CHAPTER – VII
SOCIAL CONDITION
Caste and Class:
The Bahmani society was heterogeneous composed of
Hindus,
Brahmins,
Lingayats,
Jains,
Muslims,
Marathas,
Christians and Jews1.
In the Bahmani kingdom the Marathas dominated in the
north-west, the Lingayats, Jains and other Hindu communities
dwelt in the south. The Muslim communities an Afaquis and
Deccanis formed the ruling class, hence their population
concentrated in the capital, its suburbs and big and small towns
of the Paraganahs. In the surrounding villages of the capital and
big towns converted Muslims might have dwelt in with their
Hindu brethren. Other than the capital and big towns, in the
villages the Muslims structures like Mosques, Dargah (tombs or
shrines of Sufi saints) Idgahs2 can be seen. In the exterior and
far off region these structures are seldom seen. The Brahmins
belonged to religious and administrative class, therefore found in
every town and village of the kingdom.
164
Upper class:
The Sultan, the royal family, nobles and aristocrats
constituted the upper class in medieval India.
Sultan:
The Bahmani sultans were proud of their traditional origin
from Mohammad bin Tughluq. They followed the divine right
theory of kingship and considered themselves as the direct
representative of God on earth. They did not recognise the legal
paramountacy of the Caliph whether dead or alive. They brought
themselves as benevolent and real protector of the subjects. This
makes their position unchallenged on the socio-political basis.
It is an indication of the general view prevalent in the
dynasty of Bahmanis. When the Bahmani Sultans ascended the
throne the reading of Khutba (sermon) and striking of coins were
symbolic expression of their exalted status. Not only had that,
the use of ‘Chattra’ – an umbrella, the ‘Kawkabah’, the Alam
(standard) the beating of drum (Naqqara) also associated to be
his exclusive prerogatives.
The Bahmani sultans always added the word ‘Ghazi’ to
their names. Their titles also showed their greatness, superiority
and their will to rule the world, like Al-Sultan-al-ali-al-khalifat-ulmuta-ali (the sublime sultan the exalted caliph)
165
The Bahmani kept the nobility conscious of their lower
position in the hierarchy. For instance, they never allowed others
to use the ‘Shamsa’ (picture of the sun affixed) to decorate the
walls and gates.
The sultans were at the helm of the affairs, provided a
systematic
basis
to
the
state
by
creating
effective,
administration. The regulations concerning the household, the
army and the empire contain the whole duty of the Sultan.
The sultans lived in gorgeous style. They enjoyed an
unparalleled status. The sultans were the fountain of honours
and favours. Their court, maintained at fabulous cost and made
possible by their vast revenue, eclipsed in splendor and
magnificence that of any their contemporaries. Its luster was
derived not alone from the presence of the sultan along chain of
noblemen with glittering state.
Nobility:
Next to the sultans were the nobles the Bahmani nobility
consisted section of Persians, Arabs, Turks, Pathans, and
Iranians. The Bahmani aristocracy had two broad divisions; ‘Ahli-Saif’ (men of sword, i.e., the aristocracy) and ‘Ahl-i-Qalam’ (men
of pen i.e., the ulema).
166
Deccan Nobility:
The word ‘Deccani’ means a southerner and the Bahmanis
applied this name to all those nobles belonging to the Deccan
kingdoms, who took service with them. All the nobles, whether of
Indians or foreign origin, who had taken service with either
Deccani kingdoms. Many of the Marathas who were by birth
Deccanis were excluded by this order.
Maratha Nobility:
The growing importance of the Marathas in the affairs of
the Deccan was reflected in a steady expansion of the Maratha
elements within the Bahmani official class which sought to meet
the new challenge and only by military measures but also by a
simultaneous attempt to absorb some sections of the Marathas
in the Bahmani aristocracy.
The Bahmani sultans believed in absolute and undivided
authority of the sultan. For this they had to depend on the
support of the nobles. Though the nobles were indispensable for
the court, administration and economy of the royal household,
however, their diverse interest and rivalry created problems for
those and so the social structure. To maintain perfect and
obedient
nobility,
the
sultans
introduced
the
system
of
167
“sureties”. This practice was so common and so general that
even the princes found it necessary to conform to the custom.
Officers and soldiers on small pay are usually paid from the
royal treasury; ten percent is deducted from their pay under the
regulations made by than sultans. The queen’s and princess
were paid half from the royal treasury and half in land or in
rents.
The Bahmani sultans found it difficult to control the
increasing concentration of wealth and power in the nobles and
it is resulting consequences of extravagancy and corruption,
pleasure of women, and wine. The increasing corruption in the
life of nobility had its tremendous impact on the contemporary
social life yet the situation helped them in their emergence as a
distinct class in the society. They tried to emulate the royalty
and strengthen their position. They gave patronage to art,
literature and learning.
Zamindars:
The Zamindars were another important section of the
upper class society. It has considerable influence on the agrarian
economy. Zamindar technically meant the holder of a land but in
practice, his position varied according to the size of his holding.
168
In the context of the medieval India society the term Zamindar
has been rather loosely used. The holder of a small area on a big
tract of land or even the autonomous chiefs has been called
Zamindars. Zamindari system was basically a rural institution
was not necessarily connected as a part of the Bahmani
administration. It was a right which an individual acquired
either by heredity, purchase or forceful acquisitions. He was
liable to pay revenue to the state over the area, on which he had
established his claims.
The Zamindari enjoyed a significant position in the socioeconomic setup though they divided on caste, religion and
regional basis. “The Zamindar as a class were largely made up of
a number of castes which had for long been uprooting and
subjugating each other. The Zamindar class was so fatally
divided, so narrowly brand by its caste and local ties, that it
could never from into a united governing class and create an
empire”.
Middle class:
Though it is difficult to find a distinct middle class in the
medieval Indian society, here we try to trace the elements of this
169
class. The officials, including the village officials, the merchants
and the traders constituted the middle class.
The Bahmani sultans had developed a highly centralised
system of administration. They had maintained the detailed and
meticulous records, including detailed records of prices, taxes,
numbers of houses, names and castes of revenue payee and
householders etc. The Bahmani sultans needed an enormous
number of petty officials such as Muharrir, Amil, Karkun to cope
with the immense secretarial work involved in their system of
administration.
The commercial and financial structure of Bahmani people
was highly developed. There was a considerable specialization of
functions among traders. The wholesale traders, shopkeepers,
moneychangers cum moneylenders (Sarrafs) and Ghumasts and
Dalals, (agents, brokers) Banjaras (itinerant traders in bulky
goods) formed separate professional groups.
Another group of professional class consisted on the
learned peoples, included physician (Vaid, Hakims), teachers
(Pandit, Mulla), lawyers etc. They were closely associated with the
religious classes which were both numerous and influential,
including Brahmin and the Mulla who taught or presided over
religious functions, and a large class of persons with a saintly or
170
scholarly bent who received stipends or grants of land (Milki,
Inam, Madad-i-Maash etc), from the state.
In the middle class may also included the intermediary,
Zamindar and rich peasants, though socially the rich peasants
were often classified with the peasants. In practice, those
sections along with the Madad-i-Maash holders formed the rural
petty gentry. Thus the middle class had important position in
urban as well as rural sectors, and were considered gentle as
distinct from the commons.
Lower class:
During Bahmani period the lower class of society consisted
of the artisans, the peasants, and the commoners’ production
was carried out by the artisans who, worked in home based
independent units without principal organizations. There were
large halls, of karkhanas or workshops for working of the
artisans. There were goldsmiths, painters, vanishers, joiners,
turners, tailors, shoemakers, silk manufacturers, and so on. The
official incharge were looked after the supply of materials and
the artisans worked under their direction. The artisans worked
for the benefit of the merchants and middlemen. Artisans may be
171
divided into two categories skilled and unskilled. The royal
karkhanas employed only the skilled ones.
The artisans in the village community were carpenters
(Sutar), blacksmith (Lohar), potter (Kumbar), washer man (Parit),
barber (Nai) watchman (Mahar), etc. There were also goldsmith
or silversmith tanner (Chamar) (Potdar, sometimes he was one of
the Balutedar), the water carrier (Koli), musician etc. the number
of such functionaries was different in different parts of the subcontinent and reached twenty seven. The potters, barbers, and
washer man held important position in the rural social life. The
potter supplied to the village community all kinds of earthern
pots.
Instead of cash payment he relieved his share in the
harvest from his customers. The barber was also the village
healer and veterinary surgeon and performed the act of musician
during the celebrations and of a cook on wedding and festive
occasions. He was also the messenger in marriage settlements
and carrier of news in the village. The village community was
group of persons with different skills and enjoyed enough of
freedom to pursue their vocations. They could freely mix among
themselves except with tanners and sweepers, who were the
172
untouchables of the village and the economically and socially
down trodden.
The peasants lived a very miserable life. They did not have
sufficient cloths to wear and food to eat. The common people felt
satisfied when their bare necessities were fulfilled. Service was
never a great attraction to them. A person earning five rupees
per month had little difficulty in making ends meet for himself
and for his family. Perhaps it was sufficient for the ordinary man
to meet his demands in view of the prices prevalent during this
period. Thus the society during the Bahmani period functioned
on definite traditional lives. Some sort of social and moral codes
of conduct regulate the life of different categories of the society.
Education and Learning:
The temples played a remarkable role in moulding the
character of the people and make life meaningful and worthy. It
was an institution by itself, for, it was not only a place of worship
but also a Community Hall where the residents of the village met
and discussed common problems, sought justice, witnessed
cultural activities like music and dancing and carried on
administration. It was also a school where the children of the
village learnt. The temple received munificent grants from all
people, from the king to the common man not merely for worship
173
and offerings therein, but for imparting education, maintaining
students and teachers, promoting arts, feeding and clothing
ascetics and offering food and shelter to travelers3.
Imparting of education was not the sole duty of the
Government, in the period under review, as in the succeeding
centuries
to
come.
The
Government
rendered
financial
assistance in times of need. It was the responsibility of the selfgoverning bodies to make arrangements for the education of
young. For this purpose they received grants and endowments.
Any numbers of epigraphs testify to this fact4.
The Devoor inscription records a gift by Suggaladevi, wife
of Jayasimha-II, to the temple of Marasingheshwara for the
maintenance of students, besides arranging for worship in the
temple. The recipient of the gift was Brahmarasi Pandita of the
Pasupata School. The record specifically states that students
were to be fed and clothed and the gift was meant for providing
them also with proper diet and medicine. This was in 1029 A.D.
Thirty five years later, in 1064 A.D, we find a mahasamanta
Vimarsa making a gift of land to Marasinghadeva of Devapura,
i.e.
Devoor,
after
obtaining
it
from
Mahamandaleshwara
Jayasinghadeva, the Noalmba chief, for feeding and clothing of
the ascetics and students described as chattra. A copper plate
grant of Vikramaditya-VI dated 1082 A.D, registers a grant of a
174
village in Karadikal-300 of Ededoredesa or the maintenance of
students etc. Laksmideva, a queen of Vikramaditya-VI is found
making a gift of a village in Kisukadu to Someshwara Pandita of
the temple of Achaleshwara, for imparting education. Another
record
from
Ganeshawadi
in
Osmanabad
district
of
Maharashtra, states that in 1099 A.D mahasamantodhipati
Bhimanatha
constructed
a
temple
on
the
baknks
of
Bhimesamudra in the village Pippala and endowed it with 500
nivarattanas of land for its unkeep and for feeding ascetics and
students in the Sarasvatimandapa of the same place. Obviously
the mandapa was specially meant for running a school5.
In Karnataka the main centres of education were the
Brahmapuri, Agrahara, Ghatikosthana and the mathas attached
to temples. While the Brahmapuri was a separate colony of
Brahmanas within a tower, the Agrahara was a town by itself
consisting
of
Brahmanas.
Funds
were
provided
for
the
establishment of teachers in a separate colony and for the
maintenance of the students that were taught by these teachers
of the Brahmapuri. The Agrahara differed from the Brahmapuri
in that the former consisted of a whole village donated to the
learned Brahmanas by the king or any of the chiefs for
conducting educational and religious activities. The Agrahara
were managed by the mahajanas. Incidentally attention may be
175
drawn to an article wherein a temple is made to show a clear-cut
division between different ‘kinds’ of Agrahara. According to this,
it seems there were four kinds of Agrahara in medieval
Karnataka, “viz, (1) single man’s Agraharas (2) Agraharas, meant
to further educational purpose (3) Agraharas where Brahmanas
trained in the use of arms; lived and (4) Agraharas which were
purely religious in character”. It is not possible, neither
necessary to discuss here in detail the points raised by the
scholar. Suffice it to say that there is no sound basis for such a
clear-cut classification6.
Comparatively, Ghatikasthanas which were educational
centres were less in number, while the mathas and the temples
played a prominent role as seats of learning. A portion of the
income from gifts made to the temples or mathas attached to
them was to be spent for educational purposes. As already
stated above, it was the cultural centre of the village and besides
being the meeting place of the mahajanas. And a centre of
religious activity, it took active part in the propagation of
learning. The acharya of the temple was also in charge of the
school run by it and he was the trustee of the gifts made to the
temple. An inscription from Motebennur, records a gift of the
village Nagarhalla and some other lands for maintenance of a
176
mathas and of the students studying therein. The gift was
entrusted to Lokabharanapandita of the Kalamukha School7.
Details regarding the primary education in the period are
not known. But it appears that it started in the temple and in
one epigraph it is referred to as balasiksha or aksharsikshe. In
epigraphical records akshara khandike is another term used for
primary
education.
kannadaksharsikshe
The
also.
above
That,
record
besides
refers
Kannada
to
other
languages were also taught is clear from an inscription from
Malinge which refers to balasikshe in Nagara, Kannada and
Tigula i.e., Nagari, Kannada and Tamil. Vedas, Vedangas, logic,
grammar, Mimamsa and similar other subjects formed the
curricular for students of higher education. Sometimes some
subjects were specialized in some centres. At Lakkundi, for
example, a certain Somesvararya founded an endowment for
teaching the Prabhakara doctrine8.
In this period, there were some famous educational centres
such as talagunda, Balligave, Lakkundi, Salotagi, Nagayi and
many others. In the residential institution at Talagunda there
were six classes, one for Rigveda, and one each for Pada, and
Kaipa of Yajurveda and one each for Samaveda, Shabdashastra,
Rupavtara, nyasa and Prabhakara. In each class there were
eight students. Arrangements were made for feeding these 48
177
students besides 300 other Brahmanas, in the feeding house, for
which
purpose, there
Ghatikasthana
at
were
Nagayi,
two cooks employed.
established
by
In the
dandanayaka
Madhusudana, there were 252 students, 200 learning the Vedas
and the other 52, the Shastras. There were nine teachers for this
purpose and six librarians. We may here mention that the term
bhatta-vritti often occurring in inscriptions relates to grants of
land to learned men. It was not merely a stipend for study but
also for teaching it was not merely a reward for learning, but
remuneration for giving instruction and for carrying on religious
and cultural activities. We may cite epigraphical evidence
wherein Mahadevachamupa is found making a grant as bhattavritti to the teachers who taught Rig and Yajurvedas. The term
chattavritti (or chhatra-vritti) likewise indicates that they were
grants made for the maintenance of students who were studying
in such institutions9.
It is only through indirect references that we came to know
about the several subjects of study. Great care was taken to
pronounce the Vedic hymns correctly. Detailed study of the
Vedas was the next step. Besides subjects like grammar, logic,
astrology, drama, polity, dancing art (Bharat-Shastra) the
eighteen Smritis, Puranas, the six systems of philosophy were
some other subjects studied. Among the books on grammar,
178
some like Kaumara, Rupavatara, Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the
Sakatayana, a Jaina grammar, are named in the records 10.
Muhammadan period:
During the declining Bahmani period there flourished at
Paithan a Shastri named Rameshwara Bhatt who was held in
highest respect in all learned circles in the land. Banaras
continued throughout the period as the greatest seat of
Sanskritic learning, and most of the well-known Shastris and
Pandits at this sacred place were from Maharashtra and Andhra.
Another scholar of the Bahmani period was the great astrologer,
Keshava Daiwadnya of Nandgaon in the former Janjira State. His
father Kamalakar Bhatt was also deeply learned person and their
lineage was one of the dedicated scholars. Keshava flourished
during the later Bahmani period. His son Ganesh Daiwadnya
attained all-India fame but he properly belongs to the Nizam
Shahi period. Indeed a survey of mathematic-astronomical works
reveals that quite a galaxy of scholars learned in this science
flourished in the Bahmani Kingdom. It would be pleasant to
guess that some of these scholars were invited by Firoz Shah
Bahmani for his abortive project of an observatory; but we have
direct evidence11.
179
Muslims Education:
Among the Muslims education generally centred round
mosque where the Mudarris (preacher) imparted instruction to
his pupils. Ibn-i-Batuta a traveler records that at Honnawar (in
Vijayanagara territory) there were twenty-three schools for boys
and thirteen for girls, the latter a phenomenon which he had
seen nowhere else in his travels. The curriculum of Muslim
education, like its Hindu counterpart, was of a complex nature
and consisted of Arabic grammar, Arabic literature of the period
both before and after the advent of Islam, rhetoric, logic, Holy
Quran and Quranic exegesis, Hadith (Apostolic Tradition), Logic
of the Aristotelian variety, Sufism and other branches of Arabic
learning. Each of these was taught, according to a set pattern.
Muhammad-II, himself a poet of some note, appointed teachers
in various important centres of the Kingdom such as Gulbarga,
Bidar, Qandhar, Elichpur, Daulatabad, Junnar, Chaul and
Dabhol, for imparting Islamic learning, and granted scholarships
to the needy students. The great College founded by Khwajah
Mahmud Gawan at Bidar in 1471-2 A.D, which was perhaps an
extension of the original school at the capital, became the centre
of the highest form of Muslim education in the Deccan. The
Khwajah tried his utmost to get such giants of contemporary
Islamic lore as Jalaluddin Dawwani, Sadruddin Rawwasi and
180
others, to come to Bidar. He made the Madrasa Library one of
the richest in the land. Calligraphy had made the honoured
place in the courses of study, and mainly sports like archery,
riding, playing at chughan (polo) was considered essential
accomplishments for young men of the aristocracy.
Technical education was imparted by private agencies.
Architecture
and
sculpture,
medicine,
craftsmanship
in
jewellery, weaving, paper-making and similar other arts and
crafts require training and apprenticeship. Following traditional
methods this kind of training was imparted to initiates by
acharyas or technical and vocational experts at their own
homes. Quite often the caste system decreed that the son should
follow the vocation of the father and a jeweller’s son or a
goldsmith’s son or a weaver’s son got his knowledge from his
father. The fact that Firoz Shah Bahmani planned to build an
observatory
indicates
that
some
experts
in
astronomy,
mathematics and engineering must have been available.
However, the Khanquas (hospice) of the Sufis also offered
discourses attended by devotees both Hindus and Muslims. The
Kirtan, the Purana and the sermons and discourses of the Sufi
divines were instruments of adult education and diffusion of old
cultural traditions and the creation of a new composite culture 12.
181
Fairs and Festivals:
The religious life of the people of Bahmani in Deccan
centered round the mosques, tombs and temples. Every village
had its patron deity and towns and cities boasted of many
temples dedicated to a God of the Hindu pantheon. Some places
had acquired sanctity over the ages and had developed into
centres of pilgrimage.
It is interesting that five of the twelve sacred Jyotirlingas of
India were in the Bahmani kingdom. They are Bhima Shankar,
Grishneshwar (at Verul or Ellora), Trimbakeshwar, Anudhya
Naganata and Parli Vaijanath. The last is described as a Maha
Kshetra in the Gurucharitra13 Pandharpur had a special place in
the hearts of both Kannada and Marathi people as the seat of
Vithoba. Ghangapur had become a sacred place and pilgrim
centre in the middle of the fifteenth century with Dattatreya as
its presiding deity. Tuljapur with its Bhavani temple was also a
place where pilgrims used to go for devotion and worship. An
inscription of 1398 A.D mentions a Jatra to this place indicating
that it was well established in the reign of Firoz Shah Bahmani14.
Tuljapur, Kolhapur, Matapur or Mahur and Saptashringi were
the four well known seats of the Bhavani in her different names
and all four were in the Bahmani kingdom. Sirpur near Akola
was sacred to the Jains and Riddhipur near Buldana to the
182
Mahanubhavas. There were many other places in Bahmani
Deccan held in veneration by both these sects.
The Dargah’s of Muslim Saints who came into the Deccan
in the early period had developed into shrines which attracted
many devotees both Hindu and Muslims which became holy
places and acquired large following. The tomb of Shaikh
Sirajuddin Junaidi who died at Gulbarga in 1379 A.D at the ripe
age of 111 became a centre for Urs soon after his death15. The
most important and widely venerated Sufi Saint of the Deccan
was Sayed Mohammad Hussaini Gesu Daraz whose mausoleum,
a fine monument erected at Gulbarga by Ahmed Shah Wali,
became a centre of pilgrimage for devotees spread far and wide.
The Dargah of Makhdum Shaikh Alauddin Ansari (Laadle
Mashaikh) at Aland in Gulbarga district grew into a sacred
shrine soon after the Shaikh’s death and the annual Urs held
around it, which attracted a large number of devotees, Nikitin
describes it as a place “where a fair is held once a year and
whither people from all over the Indian country came to trade for
ten days. Horses were brought thither for sale...and all kinds of
other goods. It was the best fair in the land of Hindustan; all
wares were sold or brought there in memory of Shaikh Alauddin
Ansari16.
183
Many
festivals
of
the
Muslims,
such
as
Eid-ul-Fitr
(Ramzan), Bakra-i-Eid, Milad-un-Nabi (Birth day of holy prophet)
and Muharram were celebrated with great enthusiasm. The
Hindus also celebrated their festivals like Diwali and Holi were
the great pomp and glory.
184
References:
1. The Christians and the Jews mostly settled on the western
coastal belt. See P.M., Joshi, Jahan Van, p.130
2. A place where the Muslims perform prayers annually on two
festivals of Eid-ul-Fitr (Ramzan) and Eid-ul-Zuha (Bakra-Eid)
3. Desai, P.B. and others, op.cit., p.186.
4. Lakshminarayan Rao, N., op.cit., p. 41.
5. Dixit, G.S., Guilds under the Chalukyas of Kalyana, a paper
presented at the Seminar on the Chalukyas of Kalyana,
Bangalore, 1976.
6. Kulkami, V.S., Educational and Cultural Conditions of Bidar
and Gulbarga Regions under the Chalukyas of Kalyana-a
paper presented at the Seminar on the Chalukyas of Kalyana,
Bangalore, 1976.
7. Sundara, A., The Temples in Dharwad District and the impact
of the Lakula and Kalamukha Shaiva Sects-a paper presented
at the Seminar on the Chalukyas of Kalyana, Bangalore,
1976.
8. Desai,
P.B.,
Andhra Pradesh Government Archaeological
Series, No. 9, p.5.
9. Kulkarni, V.S., op.cit.
10.
Setu Madhava Rao, P. (Ed.), Amaravati District Gazetteer
(Maharashtra), 1976, pp. 59-40.
185
11.
Sherwani, H. K. and Joshi, P. M. (Eds.), op.cit., Vol. I, p.
225.
12.
Ibid
13.
Gurucharitra, vol-XIV, p.45
14.
Tulpule, Prachin Marathi Koriva Lekha, University of Poona,
p.300
15.
Mohammad Qasim Ferishtah, Tarikh-i-Ferishtah, vol-I,
p.578
16.
Nikitin, op.cit, p.112
186