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OrganizedȱCrimeȱandȱTerrorismȱ
PhilȱWilliamsȱ
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LACCȱWorkingȱPaperȱNo.ȱ2/2014ȱ
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Miami,ȱFLȱ
LatinȱAmericanȱandȱCaribbeanȱCenterȱ
FloridaȱInternationalȱUniversityȱ
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LATIN AMERICAN AND CARIBBEAN CENTER
School of International and Public Affairs • College of Arts and Sciences
Modesto A. Maidique Campus, DM 353 • Miami, FL 33199 • Tel: 305-348-2894 • Fax: 305-348-3593 •
[email protected] • http://lacc.fiu.edu
Florida International University is an Equal Opportunity/Access Employer and Institution • TDD via FRS 800-955-8771
2ȱ|ȱP a g e ȱ
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OrganizedȱCrimeȱandȱTerrorismȱ
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PhilȱWilliamsȱ
UniversityȱofȱPittsburghȱ
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Backgroundȱ
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Theȱnotionȱofȱaȱnexusȱbetweenȱcriminalȱandȱterroristȱorganizationsȱsurfacedȱ
duringȱtheȱ1990s.ȱȱTheȱtermȱnarcoȬterrorism,ȱhowever,ȱwasȱcoinedȱevenȱearlierȱ
thanȱthis.ȱȱIronically,ȱitȱinitiallyȱreferredȱtoȱtheȱMedellinȱdrugȱtraffickingȱ
organizationȱinȱColombiaȱusingȱterroristȱtacticsȱtoȱcoerceȱtheȱgovernmentȱintoȱ
abandoningȱitsȱpolicyȱofȱextraditingȱdrugȱtraffickersȱtoȱtheȱUnitedȱStates;ȱ
subsequently,ȱitsȱmeaningȱwasȱreversedȱandȱitȱwasȱpredominantlyȱusedȱtoȱ
describeȱterroristȱorganizationsȱusingȱnarcoticsȱtraffickingȱasȱaȱfundingȱ
mechanism.ȱȱAfterȱSeptemberȱ11,ȱinȱparticular,ȱitȱwasȱfrequentlyȱusedȱtoȱreferȱtoȱ
theȱFARCȱandȱtheȱTalibanȱusingȱincomeȱfromȱtheȱdrugȱbusinessȱtoȱfundȱtheirȱ
insurgentȱactivities.ȱȱMeanwhile,ȱtheȱbroaderȱnotionȱofȱaȱcriminalȬterroristȱnexusȱ
thatȱemergedȱduringȱtheȱ1990s,ȱinspiredȱbyȱeventsȱinȱtheȱBalkans,ȱfocusedȱlessȱonȱ
theȱappropriationȱofȱcriminalȱactivitiesȱbyȱterroristsȱorȱterroristȱactivitiesȱbyȱ
criminals,ȱandȱmoreȱonȱdirectȱcooperationȱbetweenȱcriminalȱandȱterroristȱ
organizations—aȱcooperationȱthatȱsoonȱbecameȱenshrinedȱinȱtheȱconceptȱofȱaȱ
criminalȬterroristȱnexus.ȱȱTheȱMadridȱbombingsȱinȱ2003,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱattacksȱandȱ
theirȱpreparationȱwereȱfinancedȱwithȱtheȱproceedsȱofȱdrugȱtrafficking,ȱareȱalsoȱ
portrayedȱasȱanȱexampleȱofȱaȱnexusȱinȱaction.ȱ
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Thisȱargumentȱchallengesȱwidespreadȱallegationsȱofȱanȱemergingȱcrimeȱ
terrorismȱorȱtraffickingȬterrorismȱnexus,ȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱbroaderȱanalyticȱtrendȱ
emphasizingȱthreatȱconvergence.ȱȱItȱsuggestsȱthatȱmostȱclaimsȱaboutȱtheȱnexusȱ
areȱbasedȱonȱlittleȱmoreȱthanȱflimsyȱanecdotalȱevidence,ȱfromȱwhichȱ
unwarrantedȱandȱexaggeratedȱinferencesȱareȱdrawn.ȱȱOneȱorȱevenȱaȱfewȱ
examplesȱofȱcooperationȱbetweenȱcriminalsȱandȱterroristsȱdoȱnotȱmakeȱaȱnexus.ȱȱ
Andȱtheyȱcertainlyȱdoȱnotȱprovideȱevidenceȱofȱaȱ“grandȱshift”ȱwherebyȱ
“internationalȱdrugȱtraffickersȱandȱinternationalȱterroristsȱareȱinȱaȱhedonisticȱ
marriageȱofȱdesignȱ.ȱ.ȱ.ȱlinkedȱatȱtheȱhip,ȱand…ȱextremelyȱwealthy.”1ȱYetȱsuchȱ
grandioseȱclaimsȱabound,ȱfuelledȱbyȱworstȬcaseȱthinkingȱandȱunwarrantedȱ
generalizationsȱfromȱtheȱfewȱtoȱtheȱmany.ȱ
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Thisȱisȱnotȱtoȱdenyȱsomeȱgroundsȱexistȱforȱsuspectingȱthatȱcriminalȱ
organizationsȱandȱterroristȱgroupsȱare,ȱinȱsomeȱcases,ȱforgingȱcloserȱlinksȱwithȱ
oneȱanother.ȱȱBothȱterroristȱandȱcriminalȱorganizationsȱoperateȱinȱtheȱsameȱ
underworld,ȱandȱoftenȱinȱtheȱsameȱgeographicȱareaȱorȱweakȱstate;ȱtheyȱhaveȱ
similarȱneedsȱinȱtermsȱofȱfalseȱdocumentation,ȱweapons,ȱandȱmoney;ȱandȱeachȱ
typeȱofȱorganizationȱcouldȱfindȱadvantageȱinȱforgingȱcloserȱlinksȱwithȱtheȱother.ȱȱ
Forȱallȱthis,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱnotȱtoȱmistakeȱisolatedȱincidentsȱforȱaȱsecularȱtrend,ȱ
andȱnotȱtoȱemphasizeȱspecificȱexamplesȱofȱcooperationȱwithoutȱalsoȱconsideringȱ
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theȱbarriersȱtoȱmoreȱextensiveȱcooperation.ȱȱMostȱtransnationalȱcriminalȱorȱ
traffickingȱorganizationsȱandȱterroristȱnetworksȱhaveȱlittleȱorȱnoȱcontactȱwithȱoneȱ
another,ȱdoȱnotȱshareȱcommonȱinterests,ȱandȱareȱnotȱpartȱofȱaȱprocessȱofȱthreatȱ
convergence.ȱȱAndȱevenȱwhereȱthereȱareȱconnections,ȱtheirȱscopeȱandȱnatureȱareȱ
rarelyȱspecified,ȱresultingȱallȱtooȱoftenȱinȱbroadȱallegationsȱaboutȱtheȱorganizedȱ
crimeȬterrorismȱnexusȱthatȱobscureȱmoreȱthanȱtheyȱreveal.ȱȱTheȱnotionȱofȱ
cooperationȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdisaggregatedȱandȱrefined.ȱȱTheȱproblemȱwithȱatȱleastȱ
someȱproponentsȱofȱtheȱnexusȱapproachȱisȱthatȱtheyȱtreatȱallȱlevelsȱofȱcooperationȱ
asȱequal.ȱȱLittleȱattentionȱisȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱlevel,ȱintensity,ȱforms,ȱandȱdurationȱofȱ
cooperativeȱrelationshipsȱbetweenȱcriminalsȱandȱterrorists,ȱwithȱtheȱresultȱthatȱ
whatȱareȱsimplyȱmarketȬbasedȱbusinessȱtransactionsȱareȱoftenȱendowedȱwithȱaȱ
strategicȱsignificanceȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱdeserve.ȱȱAȱveryȱgoodȱexampleȱofȱthisȱinvolvesȱ
AlȱQaedaȱinȱtheȱIslamicȱMaghrebȱ(AQIM),ȱwhichȱhasȱbeenȱprovidingȱ
“protection”ȱforȱLatinȱAmericanȱcocaineȱshipmentsȱthatȱpassȱthroughȱWestȱ
AfricaȱandȱareȱthenȱmovedȱthroughȱtheȱSahelȱbeforeȱbeingȱsmuggledȱintoȱ
Europe.ȱȱThisȱisȱoftenȱportrayedȱasȱaȱperfectȱexampleȱofȱtheȱnewȱformsȱofȱ
cooperationȱbetweenȱcriminalȱandȱdrugȱtraffickingȱorganizationsȱonȱoneȱsideȱandȱ
terroristȱorganizationsȱonȱtheȱother.ȱȱYet,ȱinȱsomeȱcontexts,ȱtheȱtermȱprotectionȱisȱ
littleȱmoreȱthanȱaȱpoliteȱeuphemismȱforȱextortion.ȱȱThisȱmakesȱitȱsurprisingȱthatȱ
fewȱobserversȱhaveȱaskedȱtheȱkeyȱquestionȱ–ȱisȱtheȱprotectionȱacceptedȱ
voluntarilyȱbyȱtheȱtraffickersȱorȱisȱitȱaȱtaxȱimposedȱonȱthemȱbyȱtheȱmajorȱterroristȱ
organizationȱoperatingȱinȱtheȱregion,ȱasȱtheȱpriceȱofȱmovingȱtheȱdrugsȱthroughȱ
AQIMȬcontrolledȱterritory?ȱȱ
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Againstȱthisȱbackground,ȱthisȱnoteȱisȱanȱeffortȱtoȱgoȱbeyondȱtheȱfacileȱ
labelsȱandȱidentifyȱanȱemergingȱrealityȱinȱwhichȱentitiesȱareȱadaptingȱandȱ
evolving,ȱinȱwhichȱrelationshipsȱareȱcomingȱandȱgoing,ȱandȱinȱwhichȱnewȱkindsȱ
ofȱorganizationsȱandȱarrangementsȱareȱemerging.ȱȱInȱdoingȱthis,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱ
recognizeȱthatȱexistingȱcategorizationsȱmightȱnotȱbeȱadequateȱtoȱencompassȱtheȱ
varietyȱofȱcomplex,ȱhighlyȱdynamicȱrelationshipsȱandȱinteractionsȱbetweenȱ
criminalsȱandȱterrorists.ȱȱConsequently,ȱitȱmightȱbeȱnecessaryȱtoȱdevelopȱnewȱ
categoriesȱandȱconcepts.ȱȱȱAsȱKarlȱWeickȱandȱKathleenȱSutcliffeȱnote,ȱ“peopleȱ
whoȱpersistentlyȱreworkȱtheirȱcategoriesȱandȱrefineȱthem,ȱdifferentiateȱthem,ȱ
updateȱthem,ȱandȱreplaceȱthemȱnoticeȱmoreȱandȱcatchȱunexpectedȱeventsȱearlierȱ
inȱtheirȱdevelopment.ȱȱThatȱisȱtheȱessenceȱofȱmindfulness.”2ȱ
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Indeed,ȱinȱthinkingȱ“mindfully”ȱaboutȱorganizedȱcrimeȱandȱterrorism,ȱatȱ
leastȱfourȱdifferentȱphenomenaȱorȱdimensionsȱofȱtheȱissueȱareȱdiscernible:ȱ
x Relationshipsȱbetweenȱgroupsȱinvolvedȱinȱpoliticalȱviolenceȱandȱ
thoseȱinvolvedȱinȱcriminalȱbusiness;ȱ
x Appropriationȱofȱmethods,ȱi.e.ȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱeachȱkindȱofȱentityȱ
engagingȱinȱtheȱkindsȱofȱactivityȱassociatedȱwithȱtheȱotherȱ(terroristsȱ
usingȱcrimeȱforȱfundingȱandȱcriminalsȱusingȱterrorismȱforȱsomeȱ
politicalȱobjective);ȱ
x Theȱemergenceȱofȱhybridȱorganizationsȱthatȱharmoniouslyȱcombineȱ
politicalȱandȱfinancialȱobjectives;ȱ
4ȱ|ȱP a g e ȱ
x
Aȱtransformationȱinȱidentityȱandȱpurpose,ȱwherebyȱaȱcriminalȱ
organizationȱbecomesȱradicalizedȱandȱengagesȱinȱpoliticalȱviolenceȱ
orȱaȱterroristȱorganizationȱabandonsȱitsȱcampaignȱofȱviolenceȱinȱfavorȱ
ofȱaȱcriminalȱagendaȱandȱtheȱpursuitȱofȱprofitȱratherȱthanȱpolitical,ȱ
ideologicalȱorȱreligiousȱgoals.ȱEachȱofȱtheseȱphenomenaȱmustȱnowȱbeȱ
examined.ȱȱ
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RelationshipsȱbetweenȱCriminalsȱandȱTerroristsȱ
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Ratherȱthanȱjustȱfocusingȱonȱtheȱprospectsȱforȱandȱexamplesȱofȱcooperationȱ
betweenȱcriminalsȱandȱterrorists—anȱapproachȱthatȱisȱinherentlyȱvulnerableȱtoȱ
confirmationȱbias—itȱisȱnecessaryȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱspectrumȱofȱpossibleȱ
relationshipsȱbetweenȱcriminalȱandȱdrugȱtraffickingȱnetworksȱonȱtheȱoneȱsideȱ
andȱterroristȱorganizationsȱonȱtheȱother.ȱȱSuchȱanȱapproachȱrevealsȱexamplesȱofȱ
conflictȱasȱwellȱasȱcasesȱofȱcooperation.ȱȱInstancesȱofȱthisȱincludeȱtheȱrelationshipȱ
betweenȱtheȱPKKȱandȱKurdishȱdrugȱnetworksȱinȱEurope.ȱȱThisȱstartedȱasȱaȱ
predatoryȱrelationshipȱasȱPKKȱimposedȱtransitȱtaxesȱonȱtraffickersȱcrossingȱ
territoryȱitȱcontrolled;ȱwhenȱtheȱPKKȱsawȱtheȱfinancialȱbenefitsȱofȱdrugȱ
traffickingȱandȱmovedȱintoȱtheȱbusinessȱforȱitself,ȱtheȱrelationshipȱbecameȱhostileȱ
andȱviolent.ȱȱAnotherȱexampleȱisȱtheȱconflictȱoverȱtheȱprofitsȱfromȱtribalȱracketsȱ
betweenȱtheȱSunniȱtribesȱandȱAQI,ȱaȱconflictȱthatȱprovidedȱtheȱbasisȱforȱtheȱ
“SunniȱAwakening”ȱandȱU.S.ȱsuccessȱinȱAnbar.ȱȱ
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Thereȱareȱalsoȱexamplesȱofȱcooperation.ȱȱOnȱoccasion,ȱterroristȱ
organizationsȱneedȱgoodsȱorȱservicesȱthatȱcanȱonlyȱbeȱprovidedȱbyȱothers.ȱȱInȱ
suchȱcasesȱtheyȱmightȱreachȱoutȱtoȱconventionalȱcriminalȱorganizations.ȱȱOneȱ
possibility,ȱforȱexample,ȱisȱthatȱtheyȱseekȱassistanceȱfromȱcriminalȱorganizationsȱ
thatȱcanȱprovideȱoperationalȱsupport.ȱȱSuchȱgroups,ȱwhichȱareȱsometimesȱ
characterizedȱasȱ“criminalȱserviceȱproviders”ȱincludeȱthoseȱspecializingȱinȱ
clandestineȱtravelȱandȱpossessingȱtheȱresourcesȱandȱexpertiseȱtoȱfacilitateȱtheȱ
illegalȱmovementȱofȱpeople.3ȱȱSimilarly,ȱwhenȱtheyȱneedȱweaponsȱorȱexplosives,ȱ
andȱhaveȱdifficultiesȱinȱprocuringȱthemȱdirectly,ȱtheyȱturnȱtoȱcriminalȱbrokersȱ
whoȱareȱadeptȱatȱputtingȱtogetherȱcustomersȱandȱtheȱillegalȱsuppliesȱtheyȱneed.ȱȱ
Theȱbrokersȱmightȱorȱmightȱnotȱknowȱthatȱtheyȱareȱdealingȱwithȱterrorists.ȱȱForȱ
theȱmostȱpart,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱmainȱconcernȱofȱtheȱbrokersȱisȱthatȱtheȱpaymentsȱ
fromȱtheȱcustomersȱwillȱbeȱprompt.ȱȱInȱaȱsimilarȱvein,ȱthoseȱterroristsȱlackingȱtheȱ
skillȱorȱresourcesȱtoȱmakeȱfakeȱpassportsȱwillȱcallȱonȱprovidersȱwhoȱspecializeȱinȱ
documentȱforgery.ȱȱȱSuchȱrelationshipsȱgenerallyȱinvolveȱlittleȱmoreȱthanȱaȱoneȬ
timeȱbusinessȱdeal,ȱalthoughȱsometimesȱitȱwillȱbeȱmoreȱenduring.ȱȱȱȱ
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Cooperationȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱoccurȱandȱbeȱmoreȱenduringȱandȱextensiveȱwhenȱ
criminalȱandȱterroristȱorganizationsȱshareȱtheȱsameȱgeographicalȱandȱ
opportunityȱspace,ȱasȱtheyȱdidȱinȱIraq,ȱAfghanistan,ȱandȱtheȱSahel.ȱȱȱMuchȱofȱtheȱ
cooperationȱoccurredȱinȱtheȱkidnappingȱbusiness,ȱandȱrangedȱfromȱtacitȱtoȱ
explicit.ȱSometimesȱtheȱinitiativeȱwasȱtakenȱbyȱkidnappingȱgangs,ȱwhichȱ
5ȱ|ȱP a g e ȱ
abductedȱpeopleȱwithȱtheȱexpectationȱthatȱtheyȱcouldȱsellȱthemȱtoȱpoliticalȱ
groupsȱthatȱmightȱeitherȱkillȱorȱransomȱthem.ȱȱSoȱlongȱasȱtheȱgangsȱwereȱpaid,ȱ
theȱfateȱofȱtheȱhostagesȱwasȱirrelevant.ȱȱOnȱotherȱoccasions,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱ
insurgencyȱandȱjihadiȱgroupsȱletȱitȱbeȱknownȱthatȱtheyȱhadȱcertainȱrequirementsȱ
orȱtargets;ȱtheȱforȬprofitȱkidnappingȱgroupsȱtypicallyȱrespondedȱtoȱwhatȱwas,ȱinȱ
effect,ȱaȱrequestȱforȱservicesȱbyȱabductingȱappropriateȱvictims.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱ
theȱcriminalȱmarketȱworkedȱveryȱefficientlyȱandȱsuccessfully,ȱcorrespondingȱ
fullyȱwithȱJohnȱRobb’sȱnotionȱofȱaȱ“bazaarȱofȱviolence.”4ȱȱ
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Atȱotherȱtimes,ȱcooperationȱcanȱbeȱdrivenȱbyȱsympathyȱorȱaffinity.ȱȱInȱ
Italy,ȱforȱexample,ȱitȱwasȱreportedȱthatȱ“aȱmemberȱofȱtheȱCamorra,ȱtheȱ
NeapolitanȱMafia,ȱconvertedȱtoȱIslamȱandȱsubsequentlyȱsetȱupȱanȱexchangeȱofȱ
armsȱforȱdrugsȱbetweenȱtheȱCamorraȱandȱIslamicȱterrorists.”5ȱȱAccordingȱtoȱ
PierluigiȱVigna,ȱItalyȇsȱnationalȱantiȬmafiaȱprosecutor,ȱtheseȱcooperativeȱlinksȱ
wereȱformedȱinȱprison.6ȱȱTheȱnotionȱofȱaffinityȱbetweenȱaȱcriminalȱandȱaȱterroristȱ
organizationȱfacilitatingȱcooperationȱisȱalsoȱrelevantȱinȱtermsȱofȱLebaneseȱ
criminalȱandȱdrugȱtraffickingȱorganizationsȱandȱHezbollah.ȱȱInȱthisȱconnection,ȱ
however,ȱthereȱmightȱbeȱanȱimportantȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtheȱChekryȱHarbȱ
traffickingȱorganizationȱandȱthatȱofȱAymanȱJoumaa.ȱȱBothȱmadeȱpaymentsȱtoȱ
Hezbollahȱthatȱcanȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱprotectionȱorȱextortionȱpayments,ȱbutȱ
JoumaaȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱhadȱmoreȱaffinityȱforȱtheȱorganizationȱthanȱdidȱHarb.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Inȱshort,ȱrelationshipsȱbetweenȱcriminalȱandȱterroristȱorganizationsȱspanȱ
theȱgamutȱfromȱconflictȱtoȱcooperation.ȱȱMuchȱdependsȱonȱcontextȱandȱaȱvarietyȱ
ofȱotherȱfactors.ȱȱȱYetȱitȱisȱimportantȱnotȱtoȱignoreȱtheȱinhibitionsȱonȱcooperation.ȱȱ
Criminalsȱareȱgenerallyȱpragmatic,ȱriskȱaverse,ȱbusinessȱoriented,ȱandȱconcernedȱ
aboutȱfeedingȱillicitȱmarketsȱandȱderivingȱtheȱprofitsȱtherefrom.ȱȱTheyȱdoȱnotȱ
wantȱtoȱbeȱinvolvedȱinȱanythingȱthatȱmightȱdisruptȱtheirȱmarket.ȱȱThisȱlogicȱ
mightȱbeȱparticularlyȱcompellingȱforȱLatinȱAmericanȱdrugȱtraffickingȱ
organizations.ȱȱForȱtheirȱpart,ȱterroristsȱlikelyȱhaveȱseriousȱreservationsȱaboutȱ
cooperationȱwithȱcriminals,ȱwhoȱareȱgreedy,ȱnonȬbelievers,ȱoverlyȱpragmaticȱandȱ
excessivelyȱpreoccupiedȱwithȱmoney.ȱMoreover,ȱforȱterrorists,ȱcriminalsȱwhoȱdoȱ
notȱshareȱtheirȱpoliticalȱconvictionsȱareȱinherentlyȱunreliableȱpartnersȱwhoȱmightȱ
betrayȱorȱexploitȱthem.ȱȱ
Itȱisȱperhapsȱnotȱsurprising,ȱtherefore,ȱthatȱterroristsȱthemselvesȱhaveȱ
increasinglyȱbecomeȱinvolvedȱinȱcriminalȱactivitiesȱasȱaȱfundingȱmechanism.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
TerroristȱAppropriationȱofȱCriminalȱMethodsȱȱ
(DoȬitȬYourselfȱOrganizedȱCrime)ȱ
ȱ
Ifȱthereȱisȱaȱnexusȱanywhere,ȱitȱisȱbetweenȱterroristȱorganizationsȱonȱoneȱ
sideȱandȱorganizedȱcrimeȱactivitiesȱonȱtheȱother.ȱȱThisȱisȱtheȱ600Ȭpoundȱgorilla.ȱȱ
Theȱuseȱofȱorganizedȱcrimeȱactivitiesȱbyȱterroristsȱisȱwidespreadȱandȱhasȱbecomeȱ
evenȱmoreȱprevalent,ȱespeciallyȱforȱgroupsȱinvolvedȱinȱglobalȱjihad,ȱinȱtheȱyearsȱ
sinceȱSeptemberȱ11.ȱȱAsȱotherȱfundingȱsources,ȱsuchȱasȱdiversionsȱfromȱIslamicȱ
charitiesȱhaveȱbeenȱrestricted,ȱglobalȱjihadȱgroupsȱhaveȱincreasinglyȱresortedȱtoȱ
6ȱ|ȱP a g e ȱ
criminalȱactivities,ȱwhichȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱaȱsteepȱlearningȱcurveȱinȱtermsȱofȱ
acquiringȱbasicȱcompetencies.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱcriminalizationȱprocessȱisȱfacilitatedȱ
byȱtheȱfactȱthatȱmanyȱterroristȱorganizationsȱoperateȱin,ȱfrom,ȱorȱthroughȱlawlessȱ
areasȱwhereȱstateȱcapacityȱisȱweakȱorȱstateȱauthorityȱisȱabsent.ȱȱItȱisȱalsoȱfairlyȱ
easyȱforȱterroristȱorganizationsȱtoȱjustifyȱorȱrationalizeȱtheseȱcriminalȱactivities,ȱ
eitherȱbyȱclaimsȱthatȱtheȱendȱjustifiesȱtheȱmeansȱorȱbyȱtheȱargumentȱthatȱtheseȱ
activitiesȱareȱdirectedȱagainstȱtheȱenemy.ȱȱTerroristȱorganizationsȱraisingȱmoneyȱ
throughȱdrugȱtrafficking,ȱforȱexample,ȱlegitimizeȱtheirȱactivitiesȱbyȱemphasizingȱ
theȱdrugsȱwillȱbeȱconsumedȱbyȱinfidels.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Crimesȱdesignedȱtoȱproduceȱincomeȱthatȱwillȱhelpȱfundȱtheȱcauseȱareȱtheȱ
mostȱobviousȱcriminalȱactivitiesȱusedȱbyȱterroristȱorganizations.ȱȱAnotherȱ
categoryȱisȱwhatȱmightȱbeȱdescribedȱasȱlogisticalȱsupportȱcrime,ȱthatȱis,ȱcrimeȱ
thatȱfacilitatesȱeasyȱandȱundetectableȱmovementȱofȱpersonnelȱorȱmoneyȱacrossȱ
nationalȱborders.ȱȱAȱthirdȱcategoryȱcoversȱcriminalȱactivitiesȱdesignedȱtoȱprotectȱ
theȱterroristȱorganizationsȱagainstȱlawȱenforcementȱandȱintelligenceȱagenciesȱ–ȱ
andȱtheseȱcanȱincludeȱviolenceȱorȱcorruptionȱorȱaȱmixȱofȱboth.ȱȱȱTheȱfourthȱ
categoryȱofȱcrimesȱencompassesȱthoseȱcommittedȱinȱdirectȱsupportȱofȱspecificȱ
operationsȱorȱattacksȱ–ȱandȱtypicallyȱincludesȱsuchȱactsȱasȱtheȱtheftȱofȱweaponsȱ
andȱexplosives,ȱillegalȱimmigrationȱthatȱfacilitatesȱundetectedȱentryȱintoȱtheȱ
targetȱcountry,ȱandȱevenȱdrugȱtraffickingȱifȱnecessaryȱtoȱprovideȱanyȱadditionalȱ
fundsȱthatȱareȱrequired.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
Specializedȱcriminalȱactivitiesȱforȱprofitȱareȱeasyȱtoȱimplement,ȱlucrative,ȱ
andȱlowȱrisk,ȱespeciallyȱinȱregionsȱwhereȱaȱterroristȱgroupȱcanȱoperateȱwithȱ
minimumȱinterferenceȱandȱmaximumȱimpunity.ȱȱTheyȱincludeȱlootingȱofȱnaturalȱ
resourcesȱ(oilȱinȱIraqȱandȱSyria)ȱandȱculturalȱproperty,ȱtheȱtraffickingȱofȱdrugs,ȱ
cigarettes,ȱweaponsȱandȱotherȱcontraband,ȱkidnappingȬforȬransom,ȱandȱ
extortion,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheftȱandȱcounterfeiting.ȱȱMoreȱworkȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱonȱtheȱ
fungibilityȱofȱtheseȱvariousȱrevenueȱstreamsȱtoȱassessȱhowȱbadlyȱterroristȱ
organizationsȱcanȱbeȱhurtȱbyȱtheȱinternationalȱcommunityȱtargetingȱaȱparticularȱ
revenueȱstream.ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
TheȱEmergenceȱofȱHybridȱOrganizationsȱ
ȱ
Givenȱtheȱlinkagesȱandȱassociatedȱlearningȱbetweenȱcriminalsȱandȱ
terrorists,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱuseȱofȱcrimeȱbyȱterrorists,ȱsomeȱgroupsȱbecomeȱhardȱtoȱ
categorizeȱusingȱtraditionalȱtypologies.ȱInȱsomeȱinstances,ȱforȱexample,ȱitȱisȱ
impossibleȱtoȱtellȱwhetherȱanȱentityȱisȱpredominantlyȱcriminalȱorȱterroristȱsinceȱitȱ
hasȱmajorȱattributesȱofȱboth.ȱRecognizingȱthis,ȱitȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱidentifyȱtheȱ
emergenceȱofȱhybridȱorganizationsȱthatȱshareȱtheȱattributesȱandȱobjectivesȱofȱ
bothȱcriminalȱandȱterroristȱgroups.ȱTheȱnotionȱofȱhybridsȱisȱrootedȱinȱbiologyȱandȱ
botany.ȱȱTheȱwordȱisȱgenerallyȱusedȱtoȱreferȱtoȱ“theȱoffspringȱofȱtwoȱdifferentȱ
species”ȱorȱ“theȱgeneticȱmixtureȱorȱcrossȱofȱtwoȱunrelatedȱplants.”7ȱHereȱitȱrefersȱ
toȱorganizationsȱcombiningȱanȱexplicitȱpoliticalȱagendaȱpursuedȱthroughȱ
violenceȱwithȱaȱdesireȱtoȱmakeȱprofitsȱthroughȱillegalȱactivitiesȱthatȱgoȱbeyondȱ
7ȱ|ȱP a g e ȱ
thoseȱneededȱtoȱfundȱtheȱcause.ȱInȱcasesȱsuchȱasȱthis,ȱtheȱmajorȱplayersȱareȱ
hybridȱorganizations,ȱpartȱcriminalȱenterpriseȱandȱpartȱterroristȱgroup.ȱȱ
ExamplesȱofȱtheseȱhybridȱorganizationsȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱSouthȱAsiaȱandȱLatinȱ
America,ȱandȱamongȱtheȱtermsȱthatȱhaveȱbeenȱusedȱtoȱcaptureȱthemȱareȱ
“commercialȱinsurgency,”ȱȱ“DonsȱofȱTerror,”ȱandȱ“ForȱProfitȱTerrorism.”8ȱȱSomeȱ
hybrids—suchȱasȱDȬCompanyȱandȱtheȱHaqqaniȱNetwork—areȱentirelyȱ
comfortableȱwithȱtheȱmixȱandȱdoȱaȱgoodȱjobȱofȱsustainingȱandȱbalancingȱtheirȱ
differentȱagendas.ȱOthers,ȱsuchȱasȱAbuȱSayyaf,ȱhowever,ȱareȱlessȱcomfortableȱandȱ
asȱaȱresult,ȱtendȱeitherȱtoȱshiftȱtheȱemphasisȱbackȱtoȱtheirȱoriginalȱcharacterȱorȱtoȱ
oscillateȱuncertainlyȱbetweenȱitsȱterroristȱandȱcriminalȱidentities.9ȱȱFARCȱhasȱ
mostȱofȱtheȱqualitiesȱofȱaȱhybridȱandȱalthoughȱsomeȱwouldȱargueȱthatȱitȱhasȱ
transformedȱfromȱterroristȱtoȱcriminal,ȱitȱisȱnotȱclearȱthatȱtheȱorganization,ȱasȱaȱ
whole,ȱhasȱdisavowedȱitsȱideologicalȱgoals.ȱȱIndeed,ȱinȱanȱanalysisȱdoneȱseveralȱ
yearsȱagoȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱPittsburghȱitȱbecameȱclearȱthatȱFARCȱwasȱfarȱbetterȱ
connectedȱthanȱmostȱcriminalȱorȱterroristȱorganizationsȱandȱthatȱitȱcouldȱalsoȱactȱ
asȱaȱbridgeȱbetweenȱtheȱtwoȱworlds.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Transformationȱ
ȱ
Theȱnotionȱofȱtransformationȱreflectsȱtheȱdynamismȱofȱpoliticalȱandȱsocialȱ
phenomenaȱandȱtheȱcapacityȱofȱorganizationsȱtoȱmorph.ȱȱTransformationȱcanȱ
occurȱinȱbothȱdirectionsȱeitherȱthroughȱtheȱcommercializationȱofȱterroristȱ
organizationsȱorȱtheȱpoliticizationȱofȱcriminalȱorganizations.ȱȱFundamentalȱtoȱtheȱ
process,ȱhowever,ȱisȱaȱshiftȱinȱtheȱprimaryȱpurposeȱofȱtheȱorganization—goingȱ
fromȱbringingȱaboutȱpoliticalȱchangeȱthroughȱviolenceȱtoȱusingȱcriminalȱactivitiesȱ
forȱfinancialȱgain,ȱorȱtheȱopposite.ȱȱInȱsomeȱcases,ȱtheȱtransitionȱcanȱbeȱquickȱandȱ
relativelyȱdirect;ȱinȱothers,ȱitȱmayȱbeȱslower,ȱmovingȱthroughȱtheȱriseȱandȱdeclineȱ
ofȱaȱhybridȱorganization.ȱ
ȱȱȱ
Oneȱpossibleȱcauseȱofȱterroristȱorganizationsȱbecomingȱcriminalȱ
organizationsȱisȱdisillusionmentȱwithȱtheȱprogressȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱstruggle.ȱȱ
Anotherȱisȱthat,ȱoverȱtheȱlongȱhaul,ȱaȱgroupȱbecomesȱsoȱenamoredȱofȱitsȱ
moneymakingȱactivitiesȱthatȱtheȱpoliticalȱstruggleȱbecomesȱsecondary,ȱandȱ
ultimatelyȱsubordinate.ȱȱProfitȱtrumpsȱpolitics,ȱandȱpoliticalȱobjectivesȱareȱ
ultimatelyȱabandonedȱinȱfavorȱofȱtheȱpursuitȱofȱprofitȱforȱitsȱownȱsake.ȱȱȱ
ȱ
Changeȱcanȱalsoȱoccurȱinȱtheȱotherȱdirection.ȱPerhapsȱtheȱbestȱexampleȱofȱ
thisȱtransformationȱisȱtheȱhashishȱtraffickingȱgroupȱthatȱbecameȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱ
MadridȱbombingsȱofȱMarchȱ11,ȱ2004ȱandȱactuallyȱfinancedȱtheȱoperation.ȱȱTheȱ
drugȱtraffickersȱpurchasedȱtheȱexplosivesȱwithȱaȱmixȱofȱmoney,ȱMoroccanȱ
hashishȱandȱaȱstolenȱcar.ȱȱIndeed,ȱSpanishȱauthoritiesȱconcludedȱthatȱtheȱattacksȱ
costȱsomewhereȱbetweenȱ43,000ȱandȱ54,000ȱEuros,ȱallȱofȱwhichȱwasȱprovidedȱbyȱ
theȱtraffickers.10ȱȱTheȱterroristsȱhadȱoverȱ50,000ȱEurosȱinȱreserve,ȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱstashȱ
ofȱdrugsȱworthȱoverȱaȱmillionȱEuros.ȱȱAlthoughȱitȱappearedȱinitiallyȱthatȱtheȱ
Madridȱbombingsȱwereȱanȱauthenticȱcaseȱofȱcloseȱcooperationȱbetweenȱcriminalȱ
andȱterroristȱorganizationsȱtoȱcarryȱoutȱterroristȱattacks,ȱinȱfact,ȱsomethingȱ
8ȱ|ȱP a g e ȱ
differentȱoccurred.ȱȱTheȱkeyȱwasȱtheȱradicalizationȱofȱtheȱleaderȱofȱtheȱtraffickingȱ
group,ȱJamalȱAhmidanȱwhoȱwasȱpartiallyȱradicalizedȱbyȱtheȱU.S.ȱinvasionȱofȱIraqȱ
whileȱinȱprisonȱinȱMorocco.ȱȱWhenȱAhmidanȱreturnedȱtoȱMadridȱandȱmetȱ
SarhaneȱbenȱAbdelmajidȱFakhet,ȱaȱzealotȱandȱwannabeȱterrorist,ȱhisȱ
radicalizationȱwasȱcomplete.ȱȱInȱtheȱevent,ȱAhmidanȱandȱtwoȱMoroccanȱbrothersȱ
whoȱwereȱpartȱofȱhisȱtraffickingȱorganizationȱwereȱinȱtheȱapartmentȱinȱLeganes,ȱ
andȱonȱAprilȱ3,ȱ2004ȱblewȱthemselvesȱupȱratherȱthanȱsurrenderȱtoȱtheȱpolice.ȱȱ
Thisȱwasȱveryȱuncharacteristicȱofȱdrugȱtraffickersȱwhoȱareȱintentȱonȱmakingȱ
money,ȱandȱsuggestsȱtheyȱhadȱnotȱonlyȱembracedȱaȱmilitantȱformȱofȱ
fundamentalism,ȱbutȱalsoȱwereȱwillingȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱultimateȱsacrificeȱforȱtheȱ
cause.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ConclusionsȱandȱImplicationsȱ
ȱ
TheȱsecurityȱchallengesȱposedȱbyȱterroristȬcriminalȱcooperationȱandȱbyȱ
terroristsȱengagedȱinȱdrugȱtrafficking,ȱextortion,ȱkidnappingȱandȱotherȱactivitiesȱ
areȱrelativelyȱmodest.ȱȱConvergenceȱandȱcooperationȱcannotȱbeȱignored,ȱbutȱdoȱ
notȱrepresentȱtheȱkindȱorȱlevelȱofȱthreatȱsometimesȱclaimed.ȱȱMoreover,ȱthereȱisȱaȱ
downsideȱforȱterroristsȱinȱbothȱcooperationȱwithȱtraffickersȱandȱappropriationȱofȱ
traffickingȱmethods.ȱȱForȱterrorists,ȱcooperationȱcreatesȱrisksȱofȱbetrayalȱbyȱ
pragmaticȱcriminals,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱwhoȱhaveȱnoȱaffinityȱforȱtheȱcause.ȱȱ
Moreover,ȱcooperatingȱwithȱcriminalsȱalsoȱincreasesȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱinfiltrationȱ
byȱlawȱenforcementȱandȱintelligenceȱagents.ȱȱSimilarly,ȱtraffickingȱandȱotherȱ
criminalȱactivitiesȱcanȱundermineȱbothȱtheȱstatusȱandȱlegitimacyȱofȱaȱterroristȱ
organization,ȱasȱwellȱasȱcauseȱinternalȱargumentsȱandȱevenȱdivisionsȱoverȱtheȱ
allocationȱofȱincreasedȱresources.ȱȱGovernmentsȱcanȱalsoȱdevelopȱcounterȬ
narrativesȱthatȱtarnishȱtheȱappealȱofȱhighȬmindedȱterroristsȱbyȱemphasizingȱtheirȱ
linkageȱtoȱcommonȱcriminalsȱandȱcommonȱcriminality.ȱȱInȱtheȱfinalȱanalysis,ȱ
therefore,ȱnotȱonlyȱcanȱtheȱthreatȱbeȱcontained,ȱbutȱitȱmightȱalsoȱprovideȱ
opportunitiesȱthatȱcanȱbeȱexploitedȱbyȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱandȱitsȱallies.ȱȱȱȱȱ
ȱ
ȱ
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9ȱ|ȱP a g e ȱ
ȱ
Endnotesȱ
ȱ
1ȱ“TheȱEnemyȱNextȱDoor”ȱArmedȱForcesȱJournal,ȱMarchȱ2000,ȱQuotedȱinȱ
ChrisȱDishman,ȱ“Terrorism,ȱCrimeȱandȱTransformation”ȱStudiesȱinȱConflictȱandȱ
Terrorism,ȱVol.ȱ24,ȱNo.1,ȱJanȱ2001ȱpp.ȱ43ȱ–ȱ58ȱatȱp.ȱ56ȱȱ
2ȱKarlȱWeickȱandȱKathleenȱSutcliffe,ȱManagingȱtheȱUnexpected:ȱȱ
AssuringȱHighȱPerformanceȱinȱandȱAgeȱofȱUncertainty,ȱ(SanȱFrancisco:ȱȱJosseyȬ
Bass,ȱ2001).ȱȱȱ
3ȱSeeȱJohnȱRollinsȱandȱLianaȱSunȱWyler,ȱTerrorismȱandȱTransnationalȱ
Crime:ȱForeignȱPolicyȱIssuesȱforȱCongressȱCongressionalȱResearchȱService,ȱOctȱ
19,ȱ2012,ȱp.ȱ2ȱ
4ȱJohnȱRobb,ȱBraveȱNewȱWar,ȱNewȱYork,ȱWiley,ȱ2007.ȱ
5ȱ“IslamicȱmilitantsȱlinkedȱtoȱItalianȱMafiaȱgroup”ȱTheȱNewȱZealandȱ
Herald,ȱAprilȱ20,ȱ2004ȱhttp://www.nzherald.co.nz/storydisplay.cfm?ȱ
storyID=3561599&thesection=news&thesubsection=world&thesecondsubsection=ȱ
6ȱIbidȱȱ
7ȱDefinitionȱofȱHybrid:ȱBotanicalȱDictionaryȱ
http://www.healthyhomegardening.com/Dictionary.php?pid=57ȱ
8ȱStevenȱMetz,ȱTheȱFutureȱofȱInsurgency,ȱ(Carlisle,ȱPA:ȱStrategicȱStudiesȱ
Institute,ȱU.S.ȱArmyȱWarȱCollege,ȱDecemberȱ10,ȱ1993);ȱSayantanȱChakravarty,ȱ
“TheȱDonsȱofȱTerror:ȱAftabȱAnsariȱandȱOmarȱSheikh”ȱIndiaȱToday,ȱDecemberȱ14,ȱ
2011;ȱandȱJustineȱA.ȱRosenthal,ȱ“ForȬProfitȱTerrorism:ȱTheȱRiseȱofȱArmedȱ
Entrepreneurs,”ȱStudiesȱinȱConflictȱandȱTerrorism,ȱVol.ȱ31,ȱNo.ȱ6,ȱ2008,ȱpp.ȱ481Ȭ
498.ȱ
9ȱMcKenzieȱO’Brien,ȱFluctuationsȱBetweenȱCrimeȱandȱTerror:ȱTheȱCaseȱ
ofȱAbuȱSayyafȇsȱKidnappingȱActivities,ȱTerrorismȱandȱPoliticalȱViolence,ȱVol.ȱ24ȱ
No.ȱ2,ȱMarchȱ2012,ȱpp.ȱ320Ȭ336ȱ
10ȱȱSeeȱSpanishȱpoliceȱidentifyȱfinancialȱmastermindȱofȱMadridȱ
bombings,ȱElȱPais,ȱMayȱ17,2005
10ȱ|ȱP a g e ȱ