Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment___________________________________ Vol.17 (4) April (2013)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.
Limnological Studies on Indian Brackish Water Lonar
Lake with Special Reference to Trophic Status and
Potential Public Utility
Verma Sanyogita R.* and Chaudhari P.R.
Environmental Impacts and Risk Assessment Division, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
Nehru Marg, Nagpur, 440020, INDIA
*[email protected]
depression roughly 7 kms in circumference and 1.8 kms in
diameter. Rocks in the crater reveal many characteristics
features of the moon rocks. It has an almost perfectly
circular shape. The Crater Lake was formed by the
accumulation of water in the deeper parts of basin. British
Officer C.J.E. Alexander first brought the lake to the notice
in 1823. In 1826, American geologist G.K. Gulbert
conducted studies to prove that Lonar Lake was created due
to meteor strike. Investigators revealed it to be around
40,000 years old.
Abstract
Lonar Lake is one of the largest Crater Lakes in the
world and situated in Buldhana District of
Maharashtra State in India. Limnological survey of
lake was carried out to understand the unique
ecosystem. The sources of eutrophication of the lake
were observed to be natural run-off water and a small
patch of agriculture in the catchment area of the lake.
The lake water was observed to be highly saline and
alkaline in nature with nutrient enrichment and
marginal level of organic pollution. It was interesting
to note that ground water table around Lonar Lake
was not observed to be deteriorated due to seepage of
Lonar Lake water. Lonar Lake was observed to
support dense bloom of phytoplankton dominated by
Spirulina plantensis, a protein rich blue-green alga of
commercial importance.
There are numerous historical references over the centuries
in various documents which prove the importance of Lonar.
Besides, being famous as a religious center, it was also an
important trade center during the rule of the Mughals,
Yadvas, Nizams and British. But due to human negligence
and environmental deterioration, the Lonar Lake is
becoming highly brackish and polluted. Urgent steps are
needed to restore the lake, which is a great geological
monument, from the virtual death before it is too late.
Fish and zooplankton species were not recorded in the
lake due to high salinity and low dissolved oxygen
content. Physico-chemical characteristics of Lake
Water responsible for the formation of blue-green
algal bloom are discussed in this paper. Potential uses
of Lonar Lake viz. tourism, exploitation of lake water
for commercial production of single cell protein, algal
biomass for production of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics
and bio-chemicals, irrigation of salt tolerant crops,
grasses, fruit trees and production of potable water
through reverse osmosis of lake water, have been
delineated and discussed with the view of socioeconomic development of the area.
An attempt has been made to study the limnology of the
lake with special reference to physico-chemical and
biological (plankton) indicators of water quality, trophic
status of lake water and potential applications of lake water
and algal bloom along with ways and means to halt aging
process in Lonar Lake. The lake water appears to be
greenish-black in colour due to high salinity of lake water
and presence of algal bloom. The phytoplanktons in lake,
which is adapted to high salinity, may present a unique
ecosystem and the specific species present may be of
interest. The public utility of Lonar Lake for the
development of the area needs attention.
Material and Methods
Keywords: Crater lake, water quality, biodiversity,
management, trophic status, Spirulina platensis.
Limnological survey of Lonar lake was carried out during
postmonsoon (November and December) 2009 as this
period of the year is suitable to study the average
limnological properties of any water body. The study on
the ecology of Lonar Lake was carried out with respect to
following aspects:
Introduction
Lonar Lake, which is formed in the depression of Lonar
Crater, is situated in Buldhana District of Maharashtra State
in India. This is the third largest natural brackish – Water
Lake in the world. It is an excellent example of a natural
phenomenon of meteorite impact and the only crater in the
world to be created by hypervelocity meteoritic impact in
basaltic rock. Lonar Crater is a shaped depression formed
around 50,000 years ago by the impact of a huge meteor
that descended on earth from space and carved out a
 Survey of Lonar Lake and its environment from
sanitation and public health point of view.
 Limnological survey of Lonar Lake for physico-chemical
and biological characteristics of this unique ecosystem.
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Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment___________________________________ Vol.17 (4) April (2013)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.
 Management plan for potential use of lake as well as for
protection of lake water ecosystem characteristics.
However the chloride content which varied from 2130 to
2140 mg l-1 was on the higher side. The COD ranged from
350 to 405 mg l-1 and BOD from 38 to 40 mg l-1 showing
that the lake water is organically polluted. The COD : BOD
ratio ranged between 8.75 to 10.66 indicating presence of
biologically recalcitrant pollutants in the organic pollutants
in Lonar Lake. The nitrate contents varied from 1.2 to 1.7
mg l-1 while total phosphate varied from 4 to 6 mg l-1. This
indicates very high phosphate content in Lonar Lake and
nitrate being surplus as plant nutrient.
Representative water samples were collected from five
accessible locations on the bank around Lonar Lake for
physico-chemical and biological analysis and four ground
water samples were also collected and analysed to assess
the impact of lake water on ground water quality.
First sampling station was chosen near the discharge point
of spring water to the lake and remaining sampling points
were selected at increasing distance at every 500 meters
from discharge points so that sampling station 5 was at
farthest distance from spring water disposal point.
Sampling, physicochemical and biological analyses were
carried out according to Standard Methods.1
Water samples for physico-chemical analysis were collected
from five different locations on Lonar Lake and a composite
sample was prepared by mixing all the water samples. Lake
Water samples for biological analysis were collected from
all five sampling points and were analyzed for aquatic
biodiversity. Phytoplankton flora was microscopically
analyzed by Lackay Drop Count Method while zooplankton
fauna was microscopically analyzed by using Sedgwick
Rafter Cell.
Heavy metal analysis showed that all the trace heavy metals
were within the acceptable range. Therefore the lake water
can be potentially used for agriculture purpose or for
obtaining algal biomass of commercial importance without
any heavy metal toxicity.
Phytoplankton Flora
Analysis of phytoplankton population in Lonar Lake is
given in table 2. A total of ten phytoplankton species were
recorded during the observation. Out of these species, five
species belonged to cyanophyceae (blue green algae), two
species to chlorophyceae (green algae) and three species to
bacillariophyceae (diatoms).
Results and Discussion
The total phytoplankton count per ml in lake water sample
was observed to vary from 1832 to 30085 algae per ml at
different sampling stations of Lonar Lake. Highest density
was observed at Station 1 followed in decreasing order by
Station 2, Station 3, Station 4 and Station 5. It appears that
the Lonar Lake water gets slightly diluted at Station 1 and 2
because of the discharge of small stream in to Lonar Lake
near these stations. The dilution of lake water at these
sampling points makes the water quality tolerable for the
growth of algae. Therefore the algal density might have
been more at Station 1 and 2 while at other stations the
higher levels of salts in lake water might have been
responsible for relatively low count of chlorophyceae and
bacillariophyceae.
Lonar Lake is surrounded by earthen mounds formed by the
impact of meteorite. There is one natural fresh water spring
on the adjoining hillock by the side of the Lonar Lake,
pouring its water in a constructed pond which is used for
bathing by the visitors and tourists. The overflow from this
pond goes to the lake. Apart from this, the only source of
water to the lake is run-off water from catchment area
which may be moderately polluted due to soil erosion,
anthropogenic activity and banana plantation. The brackish
water of Lonar Lake is not useful for domestic or
agriculture purpose. Spirulina platensis was observed to be
the most dominant and tolerant species to the salinity of
Lonar Lake.
Physico-Chemical Quality of Lake Water
The algal species of cyanophyceae group were found to
dominate the phytoplankton population in Lonar Lake. The
percentage composition of cyanophyceae was found to vary
from 98.80% to 100% at different sampling stations on
Lonar Lake. The subdominant group in Lonar Lake was
observed to be the bacillariophyceae. The percentage
composition of bacillaripophyceae in phytoplankton flora
was observed to range from 0.27% to 0.73%. Bacillariophyceae species viz. Fragillaria, Navicula and Cyclotella
were found to be more tolerant to saline-alkaline lake water
than chlorophyceae (green algae). The most sensitive group
in Lonar Lake water was chlorophyceae. The members of
chlorophyceae were found to be present only at Station 1 in
very negligible amount i.e. 0.47% by composition.
Physico-chemical characteristics of lake water for
postmonsoon 2009 (average values) are shown in table 1.
The lake water was observed to be blue green in colour due
to dominance of algal bloom in lake water. The water
sample emanated strong murky odour. The temperature of
water ranged from 260C to 280C which is marginally higher
than other surface water bodies in the area. The algal bloom
in Lonar Lake water is responsible for absorption of light
and heat from sunlight due to its coloured pigments leading
to higher temperature of lake water. The Lonar Lake water
appears to be saline due to high concentration of dissolved
solids and total suspended solids. This is the unique
property of Lonar Lake. pH ranging from 9.9 to 10.1, total
alkalinity ranging from 1460 to 1510 mg l-1 showing that
the lake water is highly alkaline in nature. The Calcium
hardness, Magnesium hardness and Total hardness were
observed to be within acceptable limits.
Aquatic Fauna
Lonar Lake did not show the presence of zooplankton and
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Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment___________________________________ Vol.17 (4) April (2013)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.
fish species in its water body due to low dissolved oxygen
and high salinity.
Oscillatoria sp. (3.25%) and Chroococcus sp. (1.30%) in
total phytoplankton flora (Table 2) qualifies them as good
indicator of saline-alkaline lake water.
Other algal species, having very low percentage
composition in total phytoplankton flora, are present at
Station 1 in Lonar Lake with lowest salinity levels. Though
they are not indicators of saline-alkaline lakes, their
presence would indicate threshold levels of salinity in lake
for survival of biodiversity. The green algal sp. viz.
Ankistrodesmus sp. and diatom viz. Navicula sp. are also
indicators of marginal organic pollution in water bodies7.
The present observations showed that the salinity tolerance
of algal sp. in Lonar Lake is as follows:
Biodiversity of Phytoplankton
Two species of Spirulina were recorded; one was Spirulina
plantensis and other with dense narrow spiral filament.
The density of Spirulina was found to vary from 1750 to
27562 algae per ml. The highest density of Spirulina was
obtained at Station 1 followed by Station 2 and 3 and with
low percentage composition at Station 4 and 5. Spirulina
has always been reported from highly brackish water lakes
all over the world. Apart from Spirulina, other blue green
algae recorded in Lonar Lake were Oscillatoria chlorine;
Chroococcus minor and Phormidium mucicola.
Salinity Tolerance : S. plantensis > Chroococcus >
Oscillatoria sp. > Phormidium sp. > Cyclotella sp. >
Navicula sp. > Fragillaria sp.
Among chlorophyceae, only two species viz. Ankistrodesmus sp. and Selenastrum sp. were recorded as rare
species at Station 1, while they are completely absent at
other stations.
These algal species are the indicators of unique ecosystem
of saline-alkaline Lonar Lake water which is moderately
organically polluted.
Among bacillariophyceae, Fragillaria sp., Navicula sp. and
Cyclotella sp. were observed in Lonar Lake. No Diatom
species were present at Station 3, while all the diatom
species were present at Station 1, one diatom species was
recorded at Station 2. At other stations, diatoms were
completely absent.
The unique biodiversity of Lonar Lake is mainly due to
saline-alkaline nature of the lake water. Nutrient
enrichment and organic contamination are also the decisive
factors for supporting Cyanophyceae bloom of S. platensis
in the lake. Similar observations8 were made that salinity
and temperature contributed to the different ecosystems of
Aegean Sea and Black Sea. Similarly, anthropogenic
nutrient enrichment could play an important role in driving
phytoplankton bloom performance. Both the ecosystems
showed 14 common algal bloom species but low taxonomic
similarity (Brag-Curtis Index lower than 30%) between the
different basins and among the sites.
The species biodiversity was more at Station 1 and
gradually decreased at Station 2, 3, 4 and 5 showing
number of species present as 10, 6, 4, 4 and 2 respectively.
This shows the adverse impact of increasing salinityalkalinity on species diversity. Shannon Wiener Diversity
Index, which is the best measure of two characteristics of
biodiversity viz. species level diversity and their proportion
in population, was found to be very low i.e. ranging from
0.212 to 0.666 under the strong influence of salinityalkalinity.
It is observed9 in saline lake of Quinter do logo (SEPortugal) that nitrogen limitation might have been
important in defining of phytoplankton communities mainly
Algal Indicators of Water Quality
during dominance of non-colonial chroococcoid cyanobacteria. It appears that specific N/P ratio viz. 0.28 to 0.3
Spirulina sp. is well known indicator of brackish or
eutrophic lake water. This alga is observed to form major
part of phytoplankton of Lonar Lake forming about 88.86%
to 97.75% of Cyanophyceae and 88.86% to 97.75% of total
phytoplankton flora by percentage composition. This
observation is supported by the reported occurrence of this
alga in large number of brackish water lakes all over the
world. Like many other soda lakes of Africa, Lake Sonachi
and Lake Simbi3,4,5
The two crater lakes of volcanic origin in Kenya2 are
dominated by mass growth of filamentous cyanobacterium
Arthrospira fusiformis (Vorochinin) Komarck (Syn.
Spirulina fusiformis Vorochinin). Similarly, species of
Spirulina were also recorded from highly eutrophic lakes in
India, e.g. Gandhisagar Lake at Nagpur, India, which
consists of high concentration of dissolved salts6 was
observed to support Spirulina sp. Oscillatoria sp. and
Chroococcus sp. are also indicators of eutrophic lakes
containing high levels of dissolved salts. The higher
percentage composition of Spirulina sp. (94.68%),
might be responsible for the development of unique species
of S. plantensis in the lake. Many authors10 made similar
observations. Cyanobacteria dominance and sometimes
bloom formation are among the most visible symptoms of
accelerated eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs.
Palmer’s Pollution Index
The Palmer’s Pollution Index, which is based on
summation of organic pollution ratings of algal species,
was observed to vary from 6 to 12 in Lonar Lake. This
indicates that the level of organic pollution in the lake is
marginal or the organic pollution indicator species are not
able to grow in Lonar Lake because of high levels of
dissolved salts in the lake water. Therefore, the only algal
species S. plantensis, tolerant as well as indicator of
organic pollution, was observed to be dominant in Lonar
Lake water.
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Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment___________________________________ Vol.17 (4) April (2013)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.
assess the impact of saline Lonar Lake on groundwater
quality. Physicochemical characteristics of ground water
around Lonar Lake were studied by analyzing dug well
water samples around the lake as given in table 3. All the
physicochemical parameters were found within acceptable
limits for drinking water except total dissolved solids,
suspended solids and chlorides at well no. 4. However,
biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand
were found to be very low. These observations indicate that
the groundwater around Lonar lake is not contaminated by
the seepage of saline-alkaline water of Lonar Lake. Thus,
the ground water quality around Lonar lake is of good
quality and suitable for domestic as well as agricultural use.
Geologically, it is observed that meteorite impact might
have created impervious rock layers around the crater and
there is no seepage of Lonar Lake.
Phytoplankton Community Structure
The phytoplankton community structure is greatly
determined by highly dominant alga Spirulina platensis and
other subdominant blue green algal species as well as some
diatom species. Station 1 and 2 showed diverse groups in
community composition but higher salinity levels at
Stations 3, 4 and 5 gradually led to presence of only bluegreen algae in the community and even only two bluegreen algal species with Spirulina contributing major share
and other species negligible share in community structure.
Groundwater Quality around Lonar Lake
In coastal areas, groundwater is over exploited as result
seawater ingress has been observed on both East and West
Coasts of India. Seawater ingress results in increasing
salinity of ground water and deterioration of water quality
for domestic and agricultural use. With this view the
ground water quality around Lonar Lake was observed to
Parameter
Table 1
Physicochemical Characteristics of Water from Lonar Lake
November 2009
December 2009
Drinking Water Standards
IS
WHO
A) Physical Parameter
1. Odour
2. Colour (Hazen unit)
3. Temperature (0C)
4. Total Suspended Solids
5. Total Dissolved Solids
6. Total solids
B) Chemical Parameter
7. pH
8. Total Alkalinity
9. Total Hardness
10. Calcium Hardness
11. Magnesium Hardness
12. Chloride
13. Nitrate
14. Chemical oxygen
demand (COD)
15. Biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD)
16. Sulphate
17. Phosphate
18. Dissolved oxygen
19. Calcium(Ca)
20. Magnesium(Mg)
21. Sodium (Na)
22. Potassium( k)
C) Heavy metals
23. Zinc
24. Lead
25. Cadmium
26. Nickel
27. Cobalt
28. Manganese
Strong murky
Dark blue green
28
2835
9546
12381
Strong murky
Dark blue green
26
3250
9499
12749
5
500
-
NG
NG
-
10.1
1460
138
38
100
2140
1.2
405
9.9
1510
141
35
106
2130
1.7
350
6.5-8.5
200
250
45
-
NG
NG
NG
NG
250
50
NG
38
40
-
NG
20
4
< 2.0
40
9
5762
26
20
6
< 2.0
42
8
5668
30
200
75
-
500
NG
200
-
0.163
0.1300
0.011
0.166
0.012
0.082
-
5
0.05
0.01
0.1
3
NG
0.003
0.02
0.01
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Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment___________________________________ Vol.17 (4) April (2013)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.
29. Iron
30. Chromium
31. Copper
1.86
0.259
0.028
-
0.3
0.01
0.05
NG
0.05
2
Table 2
Phytoplankton Population recorded in Lonar Lake
Phytoplankton Group and Species
A) Cyanophyceae
1) Spirulina platensis
2) Spirulina sp
3) Phormidium
4) Oscillatoria
5) Chroococcus sp.
Total
Percentage
B) Chlorophyceae
1) Ankistrodesmus sp
2) Selenastrum sp.
Total
percentage
C) Bacillariophyceae
1) Fragillaria
2) Navicula
3) Cyclotella
Total
Percentage
Number of Species
Grand Total (algal units/ml)
Shannon Wiener Index
Palmer’s Pollution Index
Sampling stations
3
4
1
2
27562
79
111
1623
350
29725
98.80
20125
26
558
310
21019
99.82
23
121
144
0.47
30
69
117
216
0.73
10
30085
0.664
12
16188
175
88
110
16561
100
Total
%
68329
79
477
2348
937
94.68
0.11
0.66
3.25
1.30
23
121
0.03
0.17
30
125
117
0.05
0.17
0.16
72507
100
5
2625
165
79
85
2954
100
1750
82
1832
100
_
_
_
-
56
56
0.27
6
21075
0.292
9
_
-
-
4
16561
0.212
6
4
2954
0.666
6
2
1832
0.261
-
Ranges of Palmer’s Pollution Index
-: Absent
<15: indicates absence of organic pollution,
15-20: Indicates presence of organic pollution, >20: Indicate presence of high organic pollution
Table 3
Physicochemical Characteristics of Ground Water around Lonar Lake
S.N.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Parameters
Temperature (0C)
pH
Total Alkalinity
Calcium Hardness
Magnesium Hardness
Total Hardness
Dissolved oxygen
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Total Dissolved Solids
Suspended Solids
Chlorides
Sulphate
Phosphate
1
27
7.8
190
128
116
244
2.5
< 5.0
9
490
4
16
5
5
Sampling
2
29.3
7.6
182
112
112
224
2.5
< 5.0
12
500
10
36
30
6
3
29.2
8.3
190
144
136
280
2.7
530
28
28
22
3
4
27
7.6
188
120
152
272
1.4
< 5.0
14
1500
190
770
58
5
All values are in mg/l except pH, temperature, colour and odour
chemicals such as sterols (24-Ethyl Cholesterol) (79.5%),
cholesterol (8.5), pigments etc. for the use in pharmaceuticals pills, baby food, health food and cosmetics. The
SCP may also be utilized as animal feed for poultry and
Spirulina Platensis–Raw Material for Cottage Industry:
Spirulina is commercially important species and is used as
single cell protein (SCP) viz. use of algal biomass as a
protein supplement to the food and as a source of bio(56)
Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment___________________________________ Vol.17 (4) April (2013)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.
cattle for improving their health and quality of milks/eggs
obtained from them. However, quality control of comercially developed SCP of Spirulina should be rigorously
implemented for possible presence of algal toxins.
desalinized through reverse osmosis process to recover
good quality fresh water for domestic use for the
population in surrounding areas. At the time of water
scarcity, Lonar Lake water may also be utilized after
dilution for irrigating salt tolerant crops, legumes and fruits
in the surrounding area. The implementation of these
applications will be useful in the socio-economic
betterment in the area, apart from development of Lonar
Lake for aesthetic, tourism and religious purposes. These
applications would make the Lonar Lake a boon for the
local population.
Other Potential Utilities of Lonar Lake
Lonar Lake water does not contain toxic compounds like
heavy metals, therefore, it can very well be used for
different applications viz. agriculture and domestic use. The
Lonar Lake water is fit for irrigation purpose except for
salinity and alkalinity. However, during the period of water
scarcity, the Lonar Lake water can also be utilized for
irrigation after dilution with fresh water. Salt tolerant crops
may be used under irrigation with Lonar Lake water. Most
of the major cereal crops exhibit high tolerance to soil
salinity. Sorghum, wheat, rye, oats, barley and pearl millet
come in this group. Some of the rice varieties are also
tolerant to salinity. The seeding or early vegetative forage
appears to be most sensitive, with subsequent stages
showing increased tolerance. This phenomenon has been
reported for sorghum11, wheat12, Corn13 and rice.14
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Director, NEERI, Nagpur for
providing facilities to carry out this work
References
1. APHA, AWWA, WPCF, Standard Methods for Water
Analysis, 20th ed., APHA, AWWA, WPCF (1998)
2. Ballot Andreas et al, Cyanobacteria and cyanobacterial toxins
in the alkaline crater lakes Sonachi and Simbi Kenya, Harmful
Algae, 4(1), 139-150 (2005)
In legumes, more salt resistant species are particularly the
clovers and alfalfa and most of the forage grasses. The
vegetable crops are generally salt sensitive species and may
not be suitable for irrigation with Lonar Lake water. The
tolerant fruit trees are date palm and medially tolerant fruit
trees are fig, jujube, olive, papaya, pine apple and
pomegranate. These crops are suitable for irrigation system
with Lonar Lake water.
3. Meleck J.M., Photosynthesis and growth of Spirulina
plantensis in an equatorial lake (Lake Simbi, Kenya), Limnol.
Ocenogr., 24, 753-766 (1979)
4. Tuite C.H., Standing crop densities and distribution of
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lakes, Freshwater Biol., 11, 345-360 (1981)
Nowadays, reverse osmosis technology is available for
conversion of seawater to potable water. Such systems are
in vogue in industries at coastal areas. The same technology
can be utilized by the industrial complex developed for
production of SCP from Lonar Lake water in the vicinity of
Lonar Lake, for obtaining potable water from Lonar Lake.
Lonar Lake is historically used as religious place. Many
devotees visit this area for religious as well as for picnic
purpose. With overall development of Lonar Lake,
environmental tourism would be developed at this
picturesque area with the added attraction of visiting
various unique applications of Lonar Lake for SCP
production, irrigation for crops and orchards and unique
reverse osmosis plant for conversion of saline lake water to
potable water.
5. Finlay B.J., Curds C.R., Bamforth S.S. and Bafort J.M.,
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Conclusion
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Phytoplankton dynamics in a coastal saline lake (SE-Portugal),
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6. Thakre Renuka and Chaudhari P.R., Limnological Studies on
Gandhisagar Lake, Nagpur with Reference to Trophic Status and
Lake Restoration, Dissertation submitted to Nagpur University
for Master of Science (Environmental Science) Degree (1996)
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pollution, J. Phycol., 5, 78-82 (1998)
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Mediterranean Coastal Ecosystem subjected to anthropogenic
eutrophication: Similarities and differences, Estuarine, Coastal
and Shelf Science, 53 (3), 281-295 (2001)
Lonar Lake is a natural marvel and has highly salinealkaline water. Only way of loss of water from the lake is
through evaporation. The crater of Lonar Lake might have
been lined by impervious geological wall, therefore
protecting the adjoining water table from salinity ingress.
As the lake water does not contain toxic compounds, the
lake water and the protein rich algal bloom can be put to
various uses. S. platensis can be commercially harvested
for its use as SCP and in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and
for extraction of biochemicals. The lake water may be
10. Moss B. et al, A guide to the restoration of nutrients-enriched
shallow lakes, Hawes W.W., U.K. (1997)
11. Schindler D.W., Evolution of phosphorus limitations in lakes,
Science, 195, 260-262 (1977)
12. Smith V.H., Low nitrogen to phosphorus ratios favour
dominance by blue-green algae in lake phytoplankton, Science,
(57)
Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment___________________________________ Vol.17 (4) April (2013)
Res. J. Chem. Environ.
221, 669-671 (1983)
14. Pearson G.A. and Bernstein L., Salinity effects on several
growth stages of rice, Agron. J., 51, 654 (1959).
13. Smith V.H., Bierman V.J., Jones B.L. and Havens K.E.,
Historical Trends in the Lakes Okeechobee ecosystem IV.
Nitrogen: phosphorus ratios, cyanobacterial dominance and
nitrogen
fixation
potential,
Archivfur
Hydrobiologie,
Monographische Beitrage, 107, 71-88 (1995)
(Received 17th September 2011, revised 15th June 2012,
accepted 20th December 2012)
(58)