolescents of a given group will
specifically prefer certain brands over others when it
comes to clothing purchases; clothing style acts as a fil-
ter that reduces the number of brands the adolescent
can choose from.
During adolescence, social motivations are strong
and materialize particularly through membership in a
group, which typically exhibits a certain clothing style.
To obtain a positive SIT, adolescents identify themselves with a clothing style that establishes resemblance among group members as part of the depersonalization process described in the SCT (Turner et al.,
1987). Adolescents adopt the language and consumption behaviors of their fellow group members as part of
their social identity, which thus becomes a central concept to any study of adolescent consumption behaviors.
A complementary analysis showed the specifics of
various clothing styles in terms of brand preferences.
Every clothing style possesses some number of representative brands. However, leading brands such as
Adidas, Nike, and Levi’s are present in many different
styles. This transversality of leading brands can be
explained both by these brands’ range of products and
Table 12. Linear Regression Between Group Identification and Music Influence.
R2
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
0.145
B
SE
β
t
p
Constant
Media
3.248
0.280
0.094
0.021
0.380
34.595
13.400
0.000
0.000
Table 13. ANOVA Kruskal–Wallis and Median Test for Media Influence According to Clothing Style.
ANOVA Kruskal–
Wallis
Median Test
ADOLESCENTS’ CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
df
8
N
1063
H
66.254
p
0.000
df
8
N
1063
χ2
47.645
p
0.000
575
Table 14. Post-Hoc Test for Media Influence According to Clothing Style.
Clothing Style
Riffraff
Riffraff
Hip-Hop
Fashion
Skateboarder
Rasta
Gothic
Lolita
Classic
Other
Mean
SD
0.986
0.999
0.095
0.022
0.999
0.569
0.007
0.998
3.34
1.99
Hip-Hop
Fashion
Skateboarder
Rasta
Gothic
Lolita
Classic
Other
0.986
0.999
0.983
0.095
0.059
0.104
0.022
0.001
0.024
0.852
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.869
0.197
0.569
0.999
0.548
0.000
0.000
0.987
0.007
0.000
0.008
0.709
0.999
0.145
0.000
0.998
0.981
0.998
0.999
0.999
0.997
0.945
0.999
0.983
0.059
0.001
0.999
0.999
0.000
0.981
3.64
1.95
0.104
0.024
0.999
0.548
0.008
0.998
3.34
1.93
0.852
0.869
0.000
0.709
0.999
2.74
1.85
0.197
0.000
0.999
0.999
2.25
1.65
0.987
0.145
0.997
3.39
2.19
0.000
0.945
3.83
2.20
0.999
2.19
1.61
2.63
1.69
Table 15. ANOVA Kruskal–Wallis and Median Test for Music Influence According to Clothing Style.
ANOVA Kruskal–
Wallis
Median Test
df
8
N
1063
H
133.987
p
0.000
df
8
N
1063
χ2
108.387
p
0.000
models that correspond to a variety of styles and also
by the similarity of some styles. The brands partially
allow the differentiation between the clothing styles.
Consequently, for further research, it is necessary to
take into account the product type in order to increase
the differentiation between styles.
Group Identification According
to Clothing Style
The group identification level indicates the importance
an adolescent attaches to the group he identifies with.
According to SCT, adolescents are more likely to conform to the group standards when their degree of group
identification is high (Turner et al., 1987). This analysis
shows that adolescents can identify more or less with a
group according to their personal clothing style. These
styles are thus more or less normative for the adolescents’ consumption behavior, meaning that adolescents
are more likely to wear brands and products connected
to their preferred clothing style.
Adolescents who identified with the Gothic style
identified most strongly with their group. This high
level of identification can be explained by the fact that
their group is a minority; individuals in a minority
group tend to strengthen their links in order to ensure
the survival of the group and its members.
For adolescents who identified with the Lolita style,
their high level of identification with the group could
be due to the style’s high visibility despite its minority
representation. This style tends to incorporate countersocial symbols such as unusual color and exaggerated
designs, which attributes reinforce youths’ self-image
to ensure their membership.
The strong identification of Hip-Hop adolescents can
be explained by the influence of icons and strong personalities associated with the clothing style. Indeed, adolescents who adopt this style tend to identify strongly
with rap music and rappers. They recognize themselves
in the attitudes and texts of these icons.
Adolescents who identify with Riffraff, Fashion, and
Skateboarder styles identify with their group to an average extent when compared to the other styles. These
three styles are the most strongly represented in the
Table 16. Post-Hoc Test for Music Influence According to Clothing Style.
Clothing Style
Riffraff
Riffraff
Hip-Hop
Fashion
Skateboarder
Rasta
Gothic
Lolita
Classic
Other
0.051
0.000
0.999
0.931
0.053
0.358
0.000
0.377
0.000
0.071
0.001
0.983
0.000
0.000
0.038
0.000
0.769
0.000
0.816
0.395
0.946
0.895
0.066
0.278
0.000
0.355
0.002
0.999
0.005
0.678
0.000
0.000
0.008
0.015
0.773
0.999
Mean
SD
4.29
2.10
5.26
1.79
3.27
2.05
4.33
2.06
3.85
2.20
5.74
1.84
3.69
2.13
2.55
1.94
576
Hip-Hop
Fashion
Skateboarder
Rasta
Gothic
Lolita
Classic
Other
0.051
0.000
0.000
0.999
0.071
0.000
0.931
0.001
0.769
0.895
0.053
0.983
0.000
0.066
0.002
0.358
0.000
0.816
0.278
0.999
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.395
0.000
0.005
0.000
0.015
0.377
0.038
0.946
0.355
0.678
0.008
0.773
0.999
2.00
1.60
BADAOUI, LEBRUN, AND BOUCHET
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
sample. This factor (member of majority party) can explain why the identification with these groups is moderate.
Adolescents who prefer the Classic and Rasta styles
identified most weakly with their group. For the Classic style, the low level of identification is perhaps due
to the fact that the development of a positive SIT is
accomplished by other means than clothing style identification. For the Rasta style, the level of identification is perhaps low because style is not a social priority
for the individuals of this group, although it is a sign
of recognition. The adolescents who prefer this style
ascribe greater importance to spiritual values than to
materialistic ones.
Relation Between Media, Music, and Group
Identification
Media are found to positively and significantly influence adolescents’ group identification. These results are
in agreement with the literature and show the media’s
impact on adolescents’ clothing consumption. The influence of music on group identification has been studied
much less in the extant literature, however. Results of
the present study show a positive and significant influence of music on the adolescents’ group identification
and, consequently, on their clothing consumption. Media and music are thus two socialization agents that explain Generation Y adolescents’ clothing consumption.
This influence is doubly effective when companies utilize marketing strategies wherein celebrities and music
artists promote the brands.
Sensitivity to Media and Music According
to the Adolescents’ Clothing Style
An analysis differentiated by clothing style revealed a
great range in terms of adolescents’ sensitivity to media and music. Media were shown to have the strongest
influence on adolescents who preferred the Lolita style,
followed by Hip-Hop style adolescents. This can be explained by the fact that the Lolita clothing style bases
itself on fashion trends presented in forms of media
such as magazines and television. The sensitivity to media influence among adolescents adhering to the HipHop style is due to the style’s strong connection to rap
music and rappers as shown in music videos on television.
The adolescents who identified with Rasta and Classic styles are less receptive to the media. These results
are related to results showing adolescents are less identified with both groups.
The adolescents of the Hip-Hop and Gothic styles are
logically the most influenced by music because these
clothing styles base themselves on icons in the music
industry, stemming from Hip-Hop and metal rock musicians. On the contrary, adolescents of the Lolita style
are less influenced by music than other adolescents be-
ADOLESCENTS’ CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
cause their style is more frequently replicated in print
and television media than in music.
CONCLUSIONS
A synthesis of the results is presented in Figure 2.
Hypothesis H1 was validated because a dependent relationship exists between the clothing style
with which adolescents are identified and the clothing
brands they prefer.
Social identity is one of the main engines of consumption behaviors as suggested by Reed (2002), especially for adolescents. To obtain a positive SIT, adolescents identify with a given clothing style. Every clothing
style possesses some number of representative brands.
The adolescents’ attitudes toward the brands are thus
strongly dependent on the clothing styles with which
they identify; adolescents who identify with a clothing style wear brands and products connected with this
style.
Hypothesis H2 was validated—adolescents’ group
identification varies according to their clothing styles.
Adolescents are thus more or less influenced by their
groups depending on which style they identify with. Indeed, the more group identification is raised, the more
the adolescents adopt the standards of the group. For
every clothing style, this phenomenon is manifested by
a particular consumption of brands and products.
Hypotheses H3 and H5 were validated, confirming
the role of media and music on Generation Y adolescents. These two variables are positively and significantly connected with adolescents’ group identification and, consequently, with their clothing consumption. The stronger media and music influences are, the
stronger the adolescents’ group identification becomes.
Hypotheses H4 and H6 were validated, showing that
adolescents’ sensitivity to media and music varies according to their clothing styles. According to which
group they affiliate with, adolescents are more or less
receptive to the influence of media and music.
A first limitation of this study is its use of an exclusively French sample, which decreases its external validity. It is thus intended to complement research conducted in other countries. The intercultural differences
and similarities can then be comprehended in comparison. The second limitation of this study concerns the
choice of brand consumption regardless of the details of
the product. Considering the characteristics of clothing
products, such as model, design, comfort, quality, color,
and cut, could enrich the understanding of adolescents’
clothing consumption behavior.
The essential contribution of this study lies in its
theoretical supports (SIT and SCT), which make it possible to explain adolescents’ identification to particular
clothing styles and their related consumption behaviors. The study uses the assumption that adolescents’
clothing styles influence their consumption, which is
at once an explanatory and a discriminating variable.
577
Figure 2. Research model based on the validation of hypothesis.
This variable is inherent in the individual’s identity,
which is a key element of the study.
Furthermore, the study only focuses on the social aspects of adolescents’ clothing consumption. Two limitations can be thus expressed: the identity as antecedent
variable was not directly measured; and the personal
identity was not taken into account. These limitations
should therefore be compensated for in future research
by measuring both poles of identity.
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Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to:
Khafid Badaoui, Laboratoire SPMS (EA4180), Faculté des
Sciences du Sport, Université de Bourgogne, bureau 138,
Campus Montmuzard, BP 27877, 21078 Dijon cedex, France
([email protected]).
579
APPENDIX 1
Clothing Styles Description
Clothing Style
Description
Fashion
Riffraff
Trendy shoes or boots or sneakers, expensive brand jeans, tight shirt or top, sunglasses
Sneakers, jogging trousers, t-shirt or sweater, brand of “street” cap on the tilted to the
right side, slightly lifted, chain with cell phone hanging on neck
Big skate shoes, wide pants (“baggy”), surf or skate brand t-shirts or sweaters
Heeled shoes, jean, low-waist or short skirt, flashy colors and makeup
Big boots, jogging pants or wide (“baggy”) pants with increased size to allow glimpse of
the pants hanging low, t-shirt size XXL, cap screwed backwards or bandanas, jewelry
(gold chains, large rings, loops of diamond earrings, etc.)
“Moccasins,” straight cut pants, simple top
Big skate shoes, colorful clothes, no specific brand, African-style jewelry
Black clothes, dyed with white makeup, piercings, chains, rings, t-shirt with band,
singer or initials
Skateboarder
Lolita
Hip-Hop
Classic
Rasta
Gothic
APPENDIX 2
Group Identification Scale
Group Identification Scale
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Item 4
Item 5
How strongly do you see yourself as a user of the style listed above?
Not at all
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Completely
How strongly do your friends see you as a subject of the style listed above?
Not at all
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Completely
How important is it to you to be a subject of the style listed above?
Not important
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Very important
How much to you dislike the style as opposed to the one you’ve chosen?
Do not dislike
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Dislike very much
Do you often exhibit brands or products of style cited above at your school, at home or during your leisure time?
Never
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
All day
APPENDIX 3
Items to Measure Media and Music Influence
Do Your Musical Tastes Influence Your Clothing Style?
Not at All
1
2
3
4
Do the Media (TV, radio, Internet) Influence Your Clothing Style?
Not at All
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Completely
5
6
7
Completely
APPENDIX 4
Characteristics of Sample
Variables
Mean
SD
Age
School levels
Junior High school
High school
Sex
Boy
Girl
15.35
Size
530
533
Size
525
538
2.00
Percentage
49.9%
50.1%
Percentage
49.4%
50.6%
580
BADAOUI, LEBRUN, AND BOUCHET
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
APPENDIX 5
Reliability/Item Analysis on Five Items
Summary for Scale: Mean = 21.5503, SD = 6.74384, Valid N: 1063
Cronbach α: .732897, Standardized α: .749806
Average Interitem Corr.: .399307
Items
Mean if Deleted
Var. if Deleted
SD if Deleted
Itm-Totl Correl.
Alpha if Deleted
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Item 4
Item 5
0.69
0.65
0.60
0.21
0.42
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.80
0.72
Summary for Scale: Mean = 17.3264, SD = 5.94258, Valid N: 1063
Cronbach α: .801270, Standardized α: .807905
Average Interitem Corr.: .530973
Items
Mean if Deleted
Var. if Deleted
SD if Deleted
Itm-Totl Correl.
Alpha if Deleted
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Item 5
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.44
0.69
0.72
0.74
0.84
17.10
16.99
17.51
17.33
17.27
29.34
29.83
28.55
35.28
32.10
5.42
5.46
5.34
5.94
5.67
bold = items that increase the value of alpha if deleted.
APPENDIX 6
Reliability/Item Analysis on Four Items
12.88
12.76
13.29
13.05
20.51
21.14
19.97
23.02
4.53
4.60
4.47
4.80
APPENDIX 7
KMO and Bartlett’s Test
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy
Bartlett’s test of sphericity
Approx. χ2
df
p
0.747
1687.791
6.000
0.000
APPENDIX 8
Factor Analysis on Four Items
Factor Loadings (Unrotated)
Extraction: Principal Components
Items
Factor
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Item 5
Expl.Var
Prp.Totl
0.89
0.86
0.81
0.62
2.57
0.64
bold = items sufficiently correlated (above 0.7).
ADOLESCENTS’ CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
581
APPENDIX 9
Levene’s Test and Residues Distribution
Normality
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances(a)
Dependent Variable: Group Identification
F
df1
df2
Sig.
1.75
0.083
8
1054
Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the
dependent variable is equal across groups
(a) Design: Intercept + Clothing Style
APPENDIX 10
Levene’s Test and Residues Distribution
Normality
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances(a)
Dependent Variable: Media
F
df1
df2
Sig.
2.31
0.019
8
1054
Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the
dependent variable is equal across groups
(a) Design: Intercept + Clothing Style
APPENDIX 11
Levene’s Test and Residues Distribution
Normality
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances(a)
Dependent Variable: Music
F
df1
df2
Sig.
3.96
0.000
8
1054
Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the
dependent variable is equal across groups
(a) Design: Intercept + Clothing Style
582
BADAOUI, LEBRUN, AND BOUCHET
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar