The Rise of the Mongols
About 1162, a child named Temujin was born to a clan of Mongols. He gained power the way any
charismatic individual did, by success in raiding, but by 1206, he had done what no other tribal leader had ever
done: gather all the Mongol tribes under one single ruler. At a ceremony that year, Temujin was given the title
“Genghis Khan,” meaning “king of all kings.” In order to keep all the traditionally warring tribes from fighting
each other, Genghis Khan continuously expanded his area of control by invading the surrounding areas and
adding to the size of the Mongol empire.
In 1218, an event took place that would change Genghis' realm from just another nomadic
confederation to a world empire. A caravan traveling from Mongol lands to the Persian Empire was stopped
by the governor of an area that today is known as Uzbekistan. Suspecting that the caravan included Mongol
spies, the governor ordered the caravan massacred and its trade goods seized. To the Mongols, this violation
was unforgivable. Genghis sent ambassadors to the Shah (ruler) of Persia demanding that the offending
governor be turned over to them for punishment. Instead, the Shah humiliated the Mongol messengers and
put them to death.
In retaliation, Genghis declared war on the Shah. He knew that the Persian Empire was filled with
ethnic and religious groups who were had no loyalty to the shah, and were controlled only with threats.
Genghis Khan ordered two of his generals to hunt down the Shah and kill him. By killing the leader of the
largest empire on earth, Genghis Khan made it clear that the Mongols were in charge, and the Mongols soon
controlled the entire Persian empire. Europeans soon began calling the Mongols Tartars, people from Hell.
Why the Mongols Succeeded
Mongol battle tactics were an outgrowth of their natural lifestyle. Between their nomadic lifestyle and
their tradition of clan warfare, they received constant practice in riding and archery from a very early age. The
Mongols traveled very light and demonstrated extraordinary endurance, living off the land and often spending
several days at a time in the saddle. They were able to travel up to 100 miles a day on horseback, which was
unheard of by any other army of the time and their battle tactics were fresh and inventive. The Mongols were
extremely ruthless in battle but displayed extraordinary military discipline. Although originally nomads, the
Mongols easily adopted other people’s advanced military technology and they were superb spies.
When the Mongols conquered an area, the people were generally left under native governors (except
in China). Mongols were tolerant of other religions, as long as it was not used to encourage people to rebel,
and the new government was generally more benign than the pre-Mongol government.
Mongol Values
One of the fascinating paradoxes of the Mongols is that they combined an appalling disregard for
human life with steadfast adherence to noble values. Even their harshest detractors commented on their
courage, endurance, discipline and obedience to their own laws. One of the most significant characteristics of
the Mongols was a strict sense of honor and loyalty, and respect for these qualities in others, even opponents.
In addition, women in Mongol society enjoyed a high status and rights that were rare for hundreds of years.
The Mongols in Europe
When Genghis died in 1227 his son Ogadai was chosen Khan. The Mongols then invaded Russia in
1236, eventually conquering all but the northern fringes. By 1241 the Mongols had smashed all military
opposition in Poland and the Balkans and were regrouping to push west. Given this pace and their
performance in Persia, they could probably have overrun Europe in a year. But just as they were getting ready
to attack, a messenger came with the news of the death of Ogadai. Genghis Khan had made a law that when a
khan died, all his descendants must return to the homeland to elect a new Khan. The Mongols broke off the
invasion, never to return.
Mongols in the Middle East
By about 1250 the Mongol empire had split into three independent kingdoms: China/Mongolia, Persia
and Russia. Although in theory they were subject to the Khan in Mongolia, in reality they were fully
independent. In 1255 the Mongol rulers of Persia went to war against the Muslim caliph (ruler), invading Syria
and Palestine. In 1258 they captured Baghdad, destroyed the city and killed the Caliph. Baghdad was one of
the most brilliant intellectual centers in the world and the Mongol destruction of the city was a blow from
which the Islamic empire never recovered. In 1260, Turkish and Egyptian forces defeated the Mongols,
preventing an attack on Egypt and North Africa. Significantly, the Mongols of Russia allied themselves with the
Turks and the Egyptians. For the first time since Genghis Khan, one Mongol group opposed another in war.
Pax Tartarica (Mongol Peace)
In the aftermath of the Mongol attack through Poland, the first priority of Eastern Europe was to find
out who these people were, where they came from, and what they were going to do next. The Pope selected
two ambassadors that he sent to the Mongol Khan. One was John of Plano Carpini, who earned the respect of
the Mongols, wrote a thorough and accurate report for the pope, and correctly identified the Mongol military
threat. The other messenger was a man named Ezzelino, who was a complete failure, as he insulted the
Mongols and was sent packing.
Another more famous traveler was a teenager named Marco Polo, who accompanied his uncle and
father across the Mongol empire to China. After arriving in the Mongol homeland, they worked for the khan
doing missions for the Mongol leaders for several years, and then went back to Venice in 1291. Marco
eventually wrote a book about his travels, describing the Mongol empire in great detail. One of the things that
many Europeans refused to believe was his description of stones being used for fuel (coal) and cloth that
would not burn (asbestos). He describes tribes in the far north that see months of darkness in the winter - an
accurate account of life above the Arctic Circle. In addition, Polo described larger and cleaner cities than any in
Europe, as well as money made out of paper – all things Europeans had never seen or even heard of.
From Europe to China
By the early 1300s Mongol ambassadors were traveling to Rome, Paris, Barcelona, Valencia, and
London. This incredible time of Eurasian contact lasted only a few decades but its impact was profound.
Gunpowder, the compass, a siege machine called the trebuchet, and the concept of printing all came to
Europe from Mongol areas. Even more important, perhaps, was the broadening of European horizons to an
understanding that the world was larger than they had ever dreamed.
Aftermath of the Mongol Invasions
Kublai Khan (Genghis’ grandson) was the last great Khan. Later khans were weak; peasant revolts broke
out and eventually became widespread enough to topple the government. The Mongols reverted to their
traditional role on the edge of China with one major change: now the Chinese army knew how to fight Mongol
style. The Chinese pursued them into Mongolia and destroyed the Mongol capital city. The Mongol, or Yuan
Dynasty of China was over; the Ming Dynasty had begun. The Chinese expelled foreigners and the land route
to China closed in 1368.
If China was no longer held by the Mongols, Central Asia, Russia and Persia still were. Tamerlane (13361405) briefly created a huge Mongol empire from the Middle East to India. In 1526, the Mongol Babar founded
the Mogul (Mongol) Empire that covered much of present day Afghanistan and Pakistan and his successor
conquered India. Mogul rule in India lasted until 1857.
The Mongol subjugation of Russia was brutal and humiliating and contributed greatly to that sense of
tragedy that so deeply imbues Russian culture and art. Eventually the Russian czars, by marriage and
conquest, assumed some of the Mongol titles. The last surviving remnant of the once vast Mongol empire
lingered in the Crimea until 1783, when it was absorbed by Russia. However, the Crimean Tartars remained a
distinct ethnic group until many of them were deported to Siberia by Stalin during the 1930's and 1940's.
By Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay