Roman Legionary Fortresses and the Cities of Modern Europe
Author(s): Thomas H. Watkins
Source: Military Affairs, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Feb., 1983), pp. 15-25
Published by: Society for Military History
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1987828 .
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aondthe
fortresses
RomanLegionciry
Ctiesof ModernEurope
by Thomas H. Watkins
Western Illinois University
England
to westernhistory,it is
assessing the Roman contribution
customarytostresswhatmaybe broadlytermedtheimperial
achievement:the acquisitionand maintenanceofan empirefor
several centuriesand the conversionofconqueredpeoples from
subjects to partnersin Roman civilization.One ofthe strongest
agents in this imperial achievementwas the army, whose role
includedmuch more than its primaryfunctionof conquest and
defense.The army was a powerfulfactorin Romanization.Indeed, lifein the armywas probablythe mosteffectivemeans of
theprovincesofthe
spreadingtheRoman way oflifethroughout
Empire, especially among thoseclasses ofthepopulationwhich
suppliedmostoftherecruits.Latin was thelanguage ofthearmy,
and the soldierstookit withthemwherevertheyserved. Countless thousandsofpeople acquired at least a veneer ofromanitas
throughservicein or contactwiththemilitary.The Roman army
also contributedto theurbanizationofwesternEurope in thata
numberofits camps have lived on throughtimeto become moderncities.Examples ofthislegacy fromEngland and Europe,not
as oftenobserved as they ought to be, are the subject of the
presentstudy.
Two preliminarypoints are to be noted. First, in the early
centuriesofthe Empire therewere essentiallytwo kindsofsoldiers: legionaries and auxiliaries. The formerwere recruited
fromRoman citizens and served for20 years in the legions of
some 5,200men; the latterwere drawn fromthe non-citizennative peoples, served 25-yearenlistmentsin the infantrycohorts
and cavalry "wings" of either 500 or 1,000men, and received
Roman citizenshipon discharge.Second, writersin English customarilydesignatelegionarybases as fortresses,and all smaller
bases, whetherforauxiliaryunitsor detachmentsoflegions,as
forts.It is withthefortressesalone thatwe are here concerned.
The Romans regarded citylife as synonymouswithcivilized
life: "urban" was civilized,"rustic" and "rural" and were not.
More important,it was Roman policy to use cities as units of
governmentwheneverpossible, workingthroughthem where
theyalready existedand establishingnewones wheretherewere
none.SometimesRome foundedcoloniesofdischargedveterans
bothto reward the time-servedsoldiers and to impress the natives withurbanlife.Such cities were intendedto be showplaces
of Roman grandeur,deliberatelydesigned to impress all who
visited or resided in them. As the second-centuryA.D. writer
Aulus Gellius put it, colonies were "littlecopies and images" of
Rome, reflectingthegloryofthecapital in theprovinces(Noctes
Atticae 16.13.9.).Colonieswere thehighestcategoryofcityin the
Empire, bothprestigiousand privileged,fortheymirroredthe
magnificenceofRome and generallypossessed valuable rightsof
and tax-exemptionas well. Theyoftenservedas
self-government
provincialcapitals and centersofthe imperial cult (worshipof
the goddess Roma and the deifiedemperors). As examples we
in Asia Minor,Colchesterin Brican pointto Antioch-by-Pisidia
tain,Colognein Germany,Lyonin France, Merida in Spain, and
Timgad in Africa.1At a lowerlevel, Tacitus describes thepolicy
ofAgricolaas governorofBritainin 80A.D. workingto persuade
IN
FEBRUARY 1983
the natives to take up city life. Agricola made good use of the
Winter:
For, to accustom to rest and repose throughthe charms
ofluxurya populationscatteredand barbarous and thereforeinclinedtowar,Agricolagave privateencouragement
and public aid to thebuildingoftemples,courtsofjustice
praisingtheenergeticand reproving
and dwelling-houses,
theindolent.Thus an honourablerivalrytookthe place of
compulsion.He likewise provideda liberal educationfor
thesons ofthechiefs,and showedsuch a preferenceforthe
naturalpowersoftheBritonsovertheindustryoftheGauls
that they who lately disdained the tongue of Rome now
covetedits eloquence. Hence, too,a likingforour styleof
dress, and the "toga" became fashionable. Step by step
they were led to the things which dispose to vice, the
lounge,the bath, the elegant banquet. All this in theirignorance theycalled civilization,whenit was but a part of
theirservitude.
(Agricola 21; ModernLibrary trans.)
Armycamps stimulatedeconomicgrowthand quasi-municipal
developmentall along thefrontiers,and threetypesofcommunityemerged.The first,canabae ("huts, sheds"), consistedofthe
collectionof buildings- workshops,warehouses, stores, inns,
houses, brothels- located adjacent to legionaryand auxiliary
bases everywherein the Empire. Their inhabitantsserved the
manyneeds ofthegarrisons- freshfoods,leathergoods,drinks,
women - and the soldiers doubtlesswelcomed theirpresence.
Equally certainlythecanabae did somethingto Romanize many
thousandsof provincials. The extentto which canabae contributedtourbangrowthis notso clear, forthoughtheytendedtobe
more or less permanentcommunities(given that army units
remainedin the same camps foryears), theywere oftenrather
ramshackle,unplannedaffairs,stragglingalongone ortworoads
leading to one of the main gates of a base. The canabae of a
fortresswere morelikelyto exhibittruemunicipalfeaturesthan
were those of the small auxiliary forts.Further,it is probable
thatcanabae were underthe jurisdictionofthe military,whose
officersregardedthemas necessaryevils and deniedthemmuch
canabae were
in the way of developmentand self-government;
on armyproperty(territoriumlegionis) and could be abolished
at the command of the military.2
The second type of communityoriginatingin proximityto
armybases was thevicus. Oftengrowingup a mileor moreaway
fromthe fortand so not on army land, the vicus was a true
communityofits own,legally independentofthe militarycommand. Many wealthymerchantstookup residencein thevici, as
did retiredsoldiers and provincialsanxious to get ahead. Veterans, who were fairlywell Romanized aftertheirlong toursof
duty,tendedto marrynative women and settledown afterdischarge in thevici near thebases wheretheirunitshad longbeen
stationed.Generousprovisionsofdischargeextendedcitizenship
to theveterans' wives and childrenand thuspromotedextensive
Romanizationin these towns.As a consequence, some of these
places attainedconsiderablesize, thoughtherewas a wide gra15
dationin them.Attheupperend,some vici near fortressesor the
more importantauxiliaryfortsbecame sufficiently
Romanized
to be recognizedas municipiaor even, bytheearly thirdcentury
A.D., promotedto coloniae.3 This developmentwas evidently
given officialencouragementalong the Danube and in Dacia,
where mostcities began as vici. York in England appears to be
analogous,thevicus growingup across theOuse fromthefortress
and beinggrantedcolonial status ca. 211-217.At thelowerend of
the spectrum,therewas littleto distinguishvicus fromcanabae
at themoreremotefrontierposts. What,forinstance,shouldwe
make ofVindolandaonHadrian's Wall? It was a prettymiserable
place whencomparedwiththegreatvici oftheDanube, butyetits
inhabitantsas thevici Vindolandesseshad enoughsense ofcommunityto dedicate an altar to Vulcan.4
The thirdand mostimportanttypeofcommunityunderconsiderationhereis thatwhichoriginatedas or in- notnear or beside
- a legionaryfortress.As always thereis variation,and no single
statementis valid everywhere.In essence, however,thesituation
is fairlysimple. Sometimes fortressesof the early Empire became citiesaftertheend oftheRoman period.In otherinstances
therewas an intermediatephase: aftersome years or decades of
occupationa legion abandoned its fortressto move to a position
closer to the frontier,and the old base was convertedinto a
civiliancolonia whichin turnenduredthroughtheMedieval into
modern times. England affordstwo examples of the former,
Chesterand York,and twoofthelatter,Gloucesterand Lincoln.
In bothtypes,what is ofinterestis thatthe moderncities show
somethingoftheirmilitarybeginningsintheirstreetplans,walls,
and gates.
Ofcourse,notall fortresseshave become moderncities. A few
bases are known to have been occupied only temporarily.
discussed below,was neverfinishedat all. Usk,onthe
Inchtuthil,
riverofthesame name, was abandonedca. 70afterno morethan
15 years of use. Modern research, particularlyaerial photography,has turnedup a numberofseasonal or marchingcamps.
The militaryhistoryof Exeter is controversial,but a fortress
evidentlypreceded establishmentof the native town ca. 80.
Wroxeteris similar, as firstthe XIVth (ca. 57-66)and thenthe
XXth (66-ca. 78, withperhaps a small caretaker garrison for
anotherdecade) was in residence beforecreationof the native
town.Colchesterbegan itsRoman lifeas thebase ofLegionXX in
43. Elements ofthe camp were transmittedto the colonia which
was foundedwithinthe disused and even dismantledfortressin
49/50,and fromthe colonytheyhave come down to today.5
It may be of some interestto note that London, by far the
largestcityin Roman Britainas in modernEngland,was nevera
legionaryfortressat all. A small fortwas constructedjustoutside
the northwestcorner of the city and in the thirdcenturywas
includedinLondinium'swall. Its garrisonwas thehonorguardof
the governorand was thus composed primarilyof legionaires
probablydrawnfromall ofthelegionsoftheprovince.The modernvisitoris hard-puttofindanysignofthisfort'sinfluenceinthe
growthof the city.6
A good illustrationof a fortresswhichis now but a village is
Caerleonon theUsk riverin southWales (see Figure 1). Threeof
the old gates are still pierced by streets,but otherwisethereis
littlesign ofindebtednessto theRoman past, thoughwe do meet
here a phenomenon encountered frequentlyelsewhere - a
churchon thesite oftheheadquartersbuilding.(In partthismay
be because churcheswere oftenbuiltat major intersections,and
as will be pointedout shortlytheHQ was always at the centerof
the camp. But since the HQ contained a chapel for the unit's
standards,therewas holygroundthere,suitable,aftercleansing
andrededication,
fora church.
Often
theverystonesoftheoldHQ
werere-usedintheChristian
building.)
KnowntotheRomansas
Isca, thefortress
was evidently
evacuatedlatein thethirdcenturyanddemolished
inthefourth.
Theciviliantownseemsnever
16MI
L
I
CAERLEON (ISCA)
-3~~~~~
fis.2I
-
I
PRINCIPIA
(H Q)
VIA~~~I~
60
5?b
0150,o
to have developed much,as it was overshadowedby thedistrict
townat Caerwentsome 7 miles away.7Soon Isca was inruins,but
its name lived on in legend: the medieval memories were far
moregloriousthantheRoman realitieshad ever been. Writing
in
the 1130s,GeoffreyofMonmouthtellshis readers thattheCityof
the Legions was an archepiscopal diocese and thatKing Arthur
held a plenarycourtthere: no wonder,forthe place had gilded
gables and was theequal ofRome! Some 50years laterGerald of
Wales makes it even more splendid:
Caerleon means the CityofLegions, Caer, in theBritish
language, signifyinga cityor camp, fortherethe Roman
legions,sent intothisisland, were accustomed to winter,
and fromthis circumstanceit was styledthe Cityof the
Legions. This citywas of undoubtedantiquity,and handsomely built of masonry,withcourses of bricks,by the
Romans. Manyvestigesofitsformersplendourmayyetbe
seen: immensepalaces, formerlyornamentedwithgilded
roofs,in imitationof Roman magnificence,inasmuch as
they were firstraised by the Roman princes, and embelished with splendid buildings; a tower of prodigious
size, remarkablehotbaths,relics oftemples,and theatres,
all enclosed withinfine walls, parts of which remain
standing.You willfindon all sides,bothwithinand without
the circuitof walls, subterraneousbuildings,aqueducts,
undergroundpassages; and what I thinkmost worthyof
notice,stovescontrivedwithwonderfulart,totransmitthe
heat insensiblythroughnarrowtubes passing up the side
walls.8
THE
cities whichremain to be dealt withshow a closer recenlationshipto theirlegionaryorigins.By the mid-first
turyA.D., the layout of a legionarycamp had become more or
lessstandardized
(see Figure2,a simplified
versionofInchtuthil
constructed
on theTay riverabove Perthin Scotlandand demolishedbeforecompletion
about88).9 The ditchand wall (of
stone in permanentcamps, otherwisean earthenrampart
strengthened
andfacedwithtimber)enclosedan area ofsome50
TARY
Y AFFAIRS
CHESTER (DEVA)
GENERAL PLAN OF A LEGIONARYCAMP
f;s. 2
BARRACKS
-Fi3.
BARRACKS
PRINCIPIA~
BARRACKS H
VA
BARRACKS
PRINCIPALI$
BARRACKS
BARRACKS
THE
ROODEE
site
PrincTHpia
eV- SHAPEDDITCH,
465 A
(RACECOUR5E Q.-
THE?
ROODEET
'
acres.A gridofstreetsdividedthefortress
intosections,butof
thesestreetsonlythreeare important
forthepresentpurposes.
Themainstreetwas thevia praetoria,whichranfromtheporta
praetoria (intheory
facingtheenemy)tothecenterofthecamp.
Thereit formeda T intersection
withthevia principaliswhich
ran acrosstheshortaxis ofthecamp. The principia,or headquartersbuilding,
stoodat thisjunction;as one facedfromit
downthevia praetoria,theportaprincipalisdextrawas toone's
rightandthep.p.sinistratoone'sleft.Theothermainstreetof
thecampwasthevia decumana, whichbeganat thereargateor
portadecumana andheadedintothecampona linewiththevia
praetoria. The commandingofficer'sresidence was the
praetorium,locatednexttotheHQ- eithertothesideorbehind
it.Mostoftheinternal
space was takenup withthe60barrackblocks,oneforeachofthelegion'scenturies.
Otherbuildings
are
thehousesofthesixtribunes
(TR ontheplan),granaries(GR), a
hospital,and workshop.10
To findlegionarylegaciesone must
lookat theoriginalcoreofwhatis nowoftena sprawling
urban
mass: theapproximately
50-acrenucleusofnearlytwomillennia
oflife.
Legionarybases contributed
to theurbanization
ofEngland,
forwhilethefortress
atCaerleondidnotdevelopintoa city,those
at Chesterand Yorkdid,and thoseat Gloucesterand Lincoln
becamefirstcoloniesand subsequently
moderncities.Chester
(Deva), as faruptheDee Riveras seagoingvesselscouldreach,
was builtforLegioII Adiutrix
in75-79,
butca. 88thatlegionleft
Britain,and XX Valeria Victrixwas transferredin from
inthefarnorth;XX V.V.remainedinresidenceuntil
Inchtuthil
383or402/3.
Thehistory
inthepost-Roman
ofChester
centuries
is
thatpeople
obscure.Abattlewasfought
nearbyin616,suggesting
- in theearly
stillfoundrefuge- ifnotpermanent
habitation
A Danisharmysheltered
within
seventh
theoldwallsin
century.
893.In 907/8
Ethelred,ealdormanofMercia,andhiswifeEthelfleda,"LadyoftheMercians,"repairedtheRomanfortifications
- whosemodern
andincorporated
Chester
nameis derivedfrom
theLatincastra, camporfort- intothesystemof"burhs"or
strongpoints
againsttheDanes." The Saxonburhdid muchto
ensureRomaninfluence
inthegrowth
ofChester(see Figure3).
Sincetheburh'sgateswerethoseofthefortress,
theburh'smain
streetsnaturally
preserved
thoseofRomantimes:BridgeStreet
FEBRUARY 1983
(RACEOUgS)
\ f
4.
k' ~'
~
3. Viat Hrniall,So
6 .
1
of
V~~~~itea
Praetoria
Smhtheater'soni
site excancteda
o~~haf'
~.eViealPrnWallis
/
Jj. Via Prae4oriM
is theoldvia praetoria,Northgate
Streetthevia decumana, and
Eastgateand (partof)Watergate
Streetspreservethevia principalis. Ethelfleda
builtthechurchofSt.Peterat thejunction
of
theburh'smainstreets,onthesiteoftheRomanheadquarters
building.
TheNormancastleis outsidetheRomanbutinsidethe
13thcenturywalls,whichenclosedadditionalterritory
to the
westandsouthwhilekeeping
totheRomanlinealongtheeastand
northeast.12
YorkpreservesitsRomanoriginsas clearlyas doesChester.
H. G. Rammhaspaintedthefollowing
pictureofthetiesbetween
Romanand modernYork:
In onesenseRomanYorkstillsurvivestoday.Thegreat
west-angle
bastionofthefortress
is a directphysicalsurvivaloftheRomanfabricofYork[no.8ontheplan,Figure4],
buta morepowerful
andpervasiveinfluence
is thatofthe
townplan.Initsmajoroutlines
thisplanis stilltheRoman
oneanditis possibletotraceitscontinuous
development
fromA.D. 71to thepresent.Inundations
in thefifth
and
sixthcenturiescaused major alterationsbut the most
drasticchangesare to be associatedwithtenth-century
expansionand thedisastrouseventsof 1069.13
Andin a similarveinM. Biddlehas stressedthatYorkpresents
thebestexampleofcontinuity
ofhabitation
fromRomantimes
onwardinBritain.14
In otherwords,Yorkwas- andis- Roman
longaftertheendoftheRomanEmpire.
In A.D. 71 Q. PetiliusCerialis,governorof Britain,moved
LegioIX Hispananorthward
fromLincoln.For itsnewbase he
selecteda well-drained
and easilydefensible
locationon high
ground
between
theOuseRiveranditstributary
theFosse.Ships
couldbringinsuppliesuptheHumberandOuse,so thisfortress,
likeitscontemporaries
at CaerleonontheUskandChester
onthe
Dee, was reachableby watertransport.
The firstdefences,
timber-laced
wererebuiltinstonein 107/8
earthworks,
andsoon
thereafter
Legio VI VictrixreplacedIX Hispana; therewere
extensiverepairsabout200and anotherrebuilding
a century
17
later.Butthebasic layoutofthefortress
remainedunchanged
andestablished
itselfsofirmly
thatithasdetermined
muchofthe
basic shape of York throughthe succeedingcenturies.The
Romanciviltownbecamea colonyunderCaracalla(211-217),
but
declinedaftertheendofRomanrule,a casualtyofthegeneral
whichsweptawaythebridgeconchaosand rampantflooding
necting
thetwosidesoftheOuse.BytheSaxonandViking
periods
therewas onceagaina thriving
townonthesiteofthecolony.15
Figure 4 shows the relationshipbetween fortressand
medieval-modern
city:notethewallsandgates,thefamiliarT
intersectionofviae principaliset praetoria (now Petergate and
Stonegate),and the presenceof a church- in thiscase the
- abovea partofthefortress
Minster
Howthese
headquarters.
is wortha brief
aspectsoftheRomanlegacyweretransmitted
explanation.
Heavyand repeatedflooding
in thefifth
and sixthcenturies
probably
didmorethantheendofRomanmilitary
andpolitical
administration
tobringaboutthedeclineofancientEburacum.
Townlifeseemsneverto havecompletely
diedout,and bythe
earlyeighthcentury
theplace had becometheSaxonportand
marketofEoforwik
or Eoforwikceaster
("wik"/"vik,"~
village,
plus "ceaster,"camp,fromcastra). The nucleusofthesettlement,whichspreadacrosstheOuse,was thefortress,
approximatelyin the centerof whichwas a church;York was an
archepiscopal
see. Danes occupiedEoforwik
from866/7,
changing its name to Jorvik(whencethe modernformYork) and
makingita greattrading
post.OnthreesidestheDanesmounded
earthovertheRomanwallsanderecteda stockadeontop,buton
northeast
andsouthsidetheyextendedthefortress'
thefourth
westwalls in theformof a stockadeor moundto theFosse,
leavingthisendopenalongtheriver.Thisarea, as recentexcaand Pavementhave shown,was the
vationsin theCoppergate
coreofthethriving
Viking
city.TheDanishroyalpalaceseemsto
havebeenintheRomanportaprincipalissinistra: itappearsas
in Egil's Saga, as Kuningsgard
Koningsgartha
bythe13thcencontinued
underthe
tury,andis nowKing'sSquare.Prosperity
kingsof Wessex,whoexpelledthe Danes in 954.Williamthe
builta castleattheconfluence
oftherivers,buthehad
Conqueror
a difficult
timecontrolling
andYorksuffered
Yorkshire,
terribly
in thefighting
ofhisreign.His harshmeasuresdo notseemto
haveaffected
theRomanlegacyinYork.A newcathedral,
built
in thelate 11thcentury
probablyjustto thesouthoftheSaxon
church(damagedintherebellion
of1068/9,
repaired,destroyed
in1079)wasas symbolic
oftheNorman
ruleas wasthecastle.The
presentMinster,
builtbetweenthe1220sandlater1400s,stands
andoverthenorthwest
aboveitsNormanpredecessor
of
portion
the principia as well.16
evidencetohavebeen
INCOLN(Figure5) seemsonpresent
ofLegioIX Hispanaabout61-66,
builtas thefortress
though
an auxiliaryfortor storesdepotdownby therivermayhave
precededthearrivalofthelegionbysomeyears.Thesitewasthe
LINCOLN (LINDUM)
N
$
THE
IR
VioaPrincipal's is
V now Ir%paIrt
13ai1,3ate.j
the ar<e of
/1/1/
Principtcv
and
-WaIl of'"me
W
or lower town.
YORK
(EBURA~CUM)
Y
Pi.4
-~~~~~~
o
7
Via Principalis
~~~~~~~~~eer9ate.
Via
//7
/
/
-~~~<.
\
I
~~.
v
-~~~~~~~~~
.>'
//
,
0
/under
R
\
>
/
G
<
K2~~~~~~~~'\J6~~~~~~~
~5.
\
Bootham Bar, on site
of Roman NWgate.
St. Helen's Sq. , on
~~~~~~~~~~~~~2.
site of Roman Porta
Praetoria
1.
/I
___
\The
3.
-
King's
Square,
on site
of RomanSE cgate.
De-angate.
6.
_/
V(/)
H
Deangate.
<
\
)X)<'\
<>
\%\\,<3<60
/
s~TE
18
>>
the Minster,
St. Michael-le-Belfrey,
\\and
9
<)/ XA\
\\>3 A
\\+4t0/
s>
aN.~~~~~~
(st/
R>2\
2
-now
____
?0MSTE
{?ffi\/
\
is
now
~~~~~~~~~~~~~Stonegate.
'Principia
lies
1
USEU M
/MUSEUM 8
Praetoraa
1S
7.
Coppergate.
The Pavernent.
The
Shambles,
8.- Multangular Tower.
Medieval extensions
of
the Roman wall are shown
'3vAvXEd.400M
,
X
MILITARY AFFAIRS
crestofa steephilloverlooking
theWitham
River,fromwhose
marshes("lindos"in Celtic)theRomannameLindumwas derived.17Thewalledarea was rathersmall,about40acres,so it
seemsprobablethatoneor twoofthetencohortsofthelegion
wereondetacheddutyelsewhere.
IX Hispanawastransferred
to
Yorkin71andreplacedbyII Adiutrix
fora fewyears,butfrom
about75 to the early90s therewas no morethana skeleton
garrisonin residence;it is improbablethatthefortresswas
Thegeneraloutlineofthefortress
totallyunoccupied.
is known:
thelocationofthewalls,gates,courseofthevia praetoriaandvia
principalis(thelattermoreorlessrepresented
bytheBailgate),
and perhapsa portionoftheprincipia.
Thecolony,
whichwasinserted
onevacuation
intothefortress
bythearmyshortly
beforetheendofDomitian'sreignin96,is of
no particularconcernhere.It keptandstrengthened
thelegionarywallsandgates(onesurvivesas partoftheNewport
Arch),
itsmainstreetsfollowed
thoseofthefortress,
anditsforumand
basilica (civic centerand law court)overlaytheformerHQ
building.LindumColonia, whencetoday's name Lincoln,
flourished,
expanding
downthehilland eventually
doubling
its
originalarea witha secondsetofwalls.Lincolnlookstoexhibit
continuity
ofsettlement
straight
through
theearlymiddleages:
the Saxon kingsof Lindseymay have used the Romangovernmental
buildings,
andtherewas a "prefect
ofthecity"in628.
TheDanesmadeLincolnoneoftheirkeycitiesandevenlaidout
theirownstreetgridinpartofthelowercity.After
theNorman
Conquesttheuppercitybecamethebail ofthecastleand also
containedthecathedral.19
>
GLOUCESTER (GLEVUM)
frg.6
N
CASTLE
Ecittl
t
<
<,\//
7/
O
oo
\
X
~~~~~~
'ooF4\/>/Vi-
and
Sts.
Westgate
t now
th
~~~~~~Nothlae
////
5ris
Vick
DeciAmanc
Primcipcilaisnd owu
thatofLincoln,particularly
inso faras itis relevanthere(see
Figure6). Inthemid-60s
a fortress
for(probably)
II Augustawas
established
onrisinggroundontheleftbankoftheSevernRiver
at thefirstgoodcrossingplace abovethebroadestuarybutstill
withinreachofseagoingships.Whenthelegionwas pulledout
andsenttoCaerleon,a colonywas founded
within
thefortress:
thebarrackswereconverted
intohouses,theprincipiabecame
theforum
andbasilica,andthestreetgridwasretained.
Thedate
ofthecolonyis 96-98,
as itis styledNervia(orNerviana)inhonor
oftheemperor
Nervawhosereignfallsinthoseyears.Thestreet
gridresultedin the majordowntown
arteries(North-,
East-,
South-,
andWestgate
Streets),though
mostoftheRomansecondarystreetshavebeenlost; Longsmith
Streetis oneofthefew
sidestreetstopreservetheRomanlines.Continuous
urbanlifein
thepost-Roman
periodis likely,largelybecauseofthereligious
orGloucester
establishments.
LikeChester,
Glevum-ceaster
was
a "burh"ofEthelredand Ethelfleda;indeed,theyare buried
here.Thelate Saxonpalace northofthecityat Kingsholm
was
to themaingatesbyHerstrete("armystreet,"corconnected
FEBRUARY 1983
orKyngesweye
ruptedtoHareStreet)andKyngeslone
(nowKing
Street).TheNormancastleandmonastery
ofSt.Peter,thelatter
a cathedral
from1541,
didnotaffect
theRomanlegacy.Thewalls
are mostly
ofthe13thcentury
andfollowtheirRomanpredecessoronthreesides: evidently
thelineofthenorthandsouthwalls
was extendedto the riverfront.20
Thus at York,Chesterand
theNormancastlewas outsidetheoldRomanwalls
Gloucester
butwithinthoseofthemedievalperiod.
A number
ofEnglishcitiesinaddition
tothosediscussedabove
tothecenturies
ofRomandomination
cantracetheirorigins
and
werefirstlaidoutbythesurveyors
attachedtothearmyorstaff
Betweenthemiddleofthefirstcentury
ofthegovernor.
andthe
ofthe
earlythirdRomesteadilyexpandedthecivilianportions
control
province,
areasfrommilitary
andestablishing
removing
orcantons.A Roman-style
districts
themas self-governing
town
eachofthesecivitates.Mostofthesetownsstillexist,
controlled
andLeicessomeas truecitiessuchas Canterbury,
Winchester,
ter,othersas smallvillages;onlyonecan be said tohavefailed
forSilchestertodayis littlemorethana Romanwall
entirely,
farmlandssetdeepin thecountryside
a fewmiles
surrounding
southof Reading.21London,Romanin originbutlackingthe
ofa Romantown,has alwaysbeenin a
customary
regularity
categoryby itselfas theleadingcityoftheland. No citiesof
Englandreveal theirRomanoriginsmoreclearlythanthose
whichbeganas legionary
fortresses:
LinChester,Gloucester,
coln,and York.
S
The Rhine and Danube River Valleys
EVERAL moderncitieson theEuropeancontinent
originatedeitheras Romanlegionary
fortresses
oras thecivilian
towns(vici) whichsprangup besidearmybases throughout
the
Empire.Thisportion
ofthispaperis concerned
primarily
with
theformer,
andplansofVienna,Strasbourg,
and Cologneshow
thebasic layoutofthefortress
at theheartofthe20thcentury
city.Thosecitieswhichbeganas legionary
viciwillbe viewedin
less detailand withtheaid ofonlya singleplan,thatofBonn.
Forthemostpartthelegionary
basesofthelowerDanubeand
Dacia didnotevolveintomodern
cities.Perhapsitwouldbemore
accuratetosaythatnofortress
downstream
fromViennahasleft
substantial
tracesinthestreetplan
oftoday'scity.In somecases
theRomansfortified
a placeofnaturalstrength
suchas a prominenthilltopwhichhas continued
in use as a citadelthrough
the
centuries.
ofoccupation
Continuity
andfortification
donotprove
substantial
indebtedness
totheRomanarmy.For instance,the
fortressnamed Cetate at Alba Iulia (Roman Apulum) in
Rumaniacoveredan area of60-75
acresandwas thusconsiderablylargerthantheaveragesize ofonlysome50acres.Thiswas
thehomeofLegioXIII Geminafromabout105tothe270s- in
otherwordsfromtheconquestto theabandonment
oftheprovince- butthecitadelbuiltbyPrinceEugeneofSavoyin the
liesabovetheRomanfortress.
early18thcentury
Thefateofthe
campofIV Flavia at Belgrade(RomanSingidunum)
is similar,
forthefortress
is atopthehighcliffs
attheconfluence
oftheSave
andDanuberivers,a sitewhichhas appealedtomilitary
minds
forcenturies.The massiveOttoman
fortifications
ofKalemegdanhideallbuta fewportions
oftheRomanbase.22
Belgrade,too,
fellto PrinceEugene.
Upstream,
Budapestis ofRomanoriginandwasonceknown
as
Aquincum.
Obuda(OldBuda) grewuponthesiteofthefortress,
occupiedintothefourth
fromthe1000son,theinhabitcentury,
antstakingshelterwithin
itswallsbutnotpreserving
itsinternal
arrangement.
Nothingis nowvisible.In the 13thcenturythe
and theroyalgovernment
population
shifted
to themoreprotectedCastleHill aboutthreemilesto thesouth.Thisbecame
Buda, and Pest emergedon the oppositebank.23
Movingupstream,one encounters
theremainsof twogreatRomanfortressesandtheirvici,nowonlyvillageswithhighways
running
19
through
theruins:Szony(Brigetio)in Hungary,
and Petronell
(Carnuntum),
just overtheborderin Austria.The failureof
municipal
lifeintheMiddleAgesis striking,
fortheRomanshad
all throughthisarea, and
officially
encouragedurbanization
practically
everycitythataroseherein Romantimeswas associatedin one wayor anotherwithan armyfort.24
Lackofexcavation
ina fewcitiesofpresent-day
Europeknown
tooccupythesitesofRomanfortresses
prevents
definite
statementsas totheextent
ofdirectinheritance
fromtheRomanpast.
inWestGermany
Regensburg
andLe6ninSpainare goodexamples.Thefortress
ofIII Italicaonlyfrom179- an auxiliaryfort
was nearbya centuryearlier- Castra Regina became Reand the 13thcenturywall followedits Romanpregensburg,
decessoralongtheearlierwall'seasternandpartofitssouthern
course.The line of the Romanwesternand northern
wall is
known,
as itis preserved
inmedievalandmodern
streets.Legion
VII Geminawasstationed
inthesamebasefromtheearly70sfor
atleastthenext300yearsandappropriately
gaveitsnametothe
medievalandmoderntown:Leon.Thegreatwallsstillstandon
is readily
threeofthefoursides,so theoutlineofthefortress
construction
have mostly
apparent.Centuriesof post-Roman
thefortress'
modern
internal
obscured
layout,though
plazasand
streetspreservethelocationofthegates.25
Fromcitieswhichstilloccupythephysicallocationoflegionaryfortresses
without
muchoftheirinternal
strucpreserving
ture,let us turnto threewhichstartedas civilianvici in the
offortresses
vicinity
alongtheRhine.Mainz,RomanMoguntiacum,oppositethepointwheretheMainflowsintotheRhine,
intheWest:twolegions
wasoneofthemostimportant
garrisons
until90A.D., thereafter
onlyone (XXII Primigenia).The fortresswas ona hilloverlooking
theriverside
townwhichevolved
intothemodern
city.Nothing
ofthecampis nowvisible,andany
tracesweredestroyed
whenthearea was builtoverin the18th
and19thcenturies.
Itssolelegacyseemstobe thenameKastrich
(fromcastra,camp)appliedtothispartofthecity.Theciviltown
besidetheriverflourished
andwastheresidenceofthegovernor
ofUpperGermany,
butit didnotbecomea municipium(charteredtown,ranking
belowa colonia indignity)
untilverylate
firstattestedin 355- aboutthetimeits wallswerebuilt.The
Frankishsettlement
within
thewallswas different
pattern
from
thatofRomantimes,andthusnothing
oftheRomanstreetplan
ModernMainzis a descendantofthevicus, notthe
survives.26
castrum.
Two othercitiesof theRhinelandevolvedfromthevici of
fromthatof
theirstoryis ratherdifferent
legionary
bases,though
like
Mainz.Whereastheciviliantownadjacentto thefortress
Mainzwas inhabited
fromRomantimeson
without
interruption
theFrankishperiodandso intotheMiddleAges,a shift
through
occurredat bothXantenandBonn.Thegreatfortress
ofVetera
housedtwolegionsfromabout12B.C. toA.D. 70; thereafter
just
in thelate thirdcentury.
oneuntilits abandonment
A civilian
towngrewupsometwomilesnorth
ofthecamp,andinaboutthe
year100theemperorTrajanreorganized
theplace as a colony:
ColoniaUlpiaTraiana.It decayedinthelatefourth
and
century
fora newtownslowlyarosearoundthemarthencame a shift,
tyrs'gravesinthecemetery
alongtheroadsouthtothefortress.
The memoria or martyriumwas called "ad Sanctos"("to the
saints'[graves]").Overtimetheshrinebecamefirsta monasteryandthena cathedral,and thenamewas corrupted
intoits
modernform,Xanten."
Bonn,theRomanBonna,is similar(see Figure7). Thefortress
ofLegionI wasestablished
hereinthe30sA.D.,andthevicus was
probably
tothesouthofit.A network
ofchurches
determined
the
earlymedievalsettlement
pattern.
Onewas thePeterskirche
or
Dietkirche,
whichwas builtin thesouthwest
corneroftheold
fortress.
Thefortress
itselfbecameFrankish
royalproperty,
and
therewas botha mintand a markethere; thewholeestablish20
BONN(BONNA)
LFO
REl
1. FORTRE5SBECAME
CASTRUMBONNAE
OR BONNBURC\
2. 5T PETER,ORDIETKIRCH(
7
3. VICU5BONNENS15
l. MUNSTEROF STS.
CA5S1U5 FLOR
ENTIU5
5. 5T REMIGIU5
6. CURTIS BUNNE
(HOFF)
7 CITY WALL5,12tf
0
500
1WAI
To thesouthlay
mentwas calledCastrumBonnaorBonnburg.
thecollegiatechurch(minster)ofSaintsCassiusandFlorentius,
inorigina shrinetothemartyrs
grew
ofthatname.A community
St.Remigius,
andby
up aroundthischurchandtheneighboring
thelate eighthcentury
was knownas urbs Bonna orvicus BonofColnensis. Muchofthisarea was ownedbythearchbishop
ogne,whohad a curtis (Hof,or manor)nearby.The Vikings
thetowninthelaterninth
buta periodofrapid
destroyed
century,
ofa newchurch
growth
beganintheeleventh
withconstruction
andpalace,andbythetimethewallswerebegunin1244Bonnhad
expanded well beyondits Carolingianbeginningsand the
Bonnburg
bytheRomanfortress
had disappeared.28
T
HREE ofthegreatcitiesofwestern
Europe- appropriately one each fromAustria,France and WestGermany
notmerelyportions
havepreserved
ofthewallsandgatesofthe
of
fortresses
fromwhichtheywereborn,butevensomething
theirstreetplan.
is a goodexamVienna,theRomanVindobona,
ofitsmilitary
origins.
pleofa citywhichhaspreserved
elements
The area in questionlies at thecenteroftheoldcity,insidethe
ofthe
structures
19thcentury
Ringstrasseand thebest-known
andFigure
imperialHapsburgage (see Figure8 foran overview
was builtin theearly
9 forthefortress
proper).The fortress
metersaboveanarmof
some12-15
secondcentury
onhighground
theDanube(whichhas sincechangedcourse);theterrain
helps
explainthepeculiarlineofthecamp'snorthwall.Tracesofthe
harborhavebeenlocatedbelowSt. Mariaam Gestade("on the
bank").Excavationshaverevealedthetwoportaeprincipalesandtherefore
thecourseofthevia principalisbetweenthemthemedieval
and theporta decumana, all ofwhichinfluenced
In theLate Empirethegarrison
streetdevelopment.29
shrankto
about1,000men (as did all legionseverywhere,
thoughtheir
overallnumber
increased),andciviliansmovedintotheoldfortress.ThePeterskirche
justinsidetheporta decumana maygo
back to an earlychurchbuiltovertopdemolished
barracks,as
doesthePeterskirche
at Bonn.Late Romangraves-inside the
fortress
! -shade offintothoseoftheincoming
Lombardsand
Avars,andtheRomanbuildings
wereusedas quarriesforlater
structures,
so continuity
ofinhabitation
is certaineventhough
MILITARY AFFAIRS
~,VIENNA
(VINDOBONA)
\
STRA5BOURG C
(ARGENTORATE)
1.
CITY[_J
2.
3.
LiHALLLi~
+i
5.
PARLIAMENT HOFBUI?GK>/
MUSEUM~>
\
/
STPHEN
OE
/
O
Cite ancienne: 5ite
of the Ror,ar fortre5s.
Railroad station
Place de la Republique
Ciftadelle2
Orangerie
e
aoo
S~~~~~ETTLEMENT
//
44o
until1857;andtheHoffburg
was begunin1276.Thestreetstoday
known
as Tiefergraben
andGrabenfollowthecourseoftheditch
outsidethewestandsoutheaststretches
ofthefortress
wallre-
CooM
spectively.30
AREAOF
VIENNA:
THE FORTRE55
UPREM~
\
N
cc
MARIA
I<M
G-xGSTAD~
IcI
C._
H
~
ER4HOF
cr~~~~~~~~c
f~~~~~~~~
thestandardsoflivingdroppedcatastrophically.
The fewsoldiers and civiliansstillin residencehuddledin thenortheast
cornerofthecamp,wherethereeventually
appearedtheBerghof,KienMarkt,andchurchofSt.Ruprecht.
Theshiftinhabitationcauseda reorientation
oftheRomanstreets:thevia principalis was replacedbyWipplingerstrasse,
whichran straight
fromtheold porta principalis sinistra to themarket;thevia
decumana was supersededby Tuchlauben,even thoughthe
Romanreargatestayedinuse; andSalvatorgasseranfromthe
harboroutsidethewallsoverthedisusedhospitaltothemarket.
cameinthelater12thand13thcenturies,
afterthe
Rapidgrowth
ducal courtmovedherein 1155and builta newpalace in the
southwest
cornerofthefortress
at AmHof:theHoheMarkton
thesouthside oftheBergHofreplacedtheKien Marktto the
northas thecity'schiefmarket;a newset ofwalls provided
protection
fortheenlargedpopulation
and remainedstanding
FEBRUARY 1983
TheciteancienneofStrasbourg,
RomanArgentorate,
wasonce
thebase ofLegioVIII Augusta.As Figure10shows,theRoman
chosea smallislandintheRiverIll,a tributary
engineers
ofthe
Rhineintowhichit flowsa shortdistanceto thenorth,
forthe
fortress.
Thewallsoftheearlysecondcentury
werestrengthened
about370byfreshstonefacinganda hostofsemicircular
towers.
ingardens,basements,
ofthewallarepreserved
andas
Portions
partywallsbetween
housesfacingopposite
directions
onparallel
streets.Today'sRue du Dome and Rue des Hallebardesfollow
the lines of the Roman viae principalis et praetoria, withthe
cathedralto thesoutheastoftheintersection
(see Figure11).
ofthis46.5acre
Nexttonothing
is known
oftheinternal
buildings
Thecanabaelaytothewest;theircenterwas nearthe
fortress.
nearSt.
oftheGrand'RueandtheRue de 22Novembre
junction
Pierrele Vieux.31
Thefinalexampletobe discussedinthispaperis Cologne.The
here are twofold.
On theone hand,theplace was
beginnings
as thechieftownoftheUbiibyAgrippain38B.C.; when
founded
herein8
was established
thealtar(ara) ofRomeandAugustus
Thealtar
as AraUbiorum.
B.C.orA.D.5,thetownbecameknown
andtownhavenotbeenfound.Ontheotherhand,a hugedouble
fortress
was close by,perhapscovering150acres; it has been
haveuncotentatively
located,sincearchaeological
excavations
veredportions
ofitsnorth
wall (justoutsidethewestfront
ofthe
cathedral),itswestern
ditch,andarmykilnsapparently
nearthe
westwall.32The legionsdepartedin about37: I wentto Bonn,
whereit remainedforcenturies;XX wentto Neuss,whenceit
was senttoBritainin43andwoundupat Chester
bythelate80s.
In 50theemperorClaudiusfounded
a colonyforveteransoldiersintheabandoned
fortress.
hiswife(andniece)
Supposedly,
Agrippinathe Youngerwas thereal forcebehindthecolony,
thetownin whichshehad beenborn
desiringto commemorate
whileher fatherGermanicuswas commanderon the lower
Atanyrate,thecitywasnamedfortheimperialcouple:
Rhine.33
ColoniaClaudiaAraAgrippinensium,
whencethemodern
forms
CologneandKoln.Thecolony,
whichbecamethecapitalofLower
Germany
whentheprovince
was createdabout90,incorporated
severalfeatures
ofthefortress,
someofwhichinturnhavecome
downtothepresent(see Figure12). Thecolony'swallsevidently
followedthe outlineof the fortress,
providedprotection
until
21
thesize,wallsand
Emona,is oftenheldtohavebeena fortress:
inA.D. 15look
elementsofthestreetplanofthecolonyfounded
Ifa colony
butthereis noclearproofofa fortress.36
aboutright,
is an
was insertedintothedisusedbase, thenEmona'shistory
early versionof the patternfoundin Britainat Colchester,
andLincoln,andontheRhineat Cologne.Skopjeand
Gloucester
bases,butthe
PtujinYugoslaviaare descendedfromlegionary
by
descentis broken,fortheancestralcitiesweredestroyed
NeussandNijmegenon
andflooding,
respectively.37
earthquake
thelowerRhineresembleBonnin thatthemoderncitiesare
builtovercivilianvicithat
descendedfromFrankishsettlements
influLegionary
offortresses.
had oncegrownupinthevicinity
forNeusshadnolegionafterabout100
however,
encewas slight,
ofthelate 12th
supersededbythemoreextensivefortifications
century,
and determined
the layoutof several medievaland
modernstreets.Thelegionary
via principalisbecamethecardo
maximusofthecolony
andtheHoheStrasseoftoday;theoriginal
via decumana becamethecolonialdecumanusmaximusandthe
modernSchildergasse. The colony's religious center or
Capitolium
was in thesoutheastcornerof thecity;repairof
WorldWarII bombdamageresulted
inthediscovery
ofthetriple
sanctuarybelowS. Maria im Kapitol.The governor'spalace
(praetorium), elevatedin dignity
to an imperialresidenceor
regia ca. 300,lay alongtheriverfront;
itsremainswerefound
beneaththenewcityhall.34
ofinhabitation
Colognemaybe thebestexampleofcontinuity
intothemedievalcenturies.
Churches
werebuiltto commemorate thegravesof Christianleadersburiedin thecemeteries
alongthe mainroads leadingaway fromthecity: Cologne's
prominence
as a religiouscenterdatesfromthe300s.Frankish
kingsusedtheRomanseatsofauthority
as palaces andcourts,
andmembers
oftheroyalfamily
wereburiedinthechurches
that
precededthegreatcathedral.35
The Romanlegacycame to be
burieddeeplybeneathcenturiesofaccumulatedconstruction.
Guidedby scantywritten
hints,by occasionalfindsor visible
toexploreandrecordduring
remains,andgivenan opportunity
sinceWorldWarII, scholarshave beenable to
therebuilding
citizensofCologneowetothe
howmuchthemodern
demonstrate
A.D.
Romansoldiersand colonistsofthefirstcentury
and Nijmegennotafter175.38In showingsomethingoftheRoman
ofEuropeandBritain,thepretotheurbanization
contribution
sentpaperhas dealtwithbutoneaspectofourrichinheritance
is
oftheoldsayingthatthepresent
fromancienttimes.Thetruth
thanby
demonstrated
ofthepastcanhardlybebetter
theproduct
realizingthatin walkingthestreetsofcitiessuchas Lincoln,
visitor
goeswhereRoman
York,Vienna,andColognethemodern
legionariesoncestoodguard.
T
Thomas H. Watkins has been
an Associate Professor at Western IllinoisUniversitysince 1978.
A graduate of Cornell University,
he received his Ph.D. from the
Universityof North Carolina at
Chapel Hill. His special interests
concentrate on the historyofthe
later Roman Republic and early
Empire, in particular the question of Romanization of the provinces. This articlewas accepted
for publication in November
1981.
54
HE preceding
is notintended
tobe a completestudyofall
hasbeen
sitesgarrisoned
bylegionsintheEmpire.Noeffort
madetosurveythoseplaceswhichwereonlyusedas fortresses
fora briefperiod,forunlessoccupiedfora longtimeorconverted
intoa colonylikeCologne,legionary
bases didnotserveas the
originsof moderncities.Ljublana,forexample,the Roman
EK';
COLOGNE (COLONIACLAUDIAARA AGRIPPINEN5IUM) ,91;
jZ,
5.E
1
\
07
te05
rg
~J
L~~~~~~~~~~~~~bchi
L
VlA
P-
no.
-J,
l
-
t
=
X
U
II
II-
w
~
I'
K
RIUM
Ho~~~~~~~ihe
5t'd5.
de
X
rfals5eo'
and Reg ia
Praetoru
Iie unde r -' it, Ha I I
Papitol
.
Mala
ATHEDRAL
S'.
~~~_j ~
nCpali5s
Pes~
tne colony
1
REFERENCES
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Minor (Oxford,1967).For Colchester: J. Wacher,The Townsof
Roman Britain (Berkeley, 1974), 104ff; R. Dunnett, The
Trinovantes (London, 1975), 32-39,63-81; and P. Crummy,
Britannia 7 (1977), 65-105.For Cologne: 0. Doppelfeld, The
Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (Princeton, 1976),
[hereafterPECS], 231; and P. LaBaume, Colonia Agrippinensis
(Cologne,1967;tr.B. Jones). For Lyon: A. Audin,Lyon,miroirde
Rome dans les Gaules (Paris, 1965); and P. Mackendrick,
Roman France (London, 1972), 64-72. For Merida: C. H. V.
Sutherland,The Romans in Spain (London, 1939), 148f;and P.
Mackendrick,The Iberian Stones Speak (New York, 1969),129143. For Timgad: P. Mackendrick,The NorthAfricanStones
abveth
l1
r~AI'L
/~~~~~~~O
//so;A
X >Y
W
c::::1'
/
22N0V
~~~Hotel
/
22
/\citj
>
-
\X
AREA|
5TRASBOURG:
OF THE FORThESS
O<1Cd
?A>
c\
>
z
X
>lol
~~~~
/
/
$
via Principalis, now
-the Rise cdoiDorne.
?Via Praetoria, n~owAthe
Rue des Hallebardes.
Cathed.ral
cle Ville, a5tricie
the Romanand Medieval
l
wail.
MILITARY AFFAIRS
Topografia
andP. Romanelli,
Speak (ChapelHill,1980),232-240;
e Archeologiadell'Africaromana (Torino,1970;tomoVIII ofVol.
X, sezioneII ofEnciclopedia Classica), 66-68ands.v.intheindex.
aretiedupwiththequestion
andtaxexemption
Self-government
of ius Italicum: fortheauthor'sideas see his study"Roman
citizencoloniesandItalicright"inCollectionLatomus 164(1979;
"Studiesin LatinLiteratureand RomanHistory,"ed. C. Deroux),59-99;and his "Coloniaeand ius Italicum in theEarly
Empire,"forthcoming.
Legionisunddie Canabae
2. See A. Mocsy,"Das Territorium
in Pannonien" Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum
orHe arguesthatmerchants,
Hungaricae 3 (1953),179-199.
ganized as conventus civium Romanorum consistentum, were
thenucleiofthecanabae; cf.Tac., Hist. 4.22.
fur
derLegionslager
"Die Bedeutung
3. Mocsy;F. Vittinghoff,
StadteanderDonauundinDakien"
derromische
dieEntstehung
in M. Claus,W. Haarnageland K. Raddatz,eds., Studien zur
europaischen
132-142.
Vor- und Fruhgeschichte
(Neumunster, 1968),
4. Wacher,156ff;R. Birley,On Hadrian's Wall. Vindolanda: a
Roman Fort and Frontier Settlement (New York and London,
1977).
study.For
see note1,especiallyCrummy's
5. For Colchester
inK. Braningan
andP. J.Fowler,eds.,
Usk,see W.H. Manning
The Roman West Country(NewtonAbbotand NorthPomfret,
41.ForExeter:ibid.,32,35,and40;andWacher,
Vt.,1976),29,36f,
The Cornovii(London,1975),
G. Webster,
ForWroxeter:
326-335.
31-40,56; Wacher,358-374.
Roman London (New York,1969),99,
6. See R. Merrifield,
P. Marsden,Roman London (NewYork,1981;London,
110-117;
WoodSt.is closetothecourseoftheviae decumana et
1980),83-87.
SilverSt. appraetoria; AddleSt. and the now-disappeared
thevia principalis.Thewallis visiblefromLondon
proximated
WallbytheMuseumofLondonand in NobleSt.
7. See G. C. Boon, Isca: The Roman Legionary Fortress at
1972);cf.Boon,PECS, 415.For CaerCaerleon, Mon. (Cardiff,
went,see Wacher,375-389.
8. Geoffreyof Monmouth,Historyofthe Kings ofBritain9.12
(Penguintrans.,L. Thorpe,226ff);cf. Thorpe'sindexunder
ed., The
T. Wright,
"CityoftheLegions"forotherreferences.
Historical Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (London; H. G. Bohn,
Wales" 1.5.
through
1893;rpt.,NewYork,1968),"The Journey
CorneliiTaciti, de Vita
9. R. M. Ogilvieand I. A. Richmond,
1967),69ff.
Agricolae (Oxford,
The Roman Imperial
10. For greaterdetail,see G. Webster,
Army (London,1969),166ff.
Cornovii,109.L.
11. See D. F. Petch,PECS, 270;G. Webster,
andNewYork,1971),
Alcock,Arthur'sBritain (Harmondsworth
186; J. D. Bu'Lock, Pre-ConquestCheshire,383-1066(Chester,
1972),1-9,16-36,50-59.See also M. Biddle,"Towns"in D. M.
Wilson, The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England (London,
124,135.Tracesoftheburhpalisadewerefoundatop
1976),99ff,
in1961/2;
onthewestsideofthefortress
theRomanembankment
probablyfollowedthe Roman
the burh'sline of fortification
walls.
(diedca.
12. TherelicsoftheMercianprincessSt. Werburgh
704)hadbeenina churchofSts.PeterandPaul inChestersince
ofSt.Werthischurchintotheminster
converted
874.Ethelfleda
burghandbuilta newchurchforSt.Peterat theCross,whereit
theNormanearl ofthecountypalatine,
stillstands.In 1092/3
changed
hadtheminster
HughLupus(nephewoftheConqueror)
itbecamea cathedralin1541.See
intoa Benedictine
monastery;
Bu'Lock,75; and B. M. C. Husain,Cheshireunder the Norman
See H. L. Turner,
Earls, 1066-1237(Chester,1973),85, 125-127.
Town Defences in England and Wales, AD 900-1500(London and
Hamden,Conn.,1971),202; and Husain,35,47.
13. H. G. Ramm,"The endofRomanYork"in R. M. Butler,
ed., Soldier and Civilian in Roman Yorkshire (Leicester, 1971),
179.
are also
andCanterbury
14. Biddle,"Towns,"106.Winchester
butsincetheyare whollyciviprobableexamplesofcontinuity,
lian theyare nottreatedhere.
ofthecity
anddevelopment
15. See H. G. Ramm,"Thegrowth
totheNormanConquest"inA. Stacpoole,ed.,The Noble Cityof
Onthelegions,see E. R. Birley,"The
York (York,1972),228-234.
legion"inButler,Soldierand Civilian,71-80;and
fateoftheninth
See Wacher,156ff,
S. S. Frere,Britannia(London,1957),137-140.
on theciviliantown;and Ramm,"Growthand
concentrating
FEBRUARY 1983
development,"225-243.
16. See Ramm, "Growthand development,"244-254and F. W.
Brooks' essay in the same volume,254-264.For the sequence of
churchesand theirrelationshipto thefortressprincipia,see the
chaptersbyR. M. T. Hill and C. N. L. Brooke,byE. A. Gee, and by
R. Cant in G. E. Aylmerand R. Cant, eds., A Historyof York
Minster (Oxford,1977).
17. Frere, Britannia,70-71;C. Colyer,Lincoln,the Archaeology ofan HistoricCity(Lincoln,1975),8ff;and G. Webster,The
Roman Invasion of Britain (London, 1980), 163. See I.A.
Richmond,ArchaeologicalJournal103(1946),26-29forthe derivationofthename and the old view thatIX was here from47/8.
18. See M. Jones and B. J. Gilmour,"Lincoln, principia and
forum,"Britannia 11 (1980), 63-72.
19. See J. B. Whitwell,Roman Lincolnshire(Lincoln, 1970),
25ff; M. Todd, The Coritania (London, 1973), 33-36; Wacher,
120ff;Colyer,Lincoln,llffand 30ff,and Jonesand Gilmour.See
also theinterimreportsbyColyerand Jonesin AntiquariesJournal 55 (1975),227-261and 59 (1979),50-91.Bede, Hist. Eccles. 2.16
forthe prefect.
20. M. D. Lobel and J. Tann in Lobel, ed., HistoricTownsofthe
BritishIsles, Vol. 1 (Baltimore,1969),1,3-7.W. H. Manningand
H. Hurstin K. Branigan and P. J. Fowler,eds., The Roman West
Country,discuss the troop movementspreceding the colonial
foundationand thecolonyitself;cf. Wacher,137-141.The bulkof
thelegionleftca. 75,withonlya small garrisonin residenceuntil
96-98.See Hurts, Antiquaries Journal 52 (1971), 24-69and the
chapter in Branigan and Fowler (esp. 71-75); the barracksbecome-houseswerefoundinworkeast ofBerkeleySt. See Hurst,
Antiquaries Journal55 (1975), 284-287and 294 for the palace;
Turner,Town Defences, 204.
21. For the growthof the civitates,see Wacher; and on Silchester,see G. S. Boon, Silchester,the Roman Town ofCalleva
(London,2nded. 1974).For thesurveyors,see 0. A. W. Dilke, The
Roman Land Surveyors (Newton Abbot, 1971), esp. chap. 1;
Webster,Roman Imperial Army,121; J. B. Ward-Perkins,Cities
of Ancient Greece and Italy: Town-planning in Classical
An-
tiquity(New York, 1974),chaps. 6-7.
22. See P. Mackendrick,The Dacian Stones Speak (Chapel
Hill, N.C., 1975), 123-125;Marinescu, PECS, 74; J. Wiseman,
PECS, 841.
23. See L. Gerevichin M. W. Barley, European Towns: Their
withgood
Archaeologyand Early History(London,1977),436-440,
maps; F. Fulep in A. Lengyel and G. B. T. Radan, eds., The
ArchaeologyofRoman Pannonia (Budapest and Lexington,Ky.,
1980),[hereafterArch.Rom. Pann.], 37-39,251-258(citynorthof
fortress),and 232 (camp).
24. Brigetio: A. Mocsy, "Das TerritoriumLegionis und die
Canabae in Pannonien," Acta Archaeologicae Academiae Sciesp. 197; and I. Toth,PECS,
entiarumHungaricae 3 (1953),179ff,
167.Carnuntum:P. Noll, PECS, 198; and Pocsy in Arch. Rom.
Pann., 225, 230. See F. Vittinghoff,"Die Bedeutung der
Legionslager fur die Entstehungder romischenStadte an der
Donau und in Dakien" in M. Klaus, W. Haarnagel and K. Raddatz, Studien zur europaischen
Vor- und Fruhgeschichte
types of
(Neumunster,1968), 132-142.E. Ennen, "The different
formationof European towns" in S. Thrupp,Early Medieval
Society(New York, 1967),174-182;reprintedfromLe MoyenAge
62 (1956).
25. G. Ulbert, "Das romische Regensburg," Germania
Romana, 1 (Beiheftto Gymnasium,1960),64-77;cf. T. Bechert,
PECS, 207; I. A. Richmond,JournalofRoman Studies21 (1931),
91-94.See especiallyA. Garcia yBellido,"Estudios sobrela Legio
VII y su campamento en Leon" in the commemorativevolume
Legio VII Gemina (Leon, 1970), 569-601;and the studies by F.
in the same volume. Cf.
339-352,and G. Forni,218ff,
Vittinghoff,
R. Teja, PECS, 495.
26. K. Weidemann, "Die Topographie von Mainz in der
Romerzeitunddem fruhenMittelalter,"Jahrb.des Rom.-Germ.
Zentralmuseums,Mainz 15 (1968), 146-199;H. von Petrikovits,
"Moguntiacum- das romische Mainz," Mainzer Zeitschr,58
(1963), 27-36;K. Bohner in Barley, Eur. Towns, 191-193.
27. See H. von Petrikovits,PECS, 973; C. A. R. Radfordin M.
W. Barleyand R. P. C. Hanson,Christianityin Britain,300-700
(Leicester, 1968),31-33;and Bohner, 198ff.
28. See H. Borger, "Bemerkungenzur Entstehungder Stadt
Aus Geschichte
Bonnin Mittelalter,'in E. Ennen and D. Hforoldt,
undVolkskundevonStadtundRaum Bonn (FestschriftJ.Diets),
23
(Bonn, 1973),10-42;Bohner,196f.St. Albans in Britainaffordsa
close but entirelycivilian parallel to Bonn and Xanten: the
Roman municipiumofVerulamiumdeclined butwas gradually
replaced by a townwhichemergedaroundthe great abbey over
the shrineof St. Alban; the abbot's boroughcorrespondsto the
archbishop'smanor,and in bothcases thechurchmenpromoted
urban growth:W. Levison, Antiquity14 (1941), 337-359.
29. A. Neumann, Vindobona: die romische Vergangenheit
Wiens (Wien,Koln, Gratz, 1972),61-64,68-69,74-77;cf. Pocsy in
Arch. Rom. Pann., 224,228-230.
30. Neumann,59f; R. Noll, PECS, 982; H. Vetters,261f,272;
and H. Laudenbauer-Orel,343-352in Barley, Eur. Towns.
31. J. J. Hatt,Strasbourgau tempsdes Romains (Strasbourg,
1953), 15-20for the walls, 22-24.
32. Doppelfeld,PECS, 231; P. LaBaume, Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne,1967;tr.B. Jones),10ff.The altar: J. Deininger,Die
Provinziallandtageder romischenKaiserzeit (Munchen: 1965),
24, 112f.The camp: P. Filtzinger,Kolner Jahrb. fur Vor-und
Fruhgeschichte6 (1962-63),23-57.
33. Tac., Ann. 12.27; cf. Germ. 28.
34. P. Strait, Cologne in the TwelfthCentury(Gainesville,
1974),30-34.The Roman harborbelowtheeast wall has siltedup.
LaBaume, 12-14,21-30.The Roman northgate stooduntil1826;the
northwest
cornertowerstillstandsas the"Romerturm."Roman
used a grid of cardines and decusurveyorsand town-planners
mani at rightangles to one another;theprimarystreetswerethe
cardo and decumanus maximus. See E. T. Salmon, Roman Colonizationunder the Republic (Ithaca, 1970),20-24.See 0. Doppelfeld,Germania Romana, 18-22.
35. 0. Doppelfeld,16ff;and "Koln von der Spatantikebis zur
Karolingerzeit"in H. Jahnkuhn,W. Schlesingerand H. Steuer,
eds., Vor-undFruhformender europaischenStadtim Mittelalter
(Gottingen:Abhandlungender Akad. der wissen. -, philol.
undhist.Klasses, dritteFolge, 83, 1973),110-129.
For thegraves,
cf. J. Werner,Antiquity38 (1964), 201ff.
36. See Mocsy (above, note 24), 180f; J. Sasel, Historia 19
(1970),122-124,
and in PECS, 302; A. Mocsy,Pannonia and Upper
Moesia (London and Boston, 1974),40, 74-76;and J. Fitz and K.
Poczy in Arch. Rom. Pann., 143,240,260.
37. Earthquake: J. Wiseman, PECS, 815; Mocsy, Pann. and
Upper Moesia, 115-117.Flooding: J. Sasel, PECS, 718; Mocsy,
118; Fitz and Poczy, 144,240f,263f.
38. Neuss (Novaesium): C. Wells, The German Policy ofAugustus (Oxford, 1972), 127-134;P. Noelke, Romer-Illustrierte
(Koln, 1975),2.112-114.
Nijmegen (Noviomagus): Wells,116-123;
H. Brunsting,PECS, 632; H. Scarfatij,in Barley, Eur. Towns,
203f.
^
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