Matter is anything which has mass and
takes up space. There are three states of
matter, solid, liquid, and gas.


Liquid - no definite shape, definite
volume, can flow. Particles slide over
each other.
Solid - definite shape, definite volume,
does not flow. Particles vibrate only.
The particles are held
tightly together in a
solid

Gas - no shape, no definite volume,
can be compressed. Particles are move
freely.
Changes of state due to heating.

Melting happens when a solid is
heated until it becomes a liquid.

Evaporation happens when a
liquid becomes a gas on the
surface only.

Boiling point is the temperature
at which a liquid becomes a gas
throughout the whole liquid.
Changes of state due to cooling.

Freezing happens when a liquid is
cooled until it becomes a solid.

The solvent will soak up along the paper
carrying the dye with it.
The colours in the mixture will travel at
different speeds up the paper because
some are more soluble in the solvent than
others.
Eventually, all the colours will separate
from each other.
Place the copper sulphate solution in the
round-bottom flask.
Heat until the solution starts to boil.
As the water evaporates (changes from a
liquid to a gas) it leaves the flask through
the condenser’ as steam.
The condenser has a ‘jacket’ of cold water
constantly flowing around its outer section.
This causes the steam to condense back into
liquid water.
The water collected in the flask on the
right is called the distillate.
Boil the salty water until the basin is almost dry.
Turn off the Bunsen and allow the hot basin to sit. The
remaining water should evaporate off, leaving the salt in the
basin.
Condensation happens when a gas
is cooled until it becomes a
liquid.
States of matter and Separation techniques
Experiment; To separate a mixture of dyes
by chromatography.
Experiment; To separate salt and water ( by evaporation)
Experiment; To separate copper
sulfate from water
Experiment;To separate sand and salt
1.
Dissolve the sand and salt in water in a beaker.
2. Filter off the sand.
3. Then boil off the water in an evaporating dish.
Experiment; To separate soil and water by filtration
Soil and water
Filter funnel
filtrate
Gases present in air
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Water vapour
Noble gases
Element
Element
Compound
Compound
Elements
78%
21%
0.03%
1 – 4%
< 1%
Air is a mixture because;
1. The gases can be separated by physical
means.
2.The gases in the air behave independently.
3.The composition of the air varies from
place to place.
Experiment 1; To show that the air contains 21%
oxygen gas
gas syringe A
containing 100ml
of air.




Oxygen gas
Breathing apparatus.
Welding.
Rocket fuel.
Steel manufacture.
Experiment 3; To show that air contains both
water vapour and carbon dioxide
air in
copper
metal

Uses of
1.
2.
3.
4.
Experiment 2; To show that the air contains
21% oxygen gas
air out
gas
syringe B
The air is passed continuously from syringe A
to syringe B.
The copper reacts with the oxygen in the air
and forms copper oxide.
This removes the oxygen from the air.
Since 21ml of air is removed this portion of
the air must be oxygen.
Therefore, the percentage oxygen in the air
is 21%.
Experiment 5; Burning some magnesium metal in
oxygen
 At the start, there are 100ml of air in the
graduated cylinder.
 As the candle burns, the oxygen is used up.
 This creates a vacuum and water is sucked
in from outside to replace the oxygen used.
 Only, approximately, 80 ml of gas remain.
 Therefore the oxygen must have occupied
20mls of the air.
blue cobalt chloride
paper



Experiment 5; Burning some carbon in
oxygen
ice water
As air is drawn through the first flask
water vapour in the air condenses into liquid
because it is so cold.
The water will turn the blue cobalt chloride
to pink, this the standard test for the
presence of water.
As the air bubbles through the limewater
the carbon dioxide in the air will turn it
milky white.
Experiment 4; Preparation of Oxygen gas
Hydrogen
peroxide
Oxygen
MnO2
Place some magnesium on a deflagrating spoon.
Heat it in a Bunsen burner until it starts to spark.
Place it in a jar of the oxygen just collected.
It will burn extremely brightly until all of the oxygen
has been used up. The jar now contains magnesium
oxide.
Test this by some damp red litmus paper. It will
turn it blue, indicating that MgO is a base.
Place some charcoal on a deflagrating spoon.
Heat it in a Bunsen burner until it starts to
glow.
Place it in a jar of the oxygen just collected.
It will burn extremely brightly until all of the
oxygen has been used up. The jar now contains
carbon dioxide.
Test this by adding limewater to the jar
and shaking. It will go milky white.
A Catalyst is a substance which speeds up a
reaction without getting used up itself.
2H 2 O 2 MnO
2 
2H 2 O  O 2
hydrogen peroxide  water  oxygen gas
Physical properties
1.
Colourless, odourless, tasteless gas
2. Slightly soluble in water
3. Denser than air
Chemical properties
1.
Supports combustion
2. Reacts with most elements
3. It has no effect on litmus
Preparation of carbon dioxide gas.
Physical
1.
2.
3.
Hydrochloric acid
Carbon
dioxide
Marble
chips
Chemical properties
1.
Does not support combustion (puts out a
lighting splint).
2. Turns limewater milky
3. Turns litmus red (acidic)
The equation for the reaction is;
CaCO3  2HCl  CaCl2  2H2O  CO2
calcium  hydrochlor ic  calcium  water  carbon
carbonate
acid
chloride
Properties
Colourless, odourless, tasteless gas
Slightly soluble in water
Denser than air
dioxide
Uses of
1.
2.
3.
4.
carbon dioxide
Fizzy drinks.
Fire extinguishers.
By plants in photosynthesis.
Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) for cold
storage.
Tests on carbon dioxide gas
1. Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky
white.
Bubble the gas through a test tube of
limewater. It will go milky white. The equation
for this is,
Ca(OH) 2 CO2  CaCO 3  H2 O
limewater  carbon  calcium  water
dioxide
carbonate
2.Carbon dioxide turns litmus red.
Bubble some carbon dioxide gas through blue
litmus solution and it will turn red.
Solutions
 A solution is a mixture of a solute dissolved
in a solvent.
 A solute is a substance which is being
dissolved.
 A solvent is a substance which allows other
substances to dissolve in it.
 A saturated solution is a solution which has
dissolved as much solute as possible, at a
given temperature. The amount dissolved
can be increased by increasing the
temperature.
 A concentrated solution is one where a large
quantity of solute has been dissolved in a
small quantity of solvent. Note;To make the
solution more concentrated you can,
 Dissolve more solute (copper sulphate
crystals) or,
 Boil off some of the solvent (water).
 A dilute solution is one where a small
quantity of solute has been dissolved in a
large quantity of solvent.
To make a solution more dilute add more
solvent to the solution (water).
Examples of solutions
Salt dissolved in water.
Sugar dissolved in water.
Tea dissolved in water.
Air dissolved in sugar (marshmallow).
A suspension is when a solid breaks up into
fine particles which spread out in a liquid but
do not dissolve in it.
Examples of suspensions
Soil in water (mucky water)
Milk contains tiny particles of milk which are
not dissolved in water.
 100 g of water in the conical flask was brought to
the required temperature using the water bath.
 Copper sulfate crystals were added to the water
until no more would dissolve. The mass of the copper
sulfate crystals that dissolved was noted.
 The temperature was then increased in stages and
the mass of the copper sulfate crystals that
dissolved was noted each time.
 A graph similar to the one below should be obtained.
Temperature
Experiment; To investigate the effect of
temperature on solubility.
Experiment; To make a solution of copper
sulphate and grow copper sulphate crystals
 Add a small quantity of copper sulphate to
some water in a beaker and stir well to
dissolve.
 This is a solution of copper sulphate.
 The water is the solvent.
 The copper sulphate is the solute.
 Continue to add more copper sulphate until
no more will dissolve. This is a saturated
solution of copper sulphate.
 Heat the beaker gently and you will find
that you can get more to dissolve.
 Allow the solution to cool slowly and observe
crystals of copper sulphate will form in the
beaker.
An atom is the smallest part of an element
which still retains the properties of that
element.
An element is substance which cannot be
broken into simpler substances by chemical
means.
Metals
Zinc
Zn
Grey metal
Aluminium
Al
Silver grey
Iron
Fe
Silver grey
Silver
Ag
‘Silver’
Gold
Au
Shiny
Non-metals
Chlorine
Cl
Green gas
Carbon
C
Black soot
Oxygen
O
Invisible gas
Sulphur
S
Yellow solid
Hydrogen
H
Invisible gas
Nitrogen
N
Invisible gas
A compound may be defined as a
substance which contains two or more
elements chemically combined.
A molecule is the smallest part of an
element or compound which can exist on
its own.
Examples of compounds
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Water (H2O),
Methane (CH4),Ammonia (NH3)
A Mixture is two or more substances
mixed but not chemically combined.
Examples of mixtures

Seawater is a mixture of water
and salt.

Soft drinks are mixtures of water,
sugar, flavourings, colours and
preservatives.

Tea is a mixture of water, sugar,
tea, and milk.

Air is a mixture of nitrogen gas,
oxygen gas and others.
Differences between a compound and a mixture
.
Mixture
Make-up
Compound
Varies
Fixed




The table is divided into eight groups. The groups are numbered with Roman
numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, ….)
Group I is called alkali metals.
Group II is called alkaline earth metals.
Group VII is called halogens.
Group VIII is called inert gases or noble gases.

The block of elements in the middle of the table is called the ‘Transition metals’.
1.
2.
3.
Heat
change
None
Heat in
Formation
Separate
Easy
Difficult
Properties
Same as
constituents
New
properties
The Periodic Table of Elements is a table which lists all of the known elements in
order of increasing atomic number.

Experiment; To show the difference between a mixture and a
compound.
Atoms, elements, compounds
and the periodic table
Example; Draw an atom of sodium given the
23
following information, 11
Na
11P
12N
+
When the yellow sulphur is just mixed with the iron filings,
the mixture can be separated easily with a magnet.
But when heated they combine chemically to form a new
substance which cannot be separated with a magnet.
The new substance is a grey compound and is called Iron
Sulphide.
The Atom
Name
Found
Mass [amu]
Charge
Proton
Nucleus
1
+1
Neutron
Nucleus
1
0
Electron
Cloud
1/1850
-1
Rules for drawing an atom
1.
Atomic Number is the number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom. This number is the smaller number given in
the PTE
2. Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom. This number is the bigger
number beside the element in the P.T.E.
3. Number of protons = number of electrons in a
neutral atom.
4. The electrons are arranged in circular shells around
the nucleus. 2 in the 1st , 8 in all the others.
 Because it gained an electron Cl is now
a negatively charged Cl- ion.
 Sodium has lost an electron so it will
be a positively charged Na+.
 The positive Sodium and the negative
Chloride ion are attracted to each
other and form a very strong bond.
 This is an ionic bond.
Example 1; Describe the ionic bond in
Sodium Chloride, NaCl.
Before the bond is formed
N
C
Example 2;
Describe the ionic bond between magnesium
and oxygen in magnesium oxide, MgO.
Answer;
 Magnesium has 12 electrons, 2 in the first
shell, 8 in the second shell and 2 in the third.
 Oxygen has 8 electrons, 2 in the first shell
and 6 in the second.
 An Ionic bond is the force of
attraction between oppositely
charged ions in a compound.
Electron transfer
After the bond is formed
Before electrons
transferred
 If magnesium loses its two outer electrons the third shell doesn’t
exist anymore.
 The second shell is now the outer shell and this has eight electrons,
which is very stable.
 Because the magnesium atom has lost two electrons it now has a +2
charge. It is now called an ion (charged atom).
 The oxygen has gained two electrons and now has eight electrons in
the outer shell, which makes it stable.

It has gained two electrons and has a -2 charge. It is now called an
oxide ion.
After electron transfer
 An ion is a charged atom or group of
atoms.
N
C
+

Octet rule – ‘When an atom forms a
chemical bond it will attempt to gain
eight electrons in its outer shell (or
at least a full outer shell).
Magnesium
atom
Oxygen
atom
Mg+2
Magnesium ion
-
Na
Magnesium
Cl
Magnesium ion
Experiment; To investigate the ability
of ionic and covalent compounds to
conduct electricity.
1. Place a variety of liquids in the beaker
and record whether or not the bulb
lights.
2. Any solution which allows the bulb to
light and any which does not is
covalent.
battery
bulb
electrodes
Ionic compounds
1.
They are solids because of the
great attraction between the ions.
2. They have high melting points and
boiling points.
3. They are soluble in water. Water
molecules are attracted them.
Ionic and Covalent
compounds
Example 2; Draw a molecule of water, H2O.
Hydrogen atoms
4. They conduct electricity when
Covalent bond
In a covalent bond the electrons are shared between the atoms
involved, but the same rule applies, the atoms will try to gain eight
electrons in their outer shells (octet rule).
Example 1; The formation of covalent bonds in a molecule of
methane, CH4 .
Hydrogen atoms
melted or dissolved in water.
Covalent compounds
1.
They consist of separate
molecules.
2. They are usually liquids or gases.
3. They have low melting points and
boiling points because not much
energy is needed to separate the
molecules from each other.
4. They are insoluble in water.
5. They do not conduct electricity.
Oxygen
atom
From the diagram we can see that the oxygen
atom has six electrons on the outer shell. It
shares two electrons, one from each hydrogen,
and obtains eight electrons on its outer shell.
This makes the oxygen atom stable. The hydrogen
atoms are also stable because each has two
electrons in their first shell, which is all they
need.
O-2
Oxygen ion
Carbon atom
The Carbon atom has 4 electrons in the outer shell. It will share 1
electron with each of the hydrogen atoms, therefore obtaining 8
electrons in the outer shell, at least part of the time.Hydrogen will
have 2 electrons in the outer shell, which is all it needs as the first
shell holds only 2 electrons anyway.
Therefore, carbon forms four covalent bonds with the hydrogen
atoms.
Acids and bases






An acid is a substance which turns litmus solution
red.
A base is a substance which turns litmus solution
blue.
Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
The strength of an acid or base - The pH scale
If we need to know the strength of an acid or base we use the ‘pH scale’.
The pH scale goes from 0 to 14. The scale can be summarised as follows;
Acid  Base  Salt  Water
This kind of reaction is called a neutralisation
reaction.
The simplest acid-base reaction to choose is
that between hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH).
The chemical equation for the reaction between
these two chemicals is,
An indicator is a substance which, by means of a
colour change, shows whether a substance is an acid
or a base. The most commonly used indicator is
litmus but there are many others.
Common laboratory acids
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Common everyday acids
 Fizzy drinks (carbonic
acid)
 Orange juice (citric acid)
 Vinegar (ethanoic acid)
 Tea (tannic acid)
 Sour milk /yogurt (lactic
acid)
Common laboratory bases

Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH)
Common




everyday bases
Toothpaste
Soap
Window cleaner
Oven cleaner
A fuel is a substance that burns in oxygen to produce heat.
Fossil fuels are fuels formed from the remains of dead
animals and plants over millions of years.
Hydrocarbon fuels consist of carbons and hydrogen only.
When they burn they produce water and carbon dioxide.
Acid rain contains water with a ph of less than 5.5. this rain
contains sulphuric acid(from burning fossil fuels) and nitric
acid (from the burning of petrol).
Making a salt
When an acid reacts with a base a salt and
water are formed. This can be written as a
word-equation.
←
acid
→ neutral
←
base
→
Mandatory experiment; How to find the pH of various substances.
To find the pH of a solution simply dip a piece of the universal indicator paper
into the solution. Compare the new colour of the paper with the chart and record
the pH.
1.
2.
3.
Procedure
Place small quantities of various solutions into a number of test tubes.
Dip a piece of universal indicator paper into each of the solutions and
note the colour change.
Compare the colour to the chart provided with the indicator paper.
Procedure

Measure 20 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution into the conical flask, using a
pipette.

Add two drops of litmus indicator to the flask.

The litmus will be blue in colour.

Fill the burette with hydrochloric acid.

Allow the acid to run into the base in the conical flask.

As soon as the indicator changes to a red colour, stop the flow of acid from
the burette.

The acid has now neutralised all the base.

Record the volume of acid used.

Repeat the procedure without the indicator and stop at the same point.

Take the solution in the conical flask [salty water] and evaporate off the
water and you are left with salt.
Reactions of acids
HCl  NaOH  NaCl  H2 O
In words this may be written as,
hydrochlor ic  sodium  sodium  water
acid
hydroxide
chloride
Mandatory experiment; Formation of a salt by
titration
Burette
Pipette
acid  carbonate salt  water  CO 2
2HCl  NaCO3  NaCl  H 2 O  CO 2
acid  base  salt  water
HCl  NaOH  NaCl  H2O
Conical flask
Water






Water is a compound made up of hydrogen and
oxygen.
The chemical formula for water is H2O.
Water turns blue cobalt chloride paper pink.
It freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC.
Water expands when it freezes. This means that
ice will be less dense than water and therefore
floats in water.
Water is also an excellent solvent as it can
dissolve thousands of different substances.
Mandatory experiment; To compare various samples of
water for hardness
1.
Into four test tubes place a sample of tap water,
bottled water, river water and deionised water.
2. Put the same quantity of each sample into the separate
test tubes.
3. Add a drop of soap solution from a dropper into each.
4. Shake all four for an equal time.
5. Allow to sit.
6. Compare the four test tubes.
7. The sample which produced the most permanent suds is
the softest water and the sample with the least
quantity of suds is the hardest water.
Mandatory experiment; To show that water contains
dissolved solids
1.
Place a sample of water in an evaporating dish.
2. Place the dish on top of a beaker of boiling water.
3. Eventually, the water in the dish will evaporate
and the dish will be dry but a residue of solid
material will be left behind.
Electrolysis of water
When you pass an electric current through water the water
molecules are broken-up and form hydrogen and oxygen
gases. The instrument used to do this is the Hoffman
voltameter. The breakdown of a compound by an electric
current is called electrolysis.
Water cycle

Water evaporates from the sea into the sky

It condenses as it rises and forms clouds.

As the clouds cool, further condensation cause
the drops to become too heavy and they fall to
earth as rain, snow, hail.

Into rivers and lakes and back out to sea.

Cycle starts again.
Water treatment
1.
Screening; A mesh removes large objects from the water.
2. Settling; The water is pumped into large tanks and allowed to sit.
Insoluble solid particles settle to the bottom e.g. sand, stones and grit.
3. Filtration; The water is then filtered through beds of sand. This
removes all the visible dirt and suspended particles.
4. Chlorination ; Chlorine is added to the water to kill bacteria.
5. Fluoridation; Sodium fluoride is added to the water to prevent tooth
decay.
Ways of removing hardness
1.
Distillation - expensive but removes all hardness.
2. Ion exchange resins – The most effective method of
removing hardness. Water is passed through a
container of resin. The positive ions are exchanged for
H+ ions and the negative ions for -OH ions. The H+ and
–
OH ions combine and form water.
Hard water.
Is water which does not lather easily with soap.
Soft water
Is water which lathers easily with soap.
Hard water is caused by presence of calcium or magnesium ions in water.
The calcium ions react with the soap molecules to form a scum which is insoluble in
water.
Calcium ions  Soap  Scum
Hard water
Calcium ions get into rainwater when acidic rain reacts with insoluble limestone
(calcium carbonate) and forms soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Ion exchange resin
Soft water
Advantages of hard water
1.
The calcium ions are good for teeth and bones.
2. Nice taste.
3. The calcium ions are needed for brewing.
Disadvantages
1.
It blocks pipes and leaves limescale on kettles and boilers.
2. It wastes soap.
3. It produces scum with soap.
Oxygen
gas
Hydrogen
gas
A metal is an element which loses electrons
easily to become positively charged.
The properties of metals
 Good conductors of heat and electricity.
 Lustrous (shiny)
 Solid (except mercury which is a liquid)
 Malleable – can be hammered into thin
sheets
 Ductile – can be drawn into thin wires
 Very dense – they sink in water (except
alkalis which float)
 High melting points and boiling points
 Susceptible to corrosion
Metal alloys
Metal alloys are formed when metals are
melted and mixed together. Alloys are usually
harder and more resistant to corrosion than
the two metals which make up the alloy.
 Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin. It is
easily melted and used for pouring into
moulds and for large statues.
 Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc. It is
strong and resistant to corrosion.
 Steel is a mixture of iron and carbon. It is
much harder and more corrosion-resistant
than iron.
Corrosion of metals
Corrosion is the process in which a metal
combines with another element (usually oxygen)
to form a compound of the metal.e.g. Iron
combines with oxygen to form iron oxide. This is
a special kind of corrosion and is referred to
as rust.
Prevention of corrosion
1.
Painting – The paint layers prevent
both air and water (and salt) coming in
contact with the metal and causing
corrosion.
2.
Greasing and oiling – This type of
prevention is used on moving parts of
engines and machines where painting would
be scratched off.
3.
Galvanising – Cheap metal is coated
with a layer of zinc which does not
corrode. Used for ‘galvanised’ buckets,
bins and roof-sheeting.
4.
Chromium plating – A shiny coating of
chromium metal, which does not corrode,
is used for protecting metals. This is used
when a decorative finish is needed.
5.
Electroplating – Metals are covered
with a layer of a precious metal using an
electric current.
Experiment; To compare the reactivity of
different metals with water and acid.
 Add a small piece of each of calcium,
magnesium, zinc and copper metals to 4 test
tubes.
 Add enough water/ acid to each of the test
tubes and observe what happens.
Results for water
 Bubbles of hydrogen gas are seen rising
from the piece of calcium only.
 There is no sign of gas from the magnesium,
zinc or copper.
 Conclusion; calcium is the most reactive of
the four metals with water.
Results for acid
 Calcium is producing the most hydrogen gas,
magnesium is next, and zinc only a small
quantity.
 Conclusion; calcium is the most reactive of
the four metals with acids, magnesium is
the next most reactive, followed by zinc
and copper is the least reactive of all.
Mandatory experiment; To react zinc with
hydrochloric acid and test for hydrogen gas
Hydrogen
gas
collected
Zinc
Place the zinc into a flask of dilute
hydrochloric acid.

Collect the gas as shown.

Test this gas by bringing a lighted
taper near the mouth of the test
tube.
The gas will burn with a loud ‘pop’.

METALS
Properties of plastics

Can be easily moulded.

Easy to maintain (don’t rust or rot).

Not expensive

Light weight

Good insulators of heat and electricity.
Biodegradable plastics are those which can be
broken down in the environment by microorganisms.
Plastics are man-made materials
made from crude oil.
Examples of plastics;
Polythene – for making shopping
bags, bins, sandwich wrap etc.
Polystyrene – used for burger
boxes, egg boxes, foam packaging.
Polypropylene – hard plastic
material in chairs, luggage casing.
Nylon – rope, brushes, string for
tennis rackets.
Pvc – drain pipes, guttering,
electrical goods.
Mandatory experiment; to investigate the
conditions necessary for rusting




B
C

Set up the apparatus as shown across .
The nail in test tube A will rust because
it has oxygen and water.
The nail in test tube B will not rust
because it has no water (the calcium
chloride will absorb the water from the
air).
The nail in test tube C will not rust
because it has no oxygen (boiled water
has no oxygen). The oil layer prevents
oxygen from re-dissolving in the water.
The conclusion; iron requires both water
and oxygen to rust.